Chapter 12 AP EURO

During the Renaissance what percentage of the population was peasantry? What two major systems began to decline after the 14th century?

85 to 90 percent of the European population were peasants during the Renaissance. Additionally, the two major systems that began to decline after the 14th century were the manorial and serfdom systems.

The use of diplomacy expanded extensively during this time. What is a diplomat and what kind of duties do they perform?

A diplomat is an official representing a country or nation and they were used to send important information to other city-states in Italy. According to a Venetian diplomat, an ambassador's first duty was "to do, say, advise, and think whatever may best serve the preservation and aggrandizement of his own state."

What were Louis XI of France's major accomplishments? What do historians give him credit for?

Louis XI of France was known for developing a French territorial state by retaining the taille as a permanent tax and securing a source of income. During his rule, the duchy of Burgundy was added to his land, as well as Anjou, Maine, Bar, and Provence, who were brought under royal control. Historians credit Louis XI of France for creating a base for the later development of a strong French monarchy.

Who did Machiavelli point to as being a good example of a ruler? Why?

Machiavelli used the new Italian ruler in Cesare Borgia as a good example, who was the son of Pope Alexander VI and ruled with cruelty and malice in order to add a new state to central Italy. He used him as an example to support the idea that a ruler must only act for his and his country's own interests and that it was only human nature to be self-centered.

What were Machiavelli's biggest concerns and what was it that caused him to develop his ideas?

Machiavelli's biggest concern was Italy's political problems and his ideas stemmed from his knowledge on ancient Rome. In his book, The Prince, he focuses on the acquisition and expansion of political power as well as restoring and maintaining order.

What was Machiavelli's view of human nature? How did this affect the morality of his ideas?

Machiavelli's point of view on human nature was being self-centered, resulting in his morals playing no role in his decision making when it came to politics. He had to do what was best for him and his state, even at the expense of others.

How was there a double standard for men and women in Renaissance Italy when it came to marriage and sexual norms?

Marriages were arranged during this time, so most husbands and wives did not have deep emotional connections to one another, but rather just formal ties. Because of this, most men had affairs with others, while women were forbidden to not and even executed for it, emphasizing the double standard for men and women during this time period. Usually, there would also be a large age gap between the wife and the husband, sometimes even thirteen years. Prostitution also became prominent and was encouraged throughout Italy.

Who was the first artist since Giotto to begin imitating nature in his work? Where can his work be seen?

Masaccio was the first artist since Giotto to begin imitating nature in his work. His work can be seen in the Brancacci Chapel, where he created many frescoes.

Lorenzo Valla-The Elegance of the Latin Language

Lorenzo's book was an effort to purify medieval Latin and normalize the use of it in literature once again over the vernacular. The Elegance of the Latin Language examined the use of classical Latin and broke the language apart into different stages, only accepting the last century of the Roman Republic's and the first century of the empire's stage of Latin. Overall, this book created a new literary standard for humanists.

What is an "oligarchy"? Explain how this concept manifested itself in the Republic of Florence.

An oligarchy means that a small group of people control the government, which became Florence's form of government when a small merchant oligarchy overtook the republican government. Cosimo de' Medici then took control of the oligarchy in 1434, maintaining republican forms of government while running it like an oligarchy behind the scenes.

Where did artists rank among society? How did their social position change over time? (Leonardo da Vinci, Micheal Angelo, ect.)

Artists during the Early Renaissance began their careers as apprentices, then became masters in craft guilds. Yet, artists were still viewed as artisans, like during the Middle Ages. In the High Renaissance, their position eventually changed from artisans to "artistic geniuses with creative energy akin to the divine." The public began to also view artists as heroes for their creativity and talent, eventually allowing artists to profit economically off of their work even more than they had before. As a result, artists equated to the social status of the upper classes and influenced the politicians and intellectuals, becoming more aware of intellectual theories, which they then included in their art work.

Baldassare Castiglione

Baldassare Castiglione wrote The Book of the Courtier in 1528, which described the three basic attributes of nobles: possessing fundamental native endowments, such as impeccable character, grace, talents, and noble birth, cultivating certain achievements such as military, and following a certain standard of conduct by making a good impression and staying modest.

civic humanism

Civic humanism is an intellectual movement that was prominent in Florence, which stated that Cicero was the ideal and held that humanists should be involved in government and use their rhetorical training in the service of the state.

Agricultural slavery had been in decline for centuries by the 15th century. Why did it briefly return? Where did slaves re-emerge and how were their jobs different than before?

During the Reconquista, Christians and Muslims used captured prisoners as slaves, making Spain the first region where slavery reappeared. Then, the shortage of workers and laborers from the Black Death led Italians to largely introduce slavery once again and use them as skilled workers for making handcrafted goods or as household workers; the girls were nursemaids and the boys were playmates. The majority of the slaves were females as well as young girls, which some of the men used as concubines. These slaves were mainly collected from the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea region, in addition to slaves from Africa and Spain.

Sandro Botticelli-Primavera

Early Botticelli's work reflected his interest in Greek and Roman mythology, which is what humanism is based off of and was very prominent during the Renaissance.

Filippo Brunelleschi-Dome of the Duomo, the design of the Church of San Lorenzo

Early Brunelleschi based his ideas off of Roman antiquity, which many artists during the Renaissance did as well. He also sought to reflect a human-centered world; another feature in Renaissance art.

Donatello-David

Early Donatello created David to be life-size and have realistic proportions to a real human being. This feature was seen greatly in Renaissance art. In addition, he also studied in Rome, which is what humanism is based off of and was used frequently during the Renaissance.

Antonio Pollaiuolo-The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian

Early The Martyrdom of Saint Sebastian expressed Early Renaissance artists' preoccupation with the investigation of movement and anatomical structure. This piece of art portrays what the human body looks like under stress.

How were central and Eastern European kingdoms fundamentally different from those in the West?

Eastern European rulers were not able to centralize their territorial states and had to endure many obstacles, such as islands of other ethnic groups that caused many difficulties and religious differences between Roman Catholics, Greek Orthodox Christians, and pagans. This made it difficult to have a strong monarchy.

Donato Bramante-The Temple of Saint Peter's Martyrdom

High Bramante designed the temple so that it summarized the architectural ideals of the High Renaissance. It had columns, domes, and even a sanctuary that represented ancient Rome.

Leonardo da Vinci-Last Supper

High Leonardo da Vinci studied and even dissected human bodies to see how nature really worked. Although he did this, he used rather idealistic proportions of humans in his art rather than realistic. This initiated the High Renaissance's preoccupation with the idealization of nature. His work, the Last Supper, also creates a three-dimensional depth, uses perspective, and organizes space like many other artists of his time did.

Michelangelo-Creation of Adam, David

High Michelangelo was influenced by Neoplatonism, a movement prominent during the Renaissance. He also made the figures in his paintings have unrealistic beauty standards, just like other artists of his time like Leonardo da Vinci did. His statue, which was the largest ever made in Italy since Rome, also proclaims the beauty and glory of the human body.

Raphael-School of Athens

High Raphael contributed to the preoccupation of the idealization of nature in the High Renaissance. He created many madonnas which he achieved an ideal of beauty far beyond realistic human standards. His work, the School of Athens, also reveals underlying principles of the art of the classical world of Greece and Rome.

humanism

Humanism is an intellectual movement that occurred in Renaissance Italy based on the study of the Greek and Roman classics. Petrarch is often called the father of humanism. Humanism was found in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy, and history.

Briefly describe the situations in Poland, Hungary, and Russia during this time.

In Poland, their history had revolved around a struggle between the crown and the landed nobility, until their preoccupation soon changed. At the end of the fifteenth century, problems in Bohemia, Hungary, and war with the Russians and Turks, consumed most of the country's time. During this period of war when the attention was pulled away from the crown, the aristocrats were able to re-establish their power. The aristocrats controlled the Sejm, or national diet, and then used the magnates to reduce the peasantry to serfdom by 1511, as well as establishing their right to elect their kings. The Polish kings were "unable to establish a strong royal authority." In Hungary, their church became a large and prosperous institution after its conversion to Roman Catholicism, becoming the dominant power in eastern europe and allowing wealthy bishops and territorial lords to become influential political figures. However, King Matthias Corvinus broke the power of the wealthy lords, instead creating a bureaucracy in replacement. Furthermore, he patronized the new humanist culture, brought Italian scholars and artists to his capital at Buda, in addition to making a brilliant court. Although all was going well for Hungary, the death of Corvinus caused Hungary to return to weak rule and his work to become undone. Finally, in Russia, who had been dominated by the mongols since the thirteenth century, a new state, the principality of moscow, arose during the reign of Ivan III, after moscow princes used their close relationship to Mongol khans in order to increase their own wealth and expand their possessions. Later, Ivan III took advantage of dissension among the Mongols so that he could annex other Russian principalities and throw off their yoke by 1480.

individualism and secularism

Individualism is emphasis put on one's own unique traits, while secularism is the process of becoming more interested in temporal and worldly things rather than spiritual and religious things. Both individualism and secularism were most noticeable in the intellectual and artistic realms during the Renaissance.

Battista Sforza and Isabella d'Este

Isabella d'Este, the daughter of the duke of Ferrara and the wife of Francesco Gonzaga, was the most famous of the Renaissance ruling women. Battista Sforza was both the niece of the ruler of Milan and the wife of Fedrigo da Montefeltro. They both were important in the landscape of Renaissance Italy because they were inspirations that represented that even women could rule with great intelligence and add to Italy's culture, art, and knowledge. Isabella d'Este attracted artists and intellectuals to the Mantuan court, built one of the finest libraries in Italy, and then proceeded to successfully rule Mantua after her husband's death. While Battista Sforza's husband was absent, she was able to effectively rule the duke's lands "with firmness and good sense.".

Jacob Burckhardt

Jacob Burckhardt was the author of the book, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, which argued that the Italian Renaissance was a distinct period in European history for its increase in culture, individuality, arts, secularism, ect.. However, some modern scholars do not agree with Burckhardt because they do not believe that the Renaissance represents a significant and sudden cultural break with the Middle Ages.

Pope Julius II and Michelangelo

Michelangelo and Pope Julius II did not get along with one another and often got into many long quarrels. Due to this, Pope Julius II was very anxious when he had to hire Michelangelo to create the Sistine Chapel and Michelangelo refused to show him his work until it was finished. Michelangelo became upset with the Pope's persistence and replied to him that the ceiling would be completed when he was satisfied "as an artist." Threateningly, the Pope responded by telling Michelangelo that he would have him thrown off the scaffolding if he did not finish the ceiling quickly.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola-Oration on the Dignity of Men

Mirandola examined the works of many philosophers, each with a different background, to include the common "nuggets of universal truth" that he believed to be God's revelation to humanity in his book. He also spread the message that anyone can achieve anything if they wanted to and that human potential was unlimited. In addition, he also contributed to the Hermetic philosophy, calling it the "science of the Divine which embraces the deepest contemplation of the most secret things, and at last the knowledge of all nature." Oration on the Dignity of Men emphasized that humanism was not just a secular or temporal movement, but it also had some spiritual concepts, as humanism illuminated the relationship between man and God and defined humans as "divinely inspired beings."

What is Neoplatonism? Hermeticism? Pantheism? What do all three of these concepts have in common?

Neoplatonism is the revival of Platonic philosophy in the third century and is associated with Plotinus; a revival in the Italian Renaissance by Marsilio Ficino, who attempted to synthesize Christinaity and Platonism. Hermeticism was an intellectual movement beginning in the fifteenth century that taught that divinity is embodied in all aspects of nature and included works on alchemy, magic, theology, and philosophy. Even by the seventeenth century, this movement still influenced many of the figures of the Scientific Revolution. Pantheism is a doctrine that equates God with the universe and all that is in it. These concepts all tie together spiritual ideas with secular and worldly things.

Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli was a secretary to the Florentine Council of Ten and wrote the book, The Prince, which was generally about political power in the Western World.

Explain how nepotism affected the papacy.

Popes relied on nepotism to promote their families' interests and to further their territorial aims in the Papal States. An example of this would be Pope Sixtus IV, who made five of his nephews cardinals and provided them with church offices to build up their finances. In addition, Alexander VI also used nepotism so that his son, nephew, and the brother of one mistress could be raised to cardinalate. He even scandalized the church by encouraging his son, Cesare, " to carve out a state for himself from the territories of the Papal States in central Italy."

Explain at least 4 features of Renaissance art and how it portrayed humanism.

Renaissance art emphasized the mathematical side of art by using geometry and perspective to create outdoor space and light. Art during this time period also included the investigation of movement and anatomical structure, which led to many of the figures included in art to be naked. Many works of art also had a more realistic relationship between figures and landscape, as well as creating a three-dimensional depth. This can especially be seen in Early Renaissance work, such as Masaccio's. This portrayed humanism because art was made to be more realistic and included using liberal studies in order to create such features.

Henry VII of England was a very important king. What were some cunning political moves he used to legitimize his reign and keep power?

Some of Henry VII's cunning political moves to legitimize his reign and keep power were to reduce internal discussion and establish a strong monarchical government. In order to end the private wars of the nobility, he abolished "livery and maintenance," which meant that wealthy aristocrats could no longer have private armies that were dedicated to the service of their lord. Henry VII also relied on special commissions to trusted nobles to raise troops for a specific campaign, since England did not have a standing army. Troops were disbanded after this. He also created the Court of Star Chambers to prevent the irresponsible activity of nobles by torturing them to extract confessions. In addition, Henry VII became successful by gaining income from the crown lands, judicial fees and fines, and custom duties. Furthermore, he used diplomacy to avoid war and conflict, which meant he didn't have to overburden the landed gentry and middle class with taxes caused by the funds for wars, making them favor him and wanting to provide support for the monarchy.

What are the "Low Countries," where are they located geographically in Europe, and how did their art differ from Italian art?

The "Low Countries" consisted of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg, which are located in the northwestern coastal region of Europe. In Italy, the churchs' walls gave rise to fresco paintings, differing from the north who focused more on illuminated manuscripts and wooden panel painting for altarpieces. While Italian artists used the human form as their primary vehicle of expression in their artwork and also mastered technical skills that enabled them to portray humans in realistic settings, the artists in the north had limited space which led northerners to become masters at rendering details. They did not focus so much on perspective and proportions as the Italians did, but just painted each detail as they observed it to be. Northern artists also emphasized religious feeling in their great works of devotion.

What are the "New Monarchies" or "Renaissance States" and when did they develop?

The "New Monarchies" or "Renaissance States" developed in the second half of the fifteenth century when attempts were made to reestablish the centralized power of monarchical governments. They were the governments of France, England, and Spain at the end of the fifteenth century, whose rulers succeeded in reestablishing or extending centralized royal authority, suppressing the nobility, controlling the church, and insisting on the loyalty of all people living in their territories.

What was the "War of the Roses" in England? Why was it called this? What event caused the Plantagenet dynasty to be replaced? What was the new dynasty?

The "War of the Roses" were a breakout of civil wars in England in the 1450s. They were called this because of Shakespeare's creation of the fiction that a white rose represents the Yorkists and a red rose symbolizes the Lancesters. The Plantagenet dynasty was replaced by the new Tudor dynasty when in 1485, Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III.

The Italian states utilized a "balance of power" that would later be applied on a larger scale to all of Europe. What was this and how well did it work? What two nations competed to dominate Italy and who were their rulers?

The "balance of power" was designed to prevent any city-state in Italy from trying to dominate the others. It was established after 1454 when the Peace of Lodi was signed by the Italians, ending war and uniting Italy, and an alliance between Milan, Florence, and Naples was formed against Venice and the papacy, which created balanced power between the two. Eventually, this system failed and the major powers in Italy did not establish lasting cooperation. After this, Spain and France competed to dominate Italy, originally ruled by the French King Charles VIII and Ferdinand of Aragon, then by Francis I of France and Charles I of Spain.

Humanism is often linked to the "liberal studies" - what are these? What kinds of physical education skills were taught?

The "liberal studies" are "those studies by which we attain and practice virtue and wisdom; the education which calls forth, trains, and develops those highest gifts of body and mind which ennoble men." These studies included history, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music. Physical education skills such as javelin throwing, archery, dancing, running, wrestling, hunting, and swimming were also taught.

Petrarch-The Ascent of Mount Ventoux

The Ascent of Mount Ventoux was about Petrarch's attempt to climb a mountain in Province in southern France in order to view the world from the summit. This book mainly focuses on presenting an allegory of the soul's struggle to achieve a higher spiritual state. This book was addressed to a professor of theology in Paris who encouraged Petrarch to read Augustine. Petrarch was also one of the first people to express his opinion that the Middle Ages were a time of darkness that didn't encourage medieval culture. Petrarch preoccupied a lot of his time with Latin classics and secular content, worrying that he was not attentive enough to spiritual ideas. Yet, this did not prevent him from spreading the humanist message that Cicero was a model for prose and Virgil for poetry.

What was the Council of Constance? Explain the two decrees of the Council of Constance. How effective (or ineffective) were these decrees?

The Council of Constance was created so that the church could deal with heresy by summoning John Hus to the council. Although John Hus hoped that he could share his ideas with the church, he was instead arrested, condemned as a heretic, and burned to the stake in 1415. This caused social upheaval in Bohemia that was not resolved until a truce in 1436. Additionally, the Council of Constance provided two reform decrees in hope to eradicate all heresy. These decrees were the Sacrosancta and Frequens. Sacrosancta stated that a general council of the church received its authority from God, therefore meaning that every Christian, including the pope, was subject to its authority. Frequens added that there should be regular holdings of general councils to ensure that the reformation of the church would continue. Both decrees provided a legislative system that dominated the previous authority of the pope, but they ultimately failed when the popes, who were to execute the orders, did not want to comply with the councils. Successive popes worked for thirty years to defeat the concealer movement. The vanquishment of the reformation of the church was finalized when Pope Pius II issued Execrabilis, which was a papal bull condemning appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical.

What dynasty controlled the Holy Roman Empire, where modern day Germany and Austria are located? How did this dynasty manage to become so successful?

The Habsburg dynasty controlled the Holy Roman Empire, where modern day Germany and Austria are located. This dynasty became so successful by having acquired a number of lands along the Danube, allowing the house of the Habsburg to become one of the wealthiest land-holders in the empire, eventually playing an important role in European affairs. This success came from dynastic marriages, which overtook the French monarchy because the rulers of France feared that they would be surrounded by the Habsburgs after their claims on many land possessions.

Hanseatic League, or Hansa

The Hanseatic League was a commercial and military confederation of merchant guilds created by a number of North German coastal towns. The Hansa, or Hanseatic League, had a monopoly in timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, and wines, which means they controlled the supply and trade over these goods.

What is a "Lollard" and who did they follow? What were two fundamental beliefs of their leader?

The Lollards movement originated from the Oxford theologian John Wyclif, who commenced an attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs and practices after his disgust with clerical corruption. Instead of papal authority, he thought that the Bible should be a Christian's sole authority and should be provided to the people in the vernacular languages. He advocated that there was no basis in the Scripture for papal claims of temporal authority and that the popes should be punished by being stripped of their authority and property. A "Lollard" is someone who followed Wyclif's beliefs and also rejected all practices not mentioned in the Scripture. Furthermore, Wyclif condemned pilgrimages, the veneration of saints, and rituals and rites that were developed in the medieval church.

The Medici family

The Medici family expanded its industries from cloth making to real estate, commerce, and banking, becoming the greatest bank in Europe. In addition, they had controlling interests in wool, silk, and alum mining, as well as being the principal bankers for the papacy. At the end of the fifteenth century, the Medici endured a decline due to poor leadership and bad loans, leading the French to expel them from Florence and confiscate their property.

Who was the biggest threat to Eastern Europe beginning in the 14th century? What empire did they trample and what city fell under their control in 1453? What European cultures were most imminently threatened by this new empire?

The Ottoman Turks were the biggest threat to Eastern Europe beginning in the 14th century. They trampled the Byzantine Empire and had control over Constantinople in 1453. After this conquest, the Ottoman Turks attempted to finish their attacks on the Balkans and successfully took the Romanian territory of Wallachia in 1476. However, this conquest was interrupted when the Hungarians initially prevented the Turks from advancing up the Danube valley, then internal problems and the need to consolidate their eastern frontiers kept the Turks from advancing in their attacks against Europe. Yet, they were still able to renew their challenge against Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, and Poland, by threatening to turn the Mediterranean into a Turkish lake in the sixteenth century.

Was the Renaissance a movement for everyone? If not, who was affected by it and where were these people located?

The Renaissance was a movement for the elite, the wealthier classes, and not characteristics of all Italians. Yet, the people located in the cities still were indirectly affected by the Italian Renaissance, as it was most visible there where many artistic and intellectual accomplishments were prominent. Additionally, the Renaissance began to spread to the rest of Europe from its birthplace, Italy.

What was the Spanish Inquisition? What was the Fall of Grenada?

The Spanish Inquisition occurred in the fourteenth century when many Jews were persecuted and decided to convert to Christianity, but rumors spread that they were secretly reverting back to Judaism. Isabella and Ferdinand asked the pope to use cruelty to guarantee the orthodoxy of the converts, but they had no authority over practicing Jews. Later, they ordered all practicing Jews out of Spain, to which 150,000 out of 200,000 Jews fled. In addition, Isabella and Ferdinand also commenced the conquest of the Muslim Granada; they attacked the kingdom for eleven years until the kingdom of Grenada finally fell at the final bastion of the city of Grenada in 1492. After this, Spanish Muslims were encouraged to convert to Christinaity and all practicing muslim were expelled like the Jews.

Who was the Warrior Pope? Why was he called this?

The Warrior Pope was Julius II, who was named this because he was involved in war and politics, even personally leading armies against his enemies.

What was the birthplace of the Renaissance? Why here?

The birthplace of the Renaissance was Italy because independent city-states that were the center of Italy's political, economic, and cultural life, that dominated the country districts surrounding them and made up all of northern Italy, led to the emergence of an urban society and an increase in wealth, new possibilities, and secular views.

What city was considered the center of ITALIAN art? What city was considered the center of Northern art? Name two famous Northern Renaissance artists and one famous work each completed.

The city of Italian art would be Florence and the city of Northern art would be Flanders. Two famous Northern Renaissance artists would be Jan van Eyek, who created the famous Giovanni Arnolfini, and Albrecht Durer, who created the Adoration of the Magi.

What percent of the population constituted the aristocracy? What kinds of roles did they play in society?

The nobility consisted of 2 to 3 percent of the population and served as military officers, political figures, and advised the king.

How was the concept of a "family" during the Renaissance different than most people probably think of a "family" today?

The concept of a "family" during the Renaissance differs from today's concept due to the fact that family included servants. Most people today don't include their maids or household workers in their family unless they're blood-related. Families during the Renaissance also lived next to one another, which may be the case for some families today, but it is not for the majority. Additionally, any crime committed by one family member became everyone's crime who bore that name, which is not true for families today. Most families today are based off of love and emotional deep connection to one another, however families during the Renaissance came from arranged marriages. These arranged marriages were used for family ties to upper classes in society and financial gain from dowries. Furthermore, the father or husband was the one who managed the finances and had authority over his children until he emancipated them, not until they reached a certain age, while the mother or wife only did household duties and was obligated to bear many children. These gender conformities are out-dated and not what most people do in the family household anymore.

Name the five major powers that dominated the Italian peninsula.

The duchy of Milan, the republic of Venice and Florence, the Papal States, and the kingdom of Naples dominated the Italian peninsula.

What happened to the economy as Europe entered the 15th century? What were some new industries that came along at that time?

The economy of Europe from its depression in the 14th century affected the patterns of manufacturing, especially those of the northern Italian cities and the woolen industries of Flanders. Although the industries were somewhat affected, they slowly began to recover during the beginning of the fifteenth century. New industries such as printing, mining, and metallurgy emerged during this time.

After the Great Schism ended, what new problem was the Roman Catholic Church having difficulty controlling? What two movements can be considered the most prominent threats to the church?

The end of the Great Schism was only the beginning of new problems, such as heresy and reform. Although the church had already dealt with heresy in the past and had developed inquisitorial machinery to counteract it, new uprisings of it made it difficult to control as Lollardy and Hussites emerged and greatly threatened the church.

If the Roman Catholic Church had so much power, how did the humanists manage to "secularize" the writing of history?

The humanists managed to secularize the writing of history by taking a new approach to sources by eliminating and reducing the role of miracles in historical interpretation. In support of this, they examined historical documents and critically analyzed them. They began to stress political forces or the roles of individuals instead of divine intervention in history.

How did women generally fit into the concept of a humanist education? How would you summarize the effect of the Renaissance on women of Italy?

The majority of those who received a humanist education were male, so few females actually were able to become intellectuals. Though, the few who did, especially those in courtly, religious, intellectual environments, and those who went on to establishing their own literary career, were able to "develop a new sense of themselves as women." Before this time period, women were always viewed as not having the ability to master the same craft as any man could. They only served as household wives and bearers to children, instead of being able to contribute to politics, the arts, and science. I can infer that this also had an effect on other women who were not able to receive the same education, since they were able to idolize and be inspired by these female figures. This breaking of the normal gender conformities made the society of Renaissance Italy a little bit more open-minded and inclusive.

What was the most important invention of the 15th century? Who invented it? About half of the items created by this invention were about what?

The most important invention of the 15th century would be printing, invented by Johannes Gutenburg. About half of the items created were religious.

Although education was emphasized in this time, what segment of the population was most likely to receive a formal education at this time?

The segment of the population that was most likely to receive a formal education were the higher, ruling classes of the communities. Most of these people were also males.

Who is John Hus? What were his beliefs? Who were his followers?

The spread of Lollard ideas to Bohemia reinforced the beliefs of a group of Czech reformers led by John Hus, who was the chancellor of the university at Prague. He believed that worldliness and the corruption of the clergy should be eliminated from the church and also attacked the papacy within the Catholic Church for their excessive power. His followers were called Hussites.

The social system of the Middle Ages lingered into the Renaissance. It was made of 3 estates. What were they?

The three estates were the clergy, who had a grounded belief that people should be guided to spiritual ends, the nobility, who provided protection and justice for society, and the peasants and inhabitants of the towns and cities.

Generally peasants don't live in towns, what kinds of activities did urban members of the Third Estate do?

The top of the urban society was the patricians, who worked with capitalistic enterprises in trade, industry, and banking. Lower than the patricians were the shopkeepers, artisans, guild masters, and guild members, all of who focused on providing goods and services for local consumption. Next were propertyless workers and the unemployed, making up 35 to 40 percent of the population living in cities. Finally, at the very bottom of the social classes were the slaves.

Prior to the 15th century, Spain was actually many different independent kingdoms. What were the two largest kingdoms, who ruled them, and what brought them together to eventually unite?

The two largest kingdoms in Spain prior to the 15th century were Aragon and Castile. Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married each other and unified Spain.

What were the two large religious minorities in Spain? How were they treated during the renaissance?

The two largest religious minorities in Spain were the Jews and the Muslims. Overall, Spain tolerated both, even though there was a history of anti-Semitism in Europe. Some areas of Spain even allowed Jews to influence politics and take part in intellectual and economic affairs. However, an increased persecution rate of Spanish Jews in the fourteenth century led many to convert to Christianity, then leading to the Spanish Inquisition and rumors that they were reverting back to Judaism.

Leonardo Bruni-The New Cicero

This book talked about the combining of politics and literary creation in Cicero's life, who was an inspiration for the Renaissance ideal that intellectuals had a duty of living an active life for their state, which was the only way one could grow to maturity. The New Cicero contributed to the rise in the Italian Renaissance of humanists believing they should use their knowledge for the betterment of the state.

Marsilio-Ficino-Theologia platonica, Commentary of Plato's Symposium or De amore, Corpus Hermeticum

Throughout his life, Ficino translated Plato and explained Neoplatonism, taking Christianity and Platonism into a single system, in his two major works. The Neoplatonic hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love gave Ficino the basis of his explanation of Neoplatonism. The hierarchy consisted of the lowest form of physical matter (plants) to the purest spirit (God). Humans were included in the middle of this hierarchy because they linked the material world to the spiritual world. Their duty was said to be to ascend to God, which was the true end of human existence. Ficino spread the message that all parts of the universe are held together by sympathetic love, just as humans are bound together in their common humanity by love. Additionally, Ficino translated a Greek work, Corpus Hermeticum, into Latin, which was divided into two kinds of writing, one that stressed the occult science and the other that stressed theological and philosophical beliefs.

Renaissance means "rebirth," but when referencing the era of the "Renaissance" what exactly is it a rebirth of?

To the people of Italy between 1350 and 1550, they referenced the fact that the antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization had been rebirthed when talking about the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a break from the Middle Ages after the fall of the Roman Empire, where darkness enveloped Italy and its culture and art deteriorated. In addition, Renaissance Italy was an urban society, as it had commercial preeminence and political evolution, resulting in northern Italy becoming a land of independent cities that dominated surrounding country districts. This urban society also led to secular views becoming prominent as new worldly opportunities arose. Most importantly, the Renaissance was a time of recovery from the Black Death and its effects on politics and economics, as well as a time that focused on individual abilities and achievements.