Chapter 11 MGMT

The desire for interesting work seems to be global.

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1. Motivating A Diverse Workforce. (2) Motivating Professionals. (3) Motivating Contingent Workers.

1.flexibility for different kinds of workers 2. What motivates professionals? Money and promotions typically are low on their priority list. Why? They tend to be well paid and enjoy what they do. In contrast, job challenge tends to be ranked high. Professionals also value support. 3. An obvious answer is the opportunity to become a permanent employee. In cases in which permanent employees are selected from a pool of temps, the temps will often work hard in hopes of becoming permanent. A less obvious answer is the opportunity for training.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory (also called motivation-hygiene theory)—intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction. When people felt good about their work, they tended to cite intrinsic factors arising from the job content (job itself), such as achievement, recognition, and responsibility. When they were dissatisfied, they tended to cite extrinsic factors arising from the job context, such as company policy and administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions. Herzberg concluded that the traditional view—the opposite of satisfaction is dissatisfaction—was wrong. He believed that the factors that led to job satisfaction were separate and distinct from those that led to job dissatisfaction. 1. When hygiene factors are adequate, people won't be dissatisfied, but they won't be motivated, either. 2. To motivate people, use the motivators.

Job characteristics model (JCM)

A framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes 1. Skill variety. The degree to which the job requires a variety of activities so the worker can use a number of different skills and talents 2. Task identity. The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work 3. Task significance. The degree to which the job affects the lives or work of other people 4. Autonomy. The degree to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out 5. Feedback. The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the individual's obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance JCM suggests that internal rewards are obtained when an employee learns (knowledge of results through feedback) that he or she personally (experienced responsibility through autonomy of work) has performed well on a task that he or she cares about

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Based on two assumptions about human nature. Theory X: a negative view of people that assumes workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work effectively. Theory Y: a positive view that assumes employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction. To maximize employee motivation, use Theory Y practices—allow employees to participate in decisions, create responsible and challenging jobs, and encourage good group relations.

4 Discuss current issues in motivating employees.

During rough economic conditions, managers must look for creative ways to keep employees' efforts energized, directed, and sustained toward achieving goals. Most motivational theories were developed in the United States and have a North American bias. Some theories (Maslow's need hierarchy, achievement need, and equity theory) don't work well for other cultures. However, the desire for interesting work seems important to all workers and Herzberg's motivator (intrinsic) factors may be universal. Managers face challenges in motivating unique groups of workers. A diverse workforce is looking for flexibility. Professionals want job challenge and support, and are motivated by the work itself. Contingent workers want the opportunity to become permanent or to receive skills training. Open-book management is when financial statements (the books) are shared with employees who have been taught what that information means. Employee recognition programs consist of personal attention, approval, and appreciation for a job well done. Pay-for-performance programs are variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure.

expectancy theory

Expectancy theory states that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. It includes three variables or relationships 1. Expectancy or effort -performance linkage is the probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance. 2. Instrumentality or performance -reward linkage is the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level is instrumental in attaining the desired outcome. 3. Valence or attractiveness of reward - is the importance that the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job. Valence considers both the goals and needs of the individual.

3 Compare and contrast contemporary theories of motivation.

Goal-setting theory says that specific goals increase performance, and difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. Important points in goal-setting theory include intention to work toward a goal as a major source of job motivation; specific hard goals to produce higher levels of output than generalized goals; participation in setting goals as preferable to assigning goals, but not always; feedback to guide and motivate behavior, especially self-generated feedback; and contingencies that affect goal setting, such as goal commitment, self-efficacy, and national culture. The job characteristics model is based on five core job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback) that are used to design motivating jobs. Equity theory focuses on how employees compare their inputs-outcomes ratios to relevant others' ratios. A perception of inequity will cause an employee to do something about it. Procedural justice has a greater influence on employee satisfaction than does distributive justice. Expectancy theory says that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a desired outcome. Expectancy is the effort-performance linkage (how much effort do I need to exert to achieve a certain level of performance); instrumentality is the performance-reward linkage (achieving at a certain level of performance will get me what reward); and valence is the attractiveness of the reward (Is the reward what I want?).

2 Compare and contrast early theories of motivation.

Individuals move up the hierarchy of five needs (physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization) as needs are substantially satisfied. A need that's substantially satisfied no longer motivates. A Theory X manager believes that people don't like to work, or won't seek out responsibility, so they have to be threatened and coerced to work. A Theory Y manager assumes that people like to work and seek out responsibility, so they will exercise self-motivation and self-direction. Herzberg's theory proposed that intrinsic factors associated with job satisfaction were what motivated people. Extrinsic factors associated with job dissatisfaction simply kept people from being dissatisfied. Three-needs theory proposed three acquired needs that are major motives in work: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.

How Can Managers Design Appropriate Rewards Programs?

Some of the more popular rewards programs include open-book management, employee recognition, and pay-for-performance. Open-book management - A motivational approach in which an organization's financial statements (the "books") are shared with all employees Employee recognition programs - consist of personal attention and expressions of interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done Pay-for-performance programs -are variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure.67 Piece-rate pay plans, wage incentive plans, profit-sharing, and lump-sum bonuses are examples.

job enrichment

The vertical expansion of a job by adding planning and evaluation responsibilities

Equity theory

developed by J. Stacey Adams, proposes that employees compare what they get from a job (outcomes) in relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others If an employee perceives her ratio to be equitable in comparison to those of relevant others, there's no problem. However, if the ratio is inequitable, she views herself as underrewarded or overrewarded. When inequities occur, employees attempt to do something about it. The result might be lower or higher productivity, improved or reduced quality of output, increased absenteeism, or voluntary resignation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

proposed that within every person is a hierarchy of five needs: -Each level must be substantially satisfied before the next need becomes dominant; an individual moves up the hierarchy from one level to the next. -Lower-order needs are satisfied predominantly externally, and higher-order needs are satisfied internally. Widely popular among practicing managers probably because it's easy to understand and intuitive 1 self acculization 2 esteem 3 social 4 safety 5 physiological

Motivation

refers to the process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal.3 This definition has three key elements: energy, direction, and persistence. (1) energy element is a measure of intensity or drive. (2) direction that benefits the organization. Effort that's directed toward, and consistent with, organizational goals is the kind of effort we want from employees. (3) persistence dimension. We want employees to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals. 64% not motivated at work

goal-setting theory

says that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. What does goal-setting theory tell us? 1. working toward a goal is a major source of job motivation 2. participation is probably preferable to assigning goals when employees might resist accepting difficult challenges. 3. We know that people will do better if they get feedback on how well they're progressing toward their goals because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what they've done and what they want to do self generated feedback is best First, goal-setting theory assumes that an individual is committed to the goal. 1. , goal-setting theory assumes that an individual is committed to the goal. more likely when made public, internal control, goal is self made 2. self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.23 The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. 3 the value of goal-setting theory depends on the national culture

referent

the other persons, systems, or selves individuals compare themselves against in order to assess equity—is an important variable in equity theory.33 Each of the three referent categories is important. (1) The "persons" category includes other individuals with similar jobs in the same organization but also includes friends, neighbors, or professional associates. Based on what they hear at work or read about in newspapers or trade journals, employees compare their pay with that of others. (2) The "system" category includes organizational pay policies, procedures, and allocation. (3) The "self" category refers to inputs-outcomes ratios that are unique to the individual. It reflects past personal experiences and contacts and is influenced by criteria such as past jobs or family commitments.

McClelland's Three-Needs Theory

three-needs theory, which says three acquired (not innate) needs are major motives in work, including: 1 need for achievement (nAch), which is the drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of standards 2 need for power (nPow), which is the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise 3 need for affiliation (nAff), which is the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships High achievers avoid what they perceive to be very easy or very difficult tasks. A high nAch doesn't necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large organizations. Why? Because high achievers focus on their own accomplishments, while good managers emphasize helping others accomplish their goals. good managers high in nPOW and low in nAch

Originally, equity theory focused on distributive justice

which is the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

More recent research has focused on looking at issues of procedural justice

which is the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. This research shows that distributive justice has a greater influence on employee satisfaction than procedural justice, while procedural justice tends to affect an employee's organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit.

4 Early Theories of Motivation (1950s & 1960s)

1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory 2 McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y 3 Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory 4 McClelland's Three-Needs Theory

1 Define and explain motivation.

Motivation is the process by which a person's efforts are energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal. The energy element is a measure of intensity or drive. The high level of effort needs to be directed in ways that help the organization achieve its goals. Employees must persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals.