Chapter 12 Motivating Employees: Achieving Superior Performance in the Workplace

Drawbacks of stretching (goals)

- Can demotivate employees because they set aims that seem unattainable - Can encourage unethical behavior as employee try to reach the goals in whatever way they can - Can lead companies to take unnecessary risks - "Generate large attainment discrepancies that increase willingness to take risks, undermine goal commitment, and generate lower risk-adjusted performance"

Principles Governing Reinforcement (3)

1. Law of effect 2. Law of contingent reinforcement 3. Law of immediate reinforcement

Reinforcement (4)

Anything that causes a given behavior to be repeated or inhibited; four types -- positive, negative, extinction, and punishment

Organizational justice

Area concerned with the extent to which people perceive they are treated fairly at work

Alderfer's ERG theory

Assumes 3 basic needs influence behavior 1. Existence needs 2. Relatedness needs 3. Growth needs

OLD job design perspective

Based on assumption that people will gradually adapt to any work situation - But jobs must still be tailored so that nearly anyone can do them - "How can we make the worker most compatible with the work?" Scientific management

Law of effect (Thorndike)

Behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated, while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear

Expectancy

Belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance Effort-to-performance expectancy "WILL I BE ABLE TO PERFORM AT THE DESIRED LEVEL ON A TASK?"

Reinforcement theory

Belief that behavior reinforced by positive consequences tends to be repeated, whereas behavior reinforced by negative consequences tends not to be repeated

Job enrichment

Building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement - Adding one or more motivating factors to job activities - Practical application of Frederick Herzberg's two-factor motivator-hygiene theory of job satisfaction Vertical loading

Proponents of job enlargement

Can improve employees satisfaction, motivation, and quality of production

Using Acquired Needs Theory to Motivate Employees

Can use acquired needs theory by appealing to the performance associated with each need when you set goals, provide feedback, assign tasks, and design the job

Bonuses

Cash awards given to employees who achieve specific performance objectives

Quick overview of CONTENT PERSPECTIVE theories

Content theories → emphasize needs as motivators 1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory (five levels to be met in order) 2. Alderfer's ERG theory 3. McClelland's acquired needs theory (three needs for achievement, affiliation, and power) 4. Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory (assumes people seek innate needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness in order to grow) 5. Herzberg's two-factor theory (differentiates hygiene and motivators that determine work satisfaction and dissatisfaction)

2. Responsibility for outcomes

Core job characteristics = autonomy

Judgement about fairness (perceived equity) COMPARISON of your ration to others' ratio

EQUITY (POSITVIVE) - Satisfied with the ratio and don't change behavior INEQUITY (NEGATIVE) - Dissatisfied and act by changing behavior to change the inequity

Three elements of the expectancy theory

Expectancy Instrumentality Valence ***For your motivation to be high, you must be high on all three elements (expectancy, instrumentality, and valence)

Sabbatical

Extended vacation

Task identity (Five Core Job Characteristics)

Extent to which a job requires a worker to perform all the tasks needed to complete the job from beginning to end "HOW MANY DIFFERENT TASKS ARE REQUIRED TO COMPLETE THE WORK?"

Frustration-regression principle

Failure to meet high-order need may cause a regression to an already satisfied lower-order need

Vertical loading

Giving employees more responsibility

Critics of job enlargement

Job enlargement by itself won't have significant and lasting positive effect on job performance

Equity theory

Model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships Pioneered by J. Stacey Adams (psychologist) Focus on how employees perceive how fairly they think they are being treated compared to others - Employees evaluate their treatment relative to the treatment of others

Love need

Need for love, friendship, affection - General example = friendship - Organizational example = friends at work

Two different approaches

OLD job design perspective - Fitting people to jobs (traditional) - Adapt people to work NEW job design perspective - Fitting jobs to people (modern) - Adapt work to people ***This perspective is build upon findings from other perspectives

Goal

Objective a person is trying to accomplish through his/her efforts

Relatedness

People need to feel a sense of belonging, of attachment to others

Hierarchy of needs theory

Psychological structure proposed by Maslow whereby people are motivated by five levels of needs (1) physiological, (2) safety, (3) love, (4) esteem, (5) self-actualization **Put forth in 1943 by Maslow, one of the first researchers to study motivation

Distributive justice

Reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated "HOW FAIRLY ARE REWARDS BEING GIVEN OUT?"

Quick overview of REINFORCEMENT PERSPECTIVE theories

Reinforcement theories → based on notion that motivation is a function of behavioral consequences and not unmet needs

Interactional justice

Relates to the quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented "HOW FAIRLY AM I BEING TREATED WHEN REWARDS ARE GIVEN OUT?" Fair interpersonal treatment necessitates that managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect

Flourishing

Represents the extent to which our lives contain PERMA resulting in "goodness, growth, and resilience" - Strive to flourish because of its association with other positive outcomes → lower cardiovascular risk, lower levels of inflammation, longer life, better sleep, and positive mental health

Stock options

Right to buy a company's stock at a future date for a discounted price - Motivator → employees holding stock options will supposedly work hard to make the company's stock rise so that they can obtain it at a cheaper price

Sales commission

Sales representatives/person paid percentage of the earnings the company made from their sales

Intrinsic reward

Satisfaction a person receives from performing the particular task itself (such as a feeling of accomplishment) - Reward given to yourself (internal reward) - Comes from pleasing yourself

Acquired needs theory

States there are three needs (achievement, affiliation, and power) that are the major motives determining people's behavior in the workplace Proposed by David McClelland --> Believes we are not born with our needs, we rather learn them from culture (our life experiences)

Flex time (example of motivation technique)

System in which employees set their own work hours within employer-determined limits Typically two bands of time: - Core time: when all employees are expected to be at work - Flexible time: when employees may choose whether to be at work BENEFITS - Employees' sense of independence and autonomy is motivation - Employees with enough time to deal with non-work issues are more productive and satisfied DRAWBACKS - Supervisors' jobs are complicated by having employees who come and go at different times - Employees without flexible time may resent coworkers who have it

Non monetary ways of motivating employees

The Need for Work-Life Balance The Need to Expand Skills The Need for a Positive Work Environment The Need to Matter (Finding Meaning in Work)

Motivating potential score (MPS)

The amount of internal work motivation associated with a specific job

"Deprived" needs

The needs that remain unsatisfied at any point in time

Law of effect

Theoretical basis for manipulating consequences of behavior; behavior that results in pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated

Content (need-based) perspectives

Theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people (try to understand employee needs) ****If managers understand employees' needs, they can design appropriate rewards systems

Three innate needs

To achieve psychological growth, people need to satisfy the three innate needs: 1. Competence 2. Autonomy 3. Relatedness

Positive reinforcement

Use of positive consequences to strengthen a particular behavior - Rewards employee improvement

Behavior modification

Use of reinforcement theory to change human behavior

Valence

Value or importance a worker assigns to a possible outcome or reward "HOW MUCH DO I WANT THE OUTCOME"

Extinction

Weakening of behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced - Withholds employee rewards (for not improving)

Equity theory based on cognitive dissonance

When we are victimized by unfair social enhances, our resulting cognitive dissonance prompts us to correct the situation - Uncomfortableness motivates person to take action to maintain consistency between their beliefs and behavior

Job design

is (1) the division of an organization's work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance

Advisable criteria for incentive plans

1) Rewards must be linked to performance and be measurable 2) Rewards must satisfy individual needs 3) Rewards must be agreed on by a managers and employees 4) Rewards must be believable and achievable by employees

Worst obstacles to work-life balance

1. Demanding bosses 2. Constant work beyond standard business hours and inflexible scheduling 3. Imcompetent colleagues and long commutes

Reinforcement perspective (Pioneered by Edward L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner)

Concerned with how the consequences of a certain behavior affect that behavior in the future - Skinner = father of operant conditioning - Thorndike = law of effect

Need for power

Desire to be responsible for other people, to influence their behavior, or to control them Two types of power: 1. Personal power 2. Institutional power

Gainsharing

Distribution of savings or "gains" to groups of employees who reduce costs and increase measurable productivity

Profit sharing

Distribution to employees of a percentage of the company's profits

Using Equity Theory to Motivate Employees (suggestions by Adams)

Employees who feel they are being under rewarded will respond to perceived inequity in negative ways → - Reducing their inputs (changing work effort) - Trying to change the outputs/reward they receive - Distorting the inequity - Changing the object of comparison (changing the perception) - Leaving the situation Employees who think they are treated fairly are likely to → - Support organizational change - Cooperate in group settings

Horizontal loading

Gving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty

Relatedness needs

Needs for satisfactory relationships with others

Growth needs

Needs that focus on the development of human potential and the desire for personal growth

Needs

Physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior - Needs translate into an internal drive that motivates behavior

Job diagnostic survey

Self-report instrument for managers developed by Hackman and Oldham that will indicate whether an individual's motivating potential score (MPS) is high or low

Meaningfulness

Sense of "belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than the self"

Pay for performance

Situation in which an employee's pay is based on the results they achieve - Depends on overall job performance Types 1. Piece rate 2. Sales commission

Pay for knowledge (skill-based-pay)

Situation in which employees' pay is tied to the number of job-relevant skills they have or academic degrees they earn

SMART goal

Specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented, target dates (timely)

Piece rate

Standard pay-for-performance plan in which employees' pay is based on how much output they produce - Piece rate employers must comply with state and federal minimum wage laws

Finding Meaning in Work --> Viktor Frankl

"Striving to find a meaning in one's life is the primary motivational force" Drive to find meaning in our lives instills in us a sense of purpose and motivation to pursue goals

Things to avoid in job redesign

- Complex compensation designs - Poor alignment of goals - Lack of defined, actionable measures

Three critical psychological states

1. Meaningfulness of work 2. Responsibility for outcomes 3. Knowledge of results ***Five core job characteristics affect worker's motivation because they affect three critical psychological states

Popular Incentive Compensation Plans

1. Pay for performance 2. Bonuses 3. Profit sharing 4. Gainsharing 5. Stock options 6. Pay for knowledge

Existence needs

Needs for physical well-being

The Need for a Positive Work Environment

Positive emotions broaden your perspective about how to overcome challenges in your life Positive emotions build on themselves, resulting in a spreading of positive emotions within yourself and those around you Suggestions for positivity - Positive physical settings - Thoughtful bosses

Institutional power

Positive kind expressed in the need to solve problems that further organizational goals (characteristic of top managers and leaders)

Law of immediate reinforcement

Reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior is exhibited

Self-motivation

Ability to work productively without constant direction, instruction, and praise - Includes ability to establish/maintain good work habits & consistent focus on organizational goals and personal development

"Control freak" individual

Achievement is normal, but affiliation is small and power is large

"Well-balanced" individual

Achievement, affiliation, and power are of equal size

Reinforcement (def from lecture)

Administration of consequence as result of a behavior - Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual's behavior

How Alderfer's ERG theory differs from Maslow (although it is an extension of Maslow's theory)

Alderfer says these needs are not necessarily hierarchical There is a frustration-regression principle

Goal-setting theory

Approach that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable - Theory developed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham - "Goal-setting process useful only if people understand and accept goals"

Self-determination theory

Assumes that people are driven to grow and attain fulfillment, with their behavior and well-being influences by three innate needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness Developed by Deci and Ryan (psychologists) - Focus on Intrinsic Motivation **Theory focuses primarily on intrinsic motivation and rewards (longer lasting than extrinsic motivation; has more positive impact on task performance)

Flex time

Characteristic of flexible workplace -- including part-time work, flex-time, compressed workweek, job sharing, telecommuting

Management by Objectives (Collaborative Goal Setting)

Collaborative goal setting & planning → Communicating organizational goals & plans (meeting, setting verifiable goals and clear plans, counseling, identifying resources) → Periodic review → Evaluation

Well-being

Combined impact of elements -- positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA)

Process perspectives

Concerned with the thought processes by which people decide how to act (how employees choose behavior to meet their needs) Proposes that is not about NEEDS, it is about the THOUGHT PROCESSES by which people select behavioral actions ****Try to understand why employees have different needs, what behaviors they select to satisfy them, and how they decide if their choices were successful

Job characteristics model

Consists of (a) five core job characteristics that affect (b) three critical psychological states of an employee that in turn affect (3) work outcomes (employee's motivation, performance, and satisfaction) ***Also includes 3 contingency factors Developed by J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham

3. Knowledge of actual results of the work

Core job characteristics = feedback

Contingency factors (3)

Degree to which a person wants personal and psychological development Job design works when employees are motivated, and to be so, they must have three attributes: 1. Necessary knowledge and skill 2. Desire for personal growth 3. Context satisfactions (right physical working conditions, pay, and supervision)

Job redesign

Designing a better fit between workers and their jobs - Combining tasks - Forming natural work groups - Establishing client relationships

Need for affiliation

Desire for friendly and warm relations with other people

Human capital

Economic/productive potential of employee knowledge, experience, and actions

Work-life benefits

Employer-sponsored benefit programs/initiatives designed to help all employees balance work life with home life - Purpose = remove barriers that make it hard for people to strike a balance between their work and personal lives *US ranks fairly low on employers that make work-life benefits available

Task significance (Five Core Job Characteristics)

Extent to which a job affects the lives of other people, whether inside or outside the organization "HOW MANY OTHER PEOPLE ARE AFFECTED BY YOUR JOB?"

Autonomy (Five Core Job Characteristics)

Extent to which a job allows an employee to make choices about scheduling different tasks and deciding how to perform them "HOW MUCH DISCRETION DOES YOUR JOB GIVE TO YOU?"

Skill variety (Five Core Job Characteristics)

Extent to which a job requires a person to use a wide range of different skills and abilities "HOW MANY DIFFERENT SKILLS DOES YOUR JOB REQUIRE?"

Feedback (Five Core Job Characteristics)

Extent to which worker receive clear, direct information about how well they are performing the job "HOW MUCH DO YOU FIND OUT HOW WELL YOU ARE DOING?"

How the Model Works

Five core job characteristics affect worker's motivation because they affect three critical psychological states Positive psychological states fuel (work outcomes)

Benefits of work-life benefits

Helping employees with daycare costs Establishing onsite day care centers Offering domestic-partner benefits Giving job-protected leave for new parents Providing technology to enable parents to work at home

Positive psychological states fuel (work outcomes)

High motivation High performance High satisfaction Low absenteeism and turnover

PERMA

Identified by Martin Seligman (psychologist) Positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA) - We must pursue these elements for their own sake, not as a means to obtain another outcome - Well-being comes about by freely pursuing one or more of the five elements

Operant conditioning (Skinner)

Process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences

Negative reinforcement

Process of strengthening a behavior by withdrawing something negative - Avoids employee reprimands (for improved performance)

Punishment

Process of weakening behavior by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive - Reprimands and disciplines employee (for not improving)

1. Meaningfulness of work

Research shows this is the most important psychological state Core job characteristics = skill variety, task identity, task significance

Law of contingent reinforcement

Reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited

Punishment (guidelines for using reinforcement to motivate employees)

- Give reprimands or disciplinary actions as soon as possible - Be clear about what behavior is undesirable - Administer punishment in private - Combine punishment and positive reinforcement

Is money the best motivator?

- Most workers rate having a caring boss higher than they value monetary benefits - Motivating does not just involve money

Nonmonetary incentives

- Need for work-life balance - Need to expand skills - Need for positive work environment - Need to matter (to find meaning in work)

Positive Reinforcement (guidelines for using reinforcement to motivate employees)

- Reward only desirable behavior - Give rewards as soon as possible - Be clear about what behavior is desired - Have different rewards and recognize individual differences

Equity theory is based on idea that:

1) Employees are motivated to see fairness in the rewards they expect for task performance 2) Employees are motivated to resolve feelings of injustice

Three major steps to follow when applying Job Characteristics Model

1. Diagnose the work environment to see whether a problem exists - Job diagnostic survey - Motivating potential score (MPS) 2. Determine whether job redesign is appropriate - Low MPS → attempt should be made to determine which of the core job characteristics is causing the problem - Job design most likely to work in participative environment in which employees have necessary knowledge and skills 3. Consider how to redesign the job - Try to increase core job characteristics that are lower than the norms

Four Motivational Mechanisms of Goal-Setting Theory

1. Directs your attention - Toward goal-relevant tasks and away from irrelevant ones 2. Regulates the effort expended - Energy one extends generally proportional to the goal's difficulty and time deadlines 3. Increases your persistence - Makes obstacles become challenges to be overcome, not reasons to fail 4. Fosters use of strategies and action plans - Make it more likely that you will realize success

6 Steps to help apply principles of SELF-MANAGEMENT daily

1. Identify Your "Wildly Important" Long-Term Goal 2. Break Your Wildly Important Goal into Short-Term Goals - More likely to achieve goal if you break it down into smaller bite-size goals 3. Create "To-Do" List for Accomplishing Your Short-Term Goals 4. Prioritize the Tasks - Enables you to schedule your time to maximize your efficiency and smooth your achievement of interdependent tasks - Ranks the tasks based on importance NOT on which task is easiest 5. Create Time Schedule 6. Work the Plan, Reward Yourself, and Adjust as Needed

3 suggestions for building meaning into your life

1. Identify activities you love doing 2. Find a way to build your natural strengths into your personal and work life 3. Go out and help someone - People service a sense of meaningfulness from helping others, which creates an upward spiral of positivity

Five Core Job Characteristics

1. Skill variety 2. Task identity 3. Task significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback

Three forms of learning opportunities (to expand skills)

1. Studying co-workers 2. Tuition reimbursement 3. Learning and development Millennials and younger workers find professional/career growth and development opportunities very important in a job

Principal tools found in modern workplace to motivate employees to perform

Various forms of compensation & Nonmonetary incentives

What are the two types of individuals according to the acquired needs theory?

"Well-balanced" individual "Control freak" individual

Characteristics of people motivated by the need for power

- Enjoy being in control of people and events - Enjoy being recognized for this responsibility

Rationales for stretching (goals)

- Forcing people out of their comfort zones to achieve more - Building confidence when they succeed - Insulating company against future setbacks - Accepting challenge of higher performance standards

Contextual factors (of motivation and employee engagement)

- Organizational culture - Cross-cultural values - Physical environment - Rewards and reinforcement - Group norms - Communication technology - Leader behavior - Organizational design - Organizational climate - Job design

Personal factors (of motivation and employee engagement)

- Personality - Ability - Core self-evaluations - Emotions - Attitudes - Needs - Values - Work attitudes

Characteristics of people motivated by the need for achievement

- Prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks/projects - Like situation in which good performance relies on effort and ability rather than luck - Like to be rewarded for their efforts - Want to receive fair/balanced amount of positive and negative feedback (enables them to improve their performance)

Implications for Managers (from Research) of acquired needs theory

- Problematic when a manager has too much need for affiliation - Best managers will have need for power and achievement

Characteristics of people motivated by the need for affiliation

- Tend to seek social approval and satisfying personal relationships - May not be the most efficient manager are times because you have to make decisions that will make people resent you - Tend to prefer work that provides for personal relationships and social approval (such as sales)

Goal setting is recognized explicitly and implicitly by virtually every major theory of work motivation

- The existence of goals in and of themselves can motivate behavior - People assigned difficult goals tend to perform better than those with moderately difficult to easy goals - The idea behind goal setting theory → goals motivate people to compare current performance to performance needed to meet goals - Better to state specific goal than to simply urge people to do their best - Goal setting has been found to enhance performance about 90% of the time

Four Principle Perspectives on Motivation

1) Content (needs-based) 2) Process 3) Job design (characteristics) 4) Reinforcement

Five practical lessons for using equity and justice theories to motivate employees

1. Employee perceptions are what count - Regardless of how fair management thinks the organization's policies, procedures and reward system are, each employee's perception of the equity of those factors is what counts 2. Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them - Managers benefit by allowing employees to participate in making decisions about important work outcomes - Employees' perceptions of procedural justice enhances when they have a voice in the decision-making process 3. Employees should be given an appeals process - Enhanced perceptions of distributive and procedural justice when employees are given the opportunity to appeal decisions that affect their welfare 4. Leader behavior matters - Important for managers to consider the justice-related implications of their decisions, actions, and public communications 5. A climate for justice makes a difference

Recommendations when implementing goal-setting program (proposed by Locke and Latham)

1. Goals should be specific - Specific and difficult/challenging (leads to higher performance) - Usually quantitative 2. Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work - Employees must have ability and resources needed to achieve the goal - Commitment can be fostered by allowing employees to participate in the process of establishing goals 3. Goals should be linked to action plans 4. Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work - Feedback and participation enhance performance only when they lead employees to set and commit to a specific, difficult goal

NEW job design perspective

1. Job Enlargement: Putting More Variety Into a Job 2. Job Enrichment: Putting More Responsibility and Other Motivating Factors into a Job 3. Job redesign

As a manager you want to motivate people to (in order of importance)

1. Join your organization - Instill in talented prospective workers the desire to come to work for you 2. Stay with your organization - Retain good people 3. Show up for work at your organization 4. Be engaged while at your organization 5. Do extra for your organization - Be organizational "good citizens"

Using Two-Factor Theory to Motivate Employees

1. You should first eliminate dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) - Make sure working conditions, pay levels, and company policies are reasonable 2. You should then concentrate on spurring motivation (motivating factors) - Provide opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth

Need for achievement

Desire to excel, to do something better/more efficiently, to solve problems, to achieve excellence in challenging tasks

Inputs (equity theory)

Employee contributions to their jobs Inputs people perceive they give to an organization: - Ex. time, effort, training, experience, intelligence, creativity, seniority, status "WHAT DO YOU THINK YOU'RE PUTTING INTO THE JOB?"

Voice

Employees' upward expression of challenging but constructive opinions, concerns, or ideas on work-related issues to their managers

Instrumentality

Expectation that successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome desired Performance-to-reward expectancy "WHAT OUTCOME WILL I RECEIVE IF I PERFORM AT THIS LEVEL?"

Two types of goal orientation

Goal orientation → we may have one of two reasons for trying to achieve a goal depending on our orientation 1. Learning goal orientation 2. Performance goal orientation

Stretch goals

Goals beyond what someone actually expects to achieve Ex. companies committed to break-out growth

Comparison of content theories

HIGHER LEVEL NEEDS Maslow (Hierarchy of needs) 1. Self-actualization needs 2. Esteem needs 3. Love needs McClelland (Acquired needs theory) 1. Achievement 2. Power 3. Affiliation Alderfer (ERG theory) 1. Existence needs 2. Relatedness needs 3. Growth needs Deci and Ryan (Self-determination theory) 1. Competence 2. Autonomy 3. Relatednedd Herzberg (Two-Factor theory) 1. Motivating factors LOWER LEVEL NEEDS Maslow (Hierarchy of needs) 1. Love needs 2. Safety needs 3. Physiological needs Herzberg (Two-Factor theory) 1. Hygiene factors

Motivating factors (motivators)

Higher-level needs which are factors associated with job satisfaction and all of which affect the job CONTENT or the rewards of work performance Motivators: - Achievement - Recognition - Responsibility - Advancement & growth - The work itself - Challenges & opportunities Answer question "What will make my people SATISFIED?" Herzberg believed motivating factors must be instituted to spur superior work performance

Self-actualization need

Highest level need; need for self-fulfillment (increasing competence, using abilities to the fullest) - General example = self-fulfillment - Organizational example = challenging job

Using the Hierarchy of Needs Theory to Motivate Employees

Importance of Maslow's contribution → shows workers have needs beyond that was just earring a paycheck Managers should first try to meet employees' level 1 and 2 needs so that employees won't be preoccupied with them **Organizations need to also give employees a change to fulfill their higher-level leeds in ways that also advance the goals of the organization

Job enlargement

Increasing the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation Opposite of scientific management Horizontal loading

Elements of the Equity Theory (3)

Inputs Outputs Comparison

Quick overview of JOB DESIGN PERSPECTIVE theories

Job design theories → focus on designing jobs that lead to employee satisfaction and performance 1. Scientific management theory (attempted to fit people to jobs by reducing the number of tasks workers had to perform to achieve a goal) 2. Job enlargement and job enrichment (ways to fit jobs to people by offering more variety, challenges, and responsibility) 3. Job characteristics model (traces effect of five job characteristics on employees' psychological states and work outcomes)

Frederick Herzberg's study

Landmark study of 203 accountants and engineers interviewed to determine the factors responsible for job satisfaction and dissatisfaction - Job satisfaction more frequently associated with → achievement, recognition, characteristic of the work, responsibility, and advancement - Job dissatisfaction more often associated with → working conditions, pay and security, company policies, supervisors, and interpersonal relationships

Hygiene factors

Lower-level needs which are factors associated with job dissatisfaction and all of which affect the job CONTEXT in which people work Hygiene factors: - Salary & security - Working conditions - Interpersonal relationships - Company policy - Supervisors Answers question "What will make my people DISSATISFIED?" Some believe you can satisfy and motivate people by providing good hygiene factors

Scientific management

Management approach that emphasizes the scientific study of work methods to improve the productivity of individual workers - Process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs - Stripping a job down to its simplest elements enables a worker to focus on doing more of the same task (increases employee efficiency and productivity) Drawback → research shows that simplified, repetitive jobs lead to dissatisfaction, poor mental health, and a low sense of accomplishment/personal growth

Using Self-Determination Theory to Motivate Employees

Managers can apply this theory by engaging in behavior that fosters the experience of competence, autonomy, and relatedness SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS: Competence - Managers can provide resources such as time, contacts, and coaching to improve employee competence (ensure employees have knowledge and information they need to perform their jobs) Autonomy - Managers can develop trust and empower their employees by delegating meaningful tasks to them Relatedness - Use of camaraderie to foster relatedness

Using Expectancy Theory to Motivate Employees

Managers should ask the following questions when attempting to motivate employees: - What rewards (outcomes) do your employees value? - What are the job objectives and the performance level you desire? - Are the rewards linked to performance? - Do employees believe you will deliver the right rewards for the right performance? (power & ability)

Maslow's suggestions regarding the five level of needs

Maslow suggested needs are never completely satisfied - Our actions are aimed at fulfilling the "deprived" needs Once one need is filled, you go one to seek to fulfill the next higher level need

Physiological need

Most basic human psychical need; need for food, clothing, shelter, comfort, self-preservation - General example = shelter - Organizational example = salary

Safety need

Need for physical safety, emotional security, avoidance of violence - General example = stability - Organizational example = pension plan

Esteem need

Need for self-respect status, reputation, recognition, self-confidence - General example = status - Organizational example = job title

Personal power

Negative kind expressed in the desire to dominate others, and involves manipulating people for one's own gratification

Elements of Justice Theory

ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE Three components of organizational justice 1. Distributive justice 2. Procedural justice 3. Interactional justice

Action plan

Outlines the activities/tasks that need to be accomplished in order to obtain goals - Reminds us of what we should be working on

Extrinsic reward

Payoff a person receives from others for performing a particular task (such as money) - Reward given by others - Motivation driven by receiving a valued reward from another person/entity

Comparison (equity theory)

People compare the ratio of their own outcomes to inputs against the ratio of others - Perceived ratio of contribution to return determines perceived equity "HOW DO YOU THINK YOUR RATIO OF INPUTS AND REWARDS/OUTPUTS COMPARES WITH THOSE OF OTHERS"

Simple model of motivation

People have certain NEEDS that MOTIVATE them to perform specific BEHAVIORS for which they receive REWARDS that FEEDBACK and satisfy the original need Unfilled need → Motivation → Behaviors → Rewards → Feedback - Unfilled need = desire created to fulfill a need - Motivation = search for ways to satisfy need - Behavior = choose type of behavior you think might satisfy the need - Rewards = satisfy needs (extrinsic or intrinsic) - Feedback = reward informs you whether behavior worked and should be used again

Competence

People need to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable of completing a goal or task and to learn different skills

Autonomy

People need to feel they have freedom and the discretion to determine what they want to do and how they want to do it

Procedural justice

Perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions "HOW FAIR IS THE PROCESS FOR HANDING OUT REWARDS?"

Integrated model of motivation and employee engagement consists of...

Personal factors & Contextual factors

Quick overview of PROCESS PERSPECTIVE theories

Process theories → focus on thoughts and perceptions that motivate behavior 1. Equity/justice theory (proposes people seek fairness and justice in their interactions and relationships) 2. Expectancy theory (people are motivated by how much they want something and how likely they think it is they will get it) 3. Goal-setting theory (says goals that are specific, challenging, and achievable will motivate behavior)

Two-factor theory

Proposes that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different work factors (work satisfaction from "motivating factors" and work dissatisfaction from "hygiene factors")

Cognitive dissonance

Psychological discomfort people experience between their cognitive attitude and incompatible behavior

Motivation

Psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior Force (ether intrinsic of extrinsic) to a person that arouses enthusiasm and persistence - Inferred from one's behavior (cannot actually be seen or known) - Important as a manager to understand the process of motivation in order to guide employees in accomplishing the organization's objectives

Learning goal orientation

Sees goals as a way of developing competence through the acquisition of new skills - People with strong learning goal orientation → appreciate opportunities to enhance their skills (training, performance feedback, assignment of challenging tasks) - Generally better for jobs that call for creativity, willing to embrace new ideas, adapt to new environments, make effective use of performance feedback, and take proactive, problem-solving approach

Performance goal orientation

Sees goals as way of demonstrating and validating a competence we already have by seeking the approval of others - People with strong performance goal orientation → less willing to take on new challenges for fear of failure and may set lower goals to avoid making themselves vulnerable to criticism - Found to be unrelated or negatively related to performance on the job

Expectancy theory

Suggests that people are motivated by two things (1) how much they want something and (2) how likely they think they are to get it - Introduced by Victor Vroom - Boils down to deciding how much effort to exert in a specific task situation - Choice based on two-stage sequence of expectations EFFORT → PERFORMANCE → OUTCOMES

Outputs (equity theory)

What employees receive in return Outputs/rewards people receive from an organization: - Ex. pay, benefits, praise, recognition, bonuses, promotions, status prerequisites "WHAT DO YOU THINK YOU'RE GETTING OUT OF THE JOB?"

According to Vroom and Expectancy theory

You will do what you CAN do when you WANT to Motivation involves relationship between effort, performance, and desirability of the outcomes you receive for you performance - These relationships are affected by the three elements of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence