Chapter 12 - Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Contemporary Feminism

3rd wave - types of feminism (Judith Lorber): Gender- Reform Gender- Resistant Gender- Rebellion

Symbolic Interactionism

Ethnomethology Dramaturgy Socialization

glass ceiling

a social barrier that makes it difficult for women to rise to the top level of management

Freud

believed differences in anatomy account for the development of masculine and feminine gender roles

Feminist Sociological Theory

branch of conflict theory that believes that patriarchy is THE most oppressive and dominant form of social stratification - research at macro or micro level - always work to dismantle Patriarchy

Which theoretical perspective stresses the importance of regulating sexual behavior to ensure marital cohesion and family stability?

functionalism

What is an example of overt discrimination?

sexual harassment

sexism

the prejudiced belief that one sex should be valued over another

transexuals

transgender individuals who attempt to alter their bodies through medical interventions such as surgery and hormonal therapy

A person who is biologically female but identifies with the male gender and has undergone surgery to alter her body is considered _______.

transsexual

Which of the following is the best example of a gender stereotype?

women tend to be overly emotional, while men tend to be levelheaded

Betty Friedan

"The Feminine Mystique" 2nd wave feminist movement ERA and EPA 1963

gender discrimination

- A practice that involves rewarding men and women differently for the same work. - Socialization and Institutions are gendered - Gender Stratification - Female-male earnings ratio --> Women's earnings expressed as a percentage of men's earnings.

Subjects of social concern:

- Birth control - Reproductive - technology - Abortion - Teen pregnancy - Pornography - Sexual violence

masculinity

- Dominant gender - Expected of the male sex - Now studied along with femininity - Machismo- exaggerated masculinity - Hyper-masculinity and Race and Class

Social Problems Resulting from Gender Inequality

- Economic: Pay Inequity, Unpaid Work, Feminization of Poverty, Sexual Harassment, Glass Ceiling - Violence Against Women: Domestic Abuse, Rape, Assaults (physical and sexual), Objectification. - Media: body image, sexualization of children and young females, eating disorders. - Family: Breadwinner and power, reproduces gender roles/inequality, normalizes heterosexuality, divorce and poverty. - Politics: Male/Female ratio, creating androcentric laws. - Education: Hidden curriculm, preference for male students - Religion: Access to positions of power, legitimates inequality - Health and Medicine: Research, Seeking Treatment - Criminal Justice System: controlling threating males, ignoring violence against women, women in positions of power.

Factors of the Earnings Gap

- Gender discrimination. - Heavy domestic responsibilities reduce women's earnings. - Women tend to be concentrated in low-wage occupations and industries. (Dual Labor Market and Gender Segregation- more women=less pay for occupation) - Work done by women is commonly considered less valuable than work done by men because it is viewed as involving fewer skills. (Gender Segregation and Human Capital Theory- pay reflects skill brought to job).

homosexuals

- People who prefer members of the same sex as sexual partners - process: different depending on if you are a gender conformist or not. Act vs. Identity "Coming Out" Questions from loved ones Subculture

Functionalist theory

- depicts sexuality in terms of its contribution to the stability of social institutions. - Norms that restrict sex to marriage encourage the formation of families. - The nuclear family is defined as the dominant social norm.

Gender Inequality: Marriage and Family

- gender roles - Divorce: it harms women financial and generally improves men's - parenthood and employment - "double shift" (woman works full time job and does mom job) - honor killings

Barrie Thorne

- gender segregation and interaction - 4th and 5th grade classroom observation: --> Children are actively engaged in the process of constructing gender roles. --> While schoolchildren tend to segregate themselves by gender, boundaries between boys and girls vary depending on social circumstances.

Gender Inequality: Education

- hidden curriculum - textbooks and Androcentrism (focused on men) - mentors - sexual assault - global: UNESCO institute of for Statistics

What are 4 criticisms of essentialism?

1) They ignore historical and cultural variability of gender and sexuality. 2) They generalize from the average, ignoring variations within gender groups. 3) No evidence directly supports their major claims. 4) Their explanations for gender differences ignore the role of power.

Essentialists vs. Social Constructionism and Gender Identity

Essentialism - gender differences reflect naturally evolved dispositions. Social constructionism - gender differences reflect the different social positions occupied by women and men.

Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology

Gender differences in behavior are based on biological differences that evolved to ensure the survival of the species.

Sociologists and Sex & Gender

Goffman, Garfinkel, Kessler and McKenna, and West and Zimmerman agree that there is no distinction between gender and one's sex as alluded to in other definitions. They are both merely constructs and being a man or a woman, biological sex, and being feminine or masculine, gender, are both learned through performance and have little significance outside of cultural meanings attached to them.

T/F: Men are the most homophobic.

Men who endorse the most traditional male roles also tend to be the most homophobic.

Sources of Gender Socialization

Parents- learn to be a girl or a boy, changing role of father Schools- teachers and gendered expectations Religion- fundamentalism and traditional gendered expectations Media- depict highly stereotyped gendered depictions, across racial lines too Sports- funding and women athletes Popular Culture- impact on self-conception

Functionalism

Patricia Yancey Martin: "Patriarchy as Social Institution" - study gender as a social institution - improve gender

gender

a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female; socially learned, what's expected of your sex- masculinity or femininity

The terms "masculine" and "feminine" refer to a person's what?

gender

symbolic interaction theory

- interpret sexual identity as learned - Culture and society shape sexual experiences. - Patterns of social approval & taboos make only some forms of sexuality permissible

According to national surveys, most U.S. parents support which type of sex education program in school?

abstinence plus sexual safety

sexual identity

the definition of oneself formed around one's sexual relationships

doing gender

Defense of Marriage Act, a 1996 U.S. law explicitly limiting the definition of "marriage" to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize or deny same-sex marriages performed in other states

What are the different types of sexuality?

heterosexuality homosexuality bisexuality asexually

biological determinism

the belief that men and women behave differently due to inherent sex differences related to their biology

double standard

the concept that prohibits premarital sexual intercourse for women but allows it for men

gendered institutions

the total pattern of gender relations that structure social institutions, including: - stereotypical expectations - interpersonal relationships - the different placement of men/women found in institutions - schools, founded on specific gender patterns

Functionalism

Parsons Sex Role Theory: - nuclear family, gender roles, family roles, stability in social systems, expressive and instrumental roles - Assumes that gender differences exist to fulfill necessary functions in society - Doesn't allow for the possibility that other structures could fulfill the same function or for the fact that structures change throughout history

heterosexuals

People who prefer members of the opposite sex as sexual partners...

The Macho Paradox: Why Some Men Hurt Women and How all Men Can Help by Jackson Katz

Violence against women is a men's issue!

Symbolic Interactionism

West and Zimmerman "Doing Gender equals doing power" - Gender Socialization: Occurs in ALL the agents of socialization - Gender language: They/Their, Y'all, ze/xe

Alternative Structures of Gender

Western Gender Constructs: - Hirjas - Two- Spirits or Berdaches - Travesti - Drag

sex

a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females

According to the symbolic interactionist perspective, we "do gender":

all of the time, in everything we do

queer theory

an interdisciplinary approach to sexuality studies that identifies Western society's rigid splitting of gender into male and female roles and questions its appropriateness; either/or thinking, challenges the idea that only one form of sexuality is normal

What are some LGBTQA social problems?

basic civil rights, housing, employment, military, marriage, psychological consequences (depression, suicide, etc.), health/medicine

Compared to most Western societies, U.S. sexual attitudes are considered _______.

conservative

Which of following is correct regarding the explanation for transgenderism?

currently, there is no definitive explanation for transgenderism

How do men fit in?

- Help advocate for gender equality - Individually benefit from dismantling gender inequality - Increased health and longevity

Margaret L. Anderson

"The Social Construction of Gender" - "referring to the many different processes by which the expectations associated with being a boy (and later a man) or being a girl (later a woman) are passed on through society." - Before birth, throughout childhood, agents of socialization - Society as cause of gender identity - Process and institutional

Kimmel- "Masculinity as Homophobia"

- "The secret of American manhood is: We are afraid of other men." - Fear of being seen as a "sissy" - Manhood- violence, fight, a front, power - Peers= gender police - Difference between power of group and feeling powerless as individuals (men)- but men creating this dynamic for men and powerlessness of women as a group and individuals. - Politics of exclusion- reinforces manliness

Social Change and Social Movements

- First Wave Feminism: 1840s,constitutional rights, voting rights, access to education - Second Wave Feminism: 1960s/1970s in Europe and N.A., raise awareness about sexism and patriarchy, legalizing abortion and birth control, attaining equal rights in political and economic realms, gaining sexual liberation, - Third Wave Feminism: 1990- present, inclusion, intersectionality, support of women's sexuality, diversity, sexuality, equality, distrust of older feminists and feminism itself, women define feminism

When did sex become gender?

- Second wave feminism - Benefits- disconnect from essentialism, behavior is learned - Consequences- the assumption that one's sex is their gender. Heteronormativity

Sex and Social Change

- Sexual norms, beliefs, and practices emerge as society changes. - Many changes associated with the sexual revolution have been changes in women's behaviors. - Essentially, the sexual revolution has narrowed the differences in the sexual experiences of men and women.

Gender Inequality: Work and Economy

- equal pay for equal work - cost of healthcare - employment: male and female dominated fields - workplace advancement - glass ceiling

What are some different types of feminist theorists?

- evolutionary feminists - social feminist - marxist feminists - liberal feminists - radical feminists - black feminists

Doing Gender

- gender is a performance, not volunteeristic, uses impression management, is routinized, and that peoples' gender is not only dependent on the proper performance of one's gender but on others' performance of their own perceived gender - doing gender equals doing power

Gender Inequality: Agents of Socialization/Social Institutions/ Agents of Social Control

- media: body, identity, violent masculinity, pornography, female objectification - military: availability of combat roles, sexual assault, harassment - criminal justice system: types of crimes and sentencing and gender expectations, murder and self defense - politics: equal representation of the sexes

Gender Inequality: Health/Medicine

- pregnancy as a disease - medical research - stigma and diagnosis

conflict theorists

- see sexuality as part of the power relations and economic inequality in society. - Power is the ability of one person or group to influence the behavior of another. - Sexual relations are linked to other forms of stratification.

What Western country is thought to be the most liberal in its attitudes toward sex?

Sweden

gender dysphoria

a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces "gender identity disorder"

Sociologists associate sexuality with _______.

a person's capacity for sexual feelings

sexuality

a person's capacity for sexual feelings; straight/gay

gender identity

a person's deeply held internal perception of his or her gender; self identification as a man or woman in a society, can differ from sex, medicalization of deviance; influences behaviors

sexual orientation

a person's physical, mental, emotional, and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or female)

intersected people

ambiguous genitals resulting from a hormone "imbalance" in the womb or some other cause.

transgender

an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex

homophobia

an extreme or irrational aversion to homosexuals; fear or hatred, encourages stricter conformity to traditional expectations, discourages "femininity" in men: empathy, emotion, and gentleness,

heterosexism

an ideology and a set of institutional practices that privilege heterosexuals and heterosexuality over other sexual orientations

Only women are affected by gender stratification.

false

The term _______ refers to society's concept of how men and women are expected to act and how they should behave.

gender role

To which theoretical perspective does the following statement most likely apply: Women continue to assume the responsibility in the household along with a paid occupation because it keeps the household running smoothly, i.e., at a state of balance?

functionalism

Conflict Theory

gender inequality is a result of exploitation situated around hierarchically arranged statuses based on sex/gender (Patriarchy) - Gender Inequality and Marxist Theory - Gender Inequality harms individual men, too; however, it benefits ALL men collectively

Research indicates that individuals are aware of their sexual orientation _______.

in early adolescence

gender socialization

men and women learn the expectations of their sex, affects one's self-concepts, social and political attitudes, perceptions about other people, and feelings about relationships with others, not everyone conforms to gender expectations

Which of the following is the best example of the role peers play as an agent of socialization for school-aged children?

peers tend to reinforce gender roles by criticizing and marginalizing those who behave outside of their assigned roles

feminism

social movement centered on highlighting and addressing gender inequality and dismantling patriarchy

social construction of sexuality

socially created definitions about the cultural appropriateness of sex-linked behavior which shape how people see and experience sexuality

gender role

society's concept on how men and women should behave

gender roles

the different roles assigned to statuses based on the sex of the person occupying those roles, taught through socialization