Chapter 13

Doge

An Italian military leader. It usually is applied to Venice and Genoa.

Giotto

A Florentine painter and architect, Giotto was one of the first great Renaissance artists. He led the way to the use of realism through his depiction of the human body and face. His greatest works are The Death of St. Francis and The Last Judgment, both frescoes.

Cinquecento

A term used to describe the Italian Renaissance in the 16th Century, including its styles of art, music, literature, and architecture.

Caterina Sforza

An Italian noblewoman who was the illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Sforza, who was the duke of Milan. In her life she held numerous titles in positions of political power. She was a forceful and militant woman and always tried to uphold the military defense of her states. She was involved in a plot to assassinate Pope Alexander VI and imprisoned for a year.

Petrarch

He was a poet and a humanist of the 14th century who named the revitalization of Greco-Roman culture the "Renaissance." He defined the period after the Germanic invasions of Rome in the 5th century until this "rebirth" the "Dark Ages." He was one of the first scholars after the Dark Ages to study Greek and Roman texts. Perhaps best known for his sonnets addressed to his idealized beloved Laura, Petrarch wrote 207 sonnets, and his style was copied for the next 300 years.

Vernacular

The language spoken by ordinary people, it replaced Latin in literature during the Renaissance. The most important people behind the change in Italy were Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio.

Condotteri

The mercenary soldier leaders of the professional, free companies contracted by the Italian city-states and the Papacy during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Montaigne

He was a French author who wrote the Essays, inventing the essay as a literary form. He is beloved by students around the world for this great achievement. He is known as the finest representative of early modern skepticism. He was a humanist who tried to learn more about himself. This self-knowledge and understanding teaches men and women how to live in accordance with nature and God. His tolerant mind was surprisingly civilized for a man of that time period, believing that no culture is greater than another. He was known for his rejection of dogma, his secularism, and his skepticism.

Dante Aligheri

He wrote the Divine Comedy, a trilogy describing Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. He is considered one of the fathers of the Italian language and one of the greatest poets in history.

Giorgio Vesari

His fame rests on his book, Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects (usually just referred to as Lives). The book is a series of biographies of the Renaissance artists, and remains an important source of information on their lives even today.

Girlamo Savonarola

An Italian Dominican priest and leader of Florence from 1494 until he was executed in 1498. He burned books, destroyed every piece of art he thought immoral, and preached against the moral corruption of much of the clergy. Pope Alexander VI demanded his arrest and execution in 1498 under heresy, sedition, and uttering prophecies. He was hanged and then a fire was lit beneath him and he was burned.

Miguel de Cervantes

Spanish writer, most famous for his book Don Quixote, which describes the whole fabric of 16th Century Spanish society. In the book, Don Quixote, the main character, lives in a world of dreams, traveling the countryside seeking military glory. The book is hailed as one of the best fiction books ever written.

Jan Van Eyck

(1395-1441) Considered to be one of the best painters in northern Europe during the 15th century. He was a very skilled oil painter and through the years made new effects with glazes and wet-on-wet techniques. He was paid very well and painted for private clients as well for the court.

Lorenzo Valla

(1406-1457) An Italian Humanist and educator. He proved the Donation of Constantine was a fraud and was not written in the supposed 4th century but in fact the 8th century proving it false. This application of scholarship showed that papal claims to secular authority over much of Europe were unfounded.

Court of Star Chamber

An English court of law made up of Privy Counselors and common-law judges that supplemented the activities of common-law and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. Court sessions were held in secret, accused persons could not see evidence against them, torture could be used to extract confessions, and a jury was not called. The court apparently got its name from the stars painted on the ceiling of the room. Over time it evolved into a political weapon and represented the misuse and abuse of power of the English monarchy and courts.

Reconquista

A period of almost 800 years from 710-1492, where Christian kingdoms took over the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims. It ended in 1492 when the kingdom of Granada was overtaken.

Ludovico Sforza

Duke of Milan and best known for commissioning the Last Supper (famous painting). He controlled Milan for 13 years, and supported the arts and culture.

Jacob Fugger

He was a German banker and son of the famous Mother Fugger. He often lent money to the rulers of Europe. His money helped to finance Charles V's war on Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire.

Lucrezia Borgia

Lucrezia was another of Pope Alexander VI's children. She is infamous for allegedly poisoning her enemies, having multiple affairs, and because of the mysterious deaths of her first two husbands. It was common knowledge that she was the daughter of the Pope, and her immoral behavior tarnished the already less than pristine image of the papacy.

Raphael Santi

An Italian painter and architect during the high renaissance, and was a master of art along with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. He made many famous paintings in his short life (37 years) including The School of Athens. He created this artwork in Rome, where he lived from 1508 to his death. He was invited to Rome by Pope Julius II.

Leonardo Da Vinci

An Italian polymath, painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. He was considered a genius in his time. Leonardo is most famous for his paintings, especially the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper, which are two of the most reproduced and most religious paintings of all time, respectively. He also constructed designs for submarines, tanks, and cranes.

Bottecelli

Great Florentine painter who is best known for La Primavera and Birth of Venus, Botticelli combined classical themes with realism.

Thomas Moore

He coined the term "utopia," which literally means "nowhere." His book, Utopia, describes an ideal socialistic society that was free from corruption, greed, and want. Children, as well as adults, received a good education and developed into nearly perfect people because they all lived by reason. More believed that the key to reform of the individual was the reform of social institutions. He was executed for speaking out against Henry VIII's divorce of his first wife, Catherine of Aragon.

Guttenburg

He invented the printing press, one of the most important inventions in human history. This device allowed the Renaissance to spread, made propaganda possible for rulers and the Church, and helped Martin Luther start the Protestant Reformation.

Erasmus

He was a Dutch author who wrote In Praise of Folly, a book that questions elaborate church rituals that are not mentioned in the Bible, the worship of saints, and the practice of monasticism. He believed that human life had value in and of itself, rather than merely as a preparation for the afterlife. His ideas were a major part of the foundation of Protestant beliefs.

Jerome Bosch

He was a Flemish painter who frequently used religious themes, but combined them with peasant folk legends and colorful imagery. Many of his paintings reflect the confusion and the anguish often associated with the lives of the peasantry at the conclusion of the Middle Ages.

Louis XI

He was a tough, cynical, and calculating ruler, continually pursuing more power. He preferred to be feared rather than loved in order to be secure. Scholars have given him credit for laying the foundation of French absolutism (centralized control of the country). His nickname was "The Spider" because of his behind the scenes plotting and intrigue.

Mirandola

He was an Italian Renaissance philosopher known for his Oration on the Dignity of Man. In his works, he expressed the opinion that there were no limits to what man could accomplish. The Oration has been called the "Manifesto of the Renaissance"

Hans Holbein the Younger

He was an outstanding portrait and religious painter of the Northern Renaissance. He infamously painted the portrait of Anne of Cleves, Henry VIII's fourth wife, which inaccurately depicted Anne's "beauty." Henry had never seen Anne before marrying her, seeing only Holbein's portrait. He was displeased when he laid eyes on her, saying, "Methinks she resembles a mare!"

Donatello

He was one of the early Renaissance sculptors, and one of the greatest. He is famous for the first nude statue of the Renaissance, the David, and for St. George. He revived the classical figure of the nude body with its balance and self-awareness. He was a member of the workshop of Lorenzo Ghiberti (Gates of Paradise), and worked for the Medici family from 1433 to 1443.

Pope Sixtus IV

He was pope from 1471 to 1484. He built the Vatican Library that Pope Nicholas V had planned, and he built the Sistine Chapel. In 1478, under pressure from Ferdinand of Aragon, Sixtus issued the papal bull that established the Spanish Inquisition. He also supported the Pazzi Conspiracy.

Benvenuto Cellini

A Florentine goldsmith and sculptor, Cellini is famed for The Autobiography. This book showed the emphasis of humanism on the individual. This new type of "self-absorbed" writing represented a sharp break from medieval times, in which people would not dare to write about themselves, but rather only the church.

Lefever d'Estaples

A French theologian and humanist, his ideas were a precursor of the Protestant movement in France. He was a prolific translator of the Bible. He completed a translation of the Old Testament in 1528. His completed translation of the Christian Bible in 1530 was the first in the French language.

Francois Rabelias

A major French renaissance writer, doctor and humanist during the early to mid 16th century. Somewhere between 1532 and 1552 he wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel, which on the surface is a story about the adventures of two giants. This book though, includes discussions of religion, politics, philosophy, and education. Rabelais believed that institutions molded individuals and he thought education was the key to a moral and healthy life.

Renaissance Man

A person who is highly educated and has developed skills in a vast array of subjects, culture, and sport. The people of higher class sought to do the things above during the renaissance, because of the new view of enjoying life on earth, so they would be the best they could be.

Pazzi Conspiracy

The Pazzi family were a Florentine family who tried to overthrow the Medici by murdering Lorenzo. The plot was even supported by Pope Sixtus IV. The assassination attempt was made during High Mass on April 26, 1478 at the Cathedral of Florence. Lorenzo's brother, Giuliano, was stabbed 19 times and killed by a gang that included a priest! Lorenzo managed to narrowly escape. The people of Florence rallied to the Medici and the conspirators were pursued. Many Pazzi were killed by the Florentine mobs, the rest were hunted down and killed by the Medici. The failure of the conspiracy led to a 2-year war between Florence and the papacy. It also increased Lorenzo's power because the people supported him.

Pope Clement VII

another member of the Medici family, Clement was pope from 1523 to 1534. He was not a good political leader. His refusal to annul the marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon led to the separation of England from the Catholic Church. England became a Protestant nation in the early 1530s. He mistakenly allied himself with France against Emperor Charles V, and this led to the invasion, pillage, and sack of Rome by Charles in 1527. Clement VII was arrested and held prisoner!

Cesare Borgia

he was the son of Pope Alexander VI and one of Alex's mistresses. He reasserted papal authority in the lands controlled by the Papal States. Cesare was the model ruler of Machiavelli's The Prince - ruthless and cunning.

Giovanni Boccaccio

he wrote the Decameron. This great work is one of the foundations of the Italian language, along with Petrarch's sonnets. The Decameron is set during the Black Death, and it is composed of 100 stories told over 10 days. It describes "ambitious merchants, lecherous friars, and cuckolded husbands, and portrays a frankly acquisitive, sensual, and worldly society." Many view the Decameron as a subtle condemnation of the Church, which was under attack for its failures to aid the people during the plague. Unlike Medieval literature, it does not show contempt for the world.

secularism

involves the basic concern with the material world instead of with the world of spirit. Renaissance humanists emphasized secularism over spiritualism.

Humanism

is the study of ancient Greek and Roman literature, grammar, poetry, rhetoric, and history. It emphasized the importance of education, secularism, and the worth of the individual. Humanists used the Latin classics to learn what they revealed about human nature, and also emphasized the contributions of human beings, including their achievements, interests, and capabilities. Northern humanists (or Christian humanists) were also interested in an ethical way of life, and used humanism as a means to improve the church. They believed that the best elements of classical and Christian cultures should be combined.

communes

Northern Italian cities comprised of free men seeking political and economic independence from local nobles.

Signori

Despots, or one-man rulers.

Ghiberti

Best-known for his sculptures and metalworking, Ghiberti first gained distinction when he won a competition in 1401 over Brunelleschi to complete the first set of bronze doors for the Baptistry, a great cathedral in Florence. These doors are known as the Gates of Paradise, and they depict scenes from the New Testament. The ten panels in the door took him 21 years to complete!

Isabella d'Este

Duchess of Mantua, and one of the leading women in the Italian Renaissance both culturally and politically. She sponsored such painters as Titian, Da Vinci, and Raphael. In 1491, she instructed her agent to secure a black girl between 4 and 8 years old "shapely and as black as possible," as she saw the child as a source of entertainment.

Materialism

During the Renaissance, much greater emotional attachment to earthly objects was common among the upper classes. Reality and worldly possessions began to supplant spiritualism and faith.

Pope Alexander VI

He was pope from 1492 to 1503. During this time, he asserted papal control over the Papal States through the military and political aid of his son, Cesare Borgia. He wrote the Treaty of Tordesillas, which enforced a line of demarcation between Portuguese and Spanish territories in the New World. Alexander was probably the most corrupt pope ever. He bribed the College of Cardinals to get elected. Known by his birth name Rodrigo Borgia before ascending to the papacy, he had four kids, including the infamous Cesare Borgia and Lucrezia Borgia. His enemies claimed that he had a child with his daughter, but, even though this would be pretty cool, there's no historical evidence to support this. He engaged in simony (buying and selling church positions) and allegedly had several older clergymen poisoned so he could sell their positions. He even commissioned an artist to paint his mistress as the Virgin Mary and hung the portrait above his bedchamber!

Pope Julius II

He was pope from 1503 to 1513. He is known as the "Warrior Pope." He used his power and influence to unite Italy against its foreign invaders, even leading armies into battle swinging a mace! As pope, he rebuilt St. Peter's Basilica, paid Michelangelo to create the dome, commissioned Michelangelo's Moses, forced Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and sponsored Raphael's frescoes in the Vatican.

Pope Leo X

He was pope from 1513 to 1521. Not known for his pity, Leo said, "now that we have gained the papacy, let us enjoy it!" He was the son of Lorenzo de Medici. As pope, he sponsored the arts and frequently hosted orgies at the Vatican. He is known for approving the sale of indulgences. His personal moral depravity led Martin Luther to revolt against the Catholic Church. He could have stopped the Protestant Reformation by making a few reforms, but he failed to do so. It took him two years to excommunicate Luther, and by that time it was too late. He was quite busy fighting France, siding with Spain and the HRE. He signed a treaty with France in 1516 known as the Concordat of Bologna. This agreement surrendered papal control of selection of French bishops and abbots in return for the bishop's and abbot's first year's income.

Baldassare Castiglione

He was the author of The Courtier, a book that sought to train the young man into the courtly ideal of a gentleman. According to Castiglione, the educated man of the upper class should have a broad background in academic subjects, being able to solve difficult mathematic equations, compose sonnets, write poetry well, wrestle, and ride a horse, for example. The book was incredibly influential, and it shaped the behavior of the upper class for centuries.

Cosimo de Medici

He was the first of the Medici family dynasty to informally control Florentine politics. He patronized the arts, liberally spending his family's fortune on literature, painting, architecture, and sculpting. He described a painter as "divine," implying that the artist shared in the powers of God. The term divine is usually applied to Michelangelo. Uncharacteristically for the times, his policies favored the lower and middle classes, which made him immensely popular.

Machiavelli

He wrote The Prince, a book about how to get, keep, and increase political power. The ruthless Cesare Borgia inspired Machiavelli. He argued that in a corrupt world a strong government was necessary. Since humans are by nature selfish, they must be strictly controlled. He believed that it was better for a ruler to be feared than loved, but it would be preferable to be both feared and loved. He focused on the way things actually are instead of how they should be.

individualism

Individualism stressed personality, uniqueness, genius, and full development of one's capabilities and talents. The quest for individual glory was a central component of Renaissance humanism.

Oligarchy

It refers to rule by a small group of people. In the case of the Renaissance, it is usually applied to the rule by the wealthy merchant class.

Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges

King Charles VII of France put this in place in 1438. It established French control over the papacy by allowing the King to appoint his own French bishops and to retain ecclesiastical revenues. This caused conflict between the popes and French kings that was unresolved until the Concordat of Bologna in 1516.

Lorenzo de Medici

Known as "Il Magnifico" ("The Magnificent"), Lorenzo continued his grandfather's sponsorship of the arts and policies on behalf of the lower and middle classes. Lorenzo also supported equality for women! (15th century!) During his time in power, capitalism began in Florence (private ownership of companies to make profit). He stopped the Pazzi Conspiracy and killed the entire Pazzi family in retaliation. At the end of his reign, the people turned against him, as a "holy man" named Savonarola convinced the people that Lorenzo' rule had led them to live excessively and against the spirit of Christianity.

Tiziano Vecelli

Known as Titian, he was an Italian painter and the most important member of the Venetian school. He was adept with portraits, landscapes, and religious subjects. His painting method of applying color had a profound influence on Italian painters of the renaissance and also with future western art. He worked mainly for Phillip II of Spain but was also a portrait-painter.

Brunelleschi

Many people credit him, along with Piero della Francesca, with the development of perspective in painting. Brunelleschi was an architect, sculptor, and an engineer. His best-known work is the dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore, the cathedral of Florence.

Renaissance

Meaning rebirth of Greco-Roman civilization, it was a time period from the 14th to 17th century in Europe. This time period was full of cultural movements because of wealth and advances in trade. People became more worried with living life and enjoying it, instead of only preparing for the afterlife. The renaissance period led to great advances in art and culture.

Pope Nicholas V

Nicholas V was pope from 1447-1455. During his time as pope, he issued a papal bull (order) confirming the right of the Portuguese to "subjugate Saracens, Pagans, and other enemies of Christ wherever they may be found." The wording of the bull allowed the Portuguese to justify the beginning of African slavery. On the good side, though, he did order the collection of over 900 manuscripts, which were eventually placed in the Vatican library planned by Nicholas.

Masiccio

One of the first great painters of the quattrocento, he is credited with creating the modern or "international" style. He was one of the first to use linear perspective, employing techniques such as the vanishing point. He is best known for The Tribute Money and Expulsion of Adam and Eve, and all of his works were religious in nature.

Michelangelo

One of the greatest artists in human history, Michelangelo was a major figure of the "High Renaissance" (the period where Rome dominated the art scene). Though he considered himself a sculptor and not a painter, his Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is considered one of the greatest works of art. His sculptures include David, Moses, and Pieta.

Charles V

Ruler of the Holy Roman Empire from 1519 to 1556. He was the son of Philip and Joanna, and grandson of Maximilian I. Upon the death of his father, Philip, Charles V inherited Burgundy and Castile-Leon. When his maternal grandfather Ferdinand II died, he also inherited Aragon. The control of Castile-Leon and Aragon at the same time made him the first de jure King of Spain. When Maximilian I died, he passed down the entire Hapsburg Dynasty. Much of his reign was focused on the Italian Wars against the French kings Francis I and Henry II. He is also famous for his opposition to the Protestant Reformation. During Charles' reign of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Princes limited his power. In 1521, as Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V called Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms, promising safe conduct if he would appear, but later banned his works and called for his arrest and punishment. He escaped, and Charles V was soon tied up in other concerns to deal with his arrest. Charles V saw himself as the defender of the Catholic faith, but failed the stop the Protestant Reformation.

New Monarchs

Some scholars refer to Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and Isabella as "new monarchs." They were 15th century monarchs who unified their nations and created stable, centralized governments. They accomplished this by emphasizing royal majesty and royal sovereignty, arguing that monarchy was the one institution that linked all classes and all people, and by ruthlessly suppressing opposition and rebellion, especially from the nobility.

Hapsburg-Valois Wars

These were a series of wars fought between Spain and its allies, including several Italian city-states and France between 1494 and 1559. The war began between Charles VIII of France, who quickly captured Naples, versus Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand of Aragon, and Isabella of Castille. The war ended with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), with the Spanish winning, but not an overwhelming victory. The wars are important because they kept the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain Charles V too busy fighting to pay full attention to stopping the Protestant Reformation. Also, since no total victor emerged from the war, Europe remained divided into separate nation states.

Quattrocento

This is a term that refers to the cultural and artistic achievements of the 1400s (15th century). It encompasses works of the High Middle Ages and Early Renaissance.

Papal Nephew

this term is applied to refer to the Pope's illegitimate children. Though the Pope is considered theologically and doctrinally perfect, he is still a man and capable of sin. The Catholic Church, however, asks its bishops, including the Pope, to abstain from sex, so children are obviously impossible. No wife/mate = no kids! Alas, the Renaissance Popes had lots of sex, but they couldn't openly acknowledge the existence of their own children. These children were supposedly their nephews, and many of them were given influential positions and high salaries. Though the masses were ignorant, they were not stupid, so these actions led to the moral discrediting of the Church.