Chapter 1: Welcome to Psychology

In what year did B.F. Skinner develop his operant conditioning chamber (also known as the "Skinner box")?

1930

Sigmund Freud (turn of the 1900s Austria)

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; father of the psychodynamic theory; originator of the clinical approach which equates psychology with psychotherapy, psychiatry, and clinical practice

Why is critical thinking so important?

Because in some cases it may be the difference between life and death, or otherwise dangerous situations. Such examples include rebirthing therapy and not vaccinating.

Why is the study of psychology summative?

Because multiple sources of evidence are considered, and conclusions are not absolute. Understanding of phenomena grows over time, as new information is presented. Psychologists rarely think in terms of absolutes (except for matters of biologicall/anatomical fact), or cause-and-effect behavior. You will often see "suggests", "provides evidence to support", or "offers a counterpoint to" a certain conclusion.

Why do scientists study both normal functions and impaired functions?

By understanding how specific types of dysfunction relate to damage in certain areas of the brain, scientists could infer how the brain functions normally.

Which psychologist was awarded the Nobel Prize in economics for discovering biases in the way that humans reason?

Daniel Kahneman

How has psychology evolved over the course of its history?

Early psychology was sometimes based on false assumptions and used unethical research methods. It developed in two distinct branches, the scientific and clinical approaches. Over time, the branches merged and psychology adheres to strict ethical guidelines and using open science practices that emphasize transparency of research. Additionally, psychology is much more inclusive now to people other than white men with European backgrounds.

What role does empirical evidence play in psychological science?

Empirical evidence is drawn from scientific tools used to conduct research in psychology through measuring phenomena; examples include fMRI and questionnaires

Wilhelm Wundt (1870s Germany)

German physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; father of psychology

How do evolutionary and cultural perspectives work together?

Human behavior and preferences often reflect a complicated interplay between evolution and social context. Nature and nurture interact to predict broad patterns of human behavior as well as individual behavior. This is a recurring theme in psychology, as you will see in later chapters.

How does biased thinking lead to faulty conclusions?

If we surround ourselves with information that we are already comfortable with, this lacks new findings or an alternative perspective that might counter what you already think you know.

How does an evolutionary perspective help explain patterns of behavior that all people share?

It seeks to understand how human behavior is an echo of biological adaptations over tens of thousands of years. Humans have evolved innate motivations not only for their survival and self-protection, but also for seeking out and maintaining a successful relationship with a mate.

Which psychoanalyst published a feminist critique of Freudian theory?

Karen Horney

Is psychological science the equivalent of common sense?

No. Psychological science can sometimes prove that our intuitions, or hunches, are wrong. A lot of psychological science does stem from scientific testing of hunches or intuitions, however.

Do we consciously know what we find most attractive in a potential partner?

No. Research shows that our conscious preferences do not match our decisions we make when choosing a partner. Rather, our unconscious preferences do.

How does science benefit from a diversity of approaches, populations, and scientists?

Only by combining different perspectives can we develop a fuller understanding of a phenomenon. In addition, the insights generated by these perspectives reveal a set of themes that unify psychology.

How do cognitive and emotional perspectives help explain mental processes that are sometimes unconscious?

Our unconscious mind gives more reliable answers and information about our decision making than our conscious mind does. For example, we often follow our unconscious desires when searching for a partner that differ from our conscious desires.

What are some biological foundations of relationships?

People with increased oxytocin levels are more trusting of others and show an improved ability to accurately perceive the emotions of people to whom they feel similar. This finding complements other biologically grounded research on relationships. For example, as two people form a close connection, their bodily reactions synchronize and fluctuate together.

When and where did psychology get its start?

Psychology as a formal science began in Western Europe in 1879

How does a cultural perspective help us understand patterns of behavior that vary around the world?

Sometimes, when looking cross-culturally, universal truths and experiences are discovered. There are many differences among cultures, and we must take into account how those cultures shape the way people think, act, and behave.

Which researcher published classic studies on obedience?

Stanley Milgram

cultural perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand how cultural context affects people's thoughts and preferences.

W.E.I.R.D. samples

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic backgrounds

Can psychology study abstract topics such as love, scientifically?

Yes, because a combination of different research methods (such as brain scans, video observation, and animal studies) can reveal deeper truths about a single question.

pseudoscience

a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science

metacognition

an awareness and understanding of your own thought processes

What is psychological science?

an exacting science that uses rigorous scientific methods to develop insights into the human mind and human behavior

How does IPPIP use psychology to help you learn psychology?

applies psychological knowledge to maximize engagement and to learning psychology; learning tools include study units, explore, interactive figures, and check your understanding

empirical

based on astute observation and accurate measurement

What research tool is best suited to the biological-neuroscience perspective?

brain imaging techniques (such as fMRI)

Which perspective is this?: Why do people remember some events but not others?

cognitive perspective

Yu-ri is reading an op-ed article in which a local parents' group expresses its concern about children playing violent video games, claiming that such games are causing a rise in crime. The members of the group support their claim by mentioning a recent study on video games and aggression that was published in a leading academic journal by researchers at a prestigious university. Which of the following tools will help Yu-ri most efficiently evaluate the article's claims?

critical thinking

Data gathered by a questionnaire and published in an academic journal. This is an example of ___________ evidence.

empirical

What different perspectives do psychologists use to examine the human mind and behavior?

evolutionary; cultural; cognitive; emotional; biological-neuroscience; developmental; personality; social; clinical

William James (1880s America)

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; wrote Principles of Psychology; founder of American psychology

scientific approach

intellectual endeavors and scientific experimentation at universities, originated with Wilhelm Wundt and William James

culture

refers to the rules, values, customs, and beliefs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment. Culture passes from generation to generation as children learn it from their parents, caregivers, and the larger society.

summative

rests on a body of knowledge that is continuously growing

What were the two main branches of psychology during the early development of the field?

scientific and clinical

developmental perspective

studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age

evidence

the available body of facts and information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true and valid

growth mindset

the belief that human personality and behavior can be changed

Zach is thinking about dropping his introductory psychology course because he claims that the whole subject is merely common sense. Which tendency is he demonstrating?

the overconfidence effect

unconscious

the part of our mental life that influences our thoughts, feelings, and actions that we cannot directly observe and of which we are unaware

evolutionary perspective

the psychological perspective on behavior that seeks to identify how humans' evolutionary past shapes certain cultural universals that all human beings share, such as the preference for fairness

clinical perspective

the psychological perspective that focuses on the causes and treatments of psychological disorders, with the goal of improving human well-being, daily functioning, and social relationships

personality perspective

the psychological perspective that seeks to understand aspects of human behavior that are relatively stable over time and situation

emotional perspective

the psychological perspective that seeks to understand how the human capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behavior, and social relationships

biological-neuroscience perspective

the psychological perspective that seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of how humans think, act, and behave

cognitive perspective

the psychological perspective that studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity

social psychological perspective

the psychological perspective that studies the ways in which immediate social contexts influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, independent of personality

critical thinking

the purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed process of exploring a situation or problem; it is an essential component to psychological literacy

neuroscience

the scientific study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord

psychology / psychological science definition

the scientific study of mind and behavior

positive psychology

the scientific study of the factors that make people happy, keep them healthy, and help them manage stress; includes the study of important human experiences, such as hope, courage, and creativity

overconfidence effect

the tendency to be overly sure of what we know

confirmation bias

the tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that supports what we already are confident we know

clinical approach

therapeutic interventions for psychological disorders in medical setting, originated with Sigmund Freud

True or false: Psychology is relevant to every part of the human experience

true!

How can you become a more informed consumer of psychological information?

utilize critical thinking, ask yourself 3 questions: (1) What scientific evidence supports this claim? (2) Has this topic been studied empirically? (3) Am I listening to (or reading) someone's opinion, or is the information based on facts that are accepted by unbiased experts?

consciousness

what you lose when you fall into a deep sleep at night and what you gain when you wake up in the morning

schema

your existing framework of knowledge