chapter 13 (BUS111)

For all their ease and power, conventional search engines have three primary shortcomings:

(1) no human editors are involved to evaluate the quality or ranking of the search results; (2) various engines use different search techniques, so they can find different material or present similar results in different order; and (3) search engines can't reach all the content on some websites (this part of the internet is sometimes called the hidden internet or the deep web). Today's search engines are powerful tools, but they still have important limitations.

Make sure you know how each search tool works

you can get unpredictable results if you don't know how each tool operates.

To catch the latest news on a research topic

you can set up a variety of monitoring tools.

In contrast to surveys

you should primarily use open-ended questions in interviews.

Proper documentation of the sources

you use is an ethical responsibility—and an important resource for your readers.

Look for ways to distribute and archive

your research results so that others in your organization can make use of them

Zotero

Access and add to your Zotero research files with a variety of Zotero-compatible mobile apps.

Even when your data points are accurate and your analysis is technically correct, it's still possible to misinterpret or misrepresent the results. Many analysis errors require statistical expertise to identify and fix, but even without advanced skills, you can take these precautions:

Avoid faulty comparisons. Make sure you compare "apples to apples" and not "apples to oranges," as the saying goes. Don't push research results beyond their limits. The temptation to extract insights and assurances that aren't really there can be strong, particularly in situations of great uncertainty. For instance, if you're about to recommend that your company invest millions of dollars in developing a new product based on your consumer research, you're likely to "see" every possible justification in the data. Have a trusted colleague review your data to see whether he or she extracts the same conclusions. Steer clear of misleading presentations. Even valid data can be presented in invalid ways (such as with distorted graphs), and it's your responsibility to make sure the visual presentation of your data is accurate.

To make the best use of any search engine or database, keep the following points in mind:

Contrary to the illusion that search engine results can create, the internet is not a complete, well-organized warehouse of reliable information. THINK BEFORE YOU SEARCH. The neatly organized results you get from a search engine can create the illusion that the internet is an orderly warehouse of all the information in the universe, but the reality is far different. The internet is an incomplete, unorganized hodgepodge of millions of independent websites with information that ranges in value from priceless to worse than worthless. After you have identified what you need to know, spend a few moments thinking about where that information might be found, how it might be structured, and what terms various websites might use to describe it. PAY ATTENTION TO THE DETAILS. Details can make all the difference in a search. On Google, for example, you can filter results according to when items were published. This setting could drastically change your results, so make sure you haven't inadvertently limited your search by selecting a narrower time frame than you really want. DON'T LIMIT YOURSELF TO A REGULAR WEB SEARCH ENGINE. Google, Bing, and other search engines are remarkably powerful, but they can't access all online content. Moreover, the content you need might not even be online. REVIEW THE SEARCH AND DISPLAY OPTIONS CAREFULLY. When using advanced search or while searching in databases, pay close attention to whether you are searching in the title, author, subject, or document field and whether the search is limited to particular types of documents (such as full-text documents only). Each choice will return different results. And when the results are displayed, verify the presentation order; results might be sorted by date or by relevance. Review search and display options to make sure you understand how a search engine or data is searching for and displaying results. TRY VARIATIONS OF TERMS. If you can't find what you're looking for, try abbreviations (CEO, CPA), synonyms (man, male), related terms (child, adolescent, youth), different spellings (dialog, dialogue), singular and plural forms (woman, women), nouns and adjectives (manager, management, managerial), and open and compound forms (online, on line, on-line). ADJUST THE SCOPE OF YOUR SEARCH, IF NEEDED. If a search yields little or no information, broaden your search by specifying fewer terms. Conversely, if you're inundated with too many hits, use more terms to narrow your search. REVIEW THE FEATURES EACH SEARCH TOOL OFFERS. For example, some systems will show you similar search terms that other people have used, which can help you explore a topic by considering angles you haven't thought of. LOOK BEYOND THE FIRST FEW PAGES OF RESULTS. Don't assume that the highest-ranking results are the best sources for you. For example, materials that haven't been optimized for search engines won't rank as highly (meaning they might not show up in the first few pages of results), but they may be far better for your purposes. Be sure to look beyond the first few pages of search results; there is no guarantee that the best information for your project will appear early in the listings. Search technologies continue to evolve rapidly, so be on the lookout for new ways to find the information you need. Again, librarians can be your best ally here.

No matter where you're searching, it is your responsibility to separate quality information from biased material or unreliable junk to avoid tainting your results. Social media tools have complicated this challenge by making many new sources of information available. On the positive side, independent sources communicating through blogs, Twitter, wikis, user-generated content sites, and podcasting channels can provide valuable and unique insights, often from experts whose voices might never be heard otherwise. On the negative side, these nontraditional information sources often lack the editorial boards and fact-checkers commonly used in traditional publishing. You cannot assume that the information you find in blogs and other sources is accurate, objective, and current. Answer the following questions about each piece of material:

DOES THE SOURCE HAVE A REPUTATION FOR HONESTY AND RELIABILITY? Generally speaking, you can feel more comfortable using information from an established source that has a reputation for accuracy. For sources that are new or obscure, your safest bet is to corroborate anything you learn with information from several other sources. IS THE SOURCE POTENTIALLY BIASED? To interpret an organization's information, you need to know its point of view. For example, information about a company can be presented quite differently by a competitor, a union trying to organize the company's workforce, an investment research firm, and an environmental advocacy group. Information from a source with a distinct point of view isn't necessarily bad, of course, but knowing this context is always helpful and sometimes essential for interpreting the information correctly. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE MATERIAL? For instance, was the material designed to inform others of new research, advance a political position, or promote a product? Be sure to distinguish among advertising, advocating, and informing. And don't lower your guard just because an organization has a reassuring name like the American Institute for the Protection of All Things Good and Wonderful; many innocuously labeled groups advocate a particular line of political, social, or economic thinking. IS THE AUTHOR CREDIBLE? Is the author a professional journalist, a subject-matter expert, or merely someone with an opinion? What other work has this writer published? WHERE DID THE SOURCE GET ITS INFORMATION? Many sources of secondary information get their material from other secondary sources, removing you even further from the original data. CAN YOU VERIFY THE MATERIAL INDEPENDENTLY? Verification can uncover biases or mistakes, which is particularly important when the information goes beyond simple facts to include projections, interpretations, and estimates. If you can't verify critical information, let your audience know that. Let your readers know if you were unable to verify critical pieces of information obtained in your research. IS THE MATERIAL CURRENT AND COMPLETE? Make sure you are using the most current information available by checking the publication date of a source. Look for a "posted on" or "updated on" date with online material. If you can't find a date, don't assume the information is current without verifying it against another source. Also, make sure you have evaluated the entire source document, not just a part of it. ARE ALL CLAIMS SUPPORTED WITH EVIDENCE? Are opinions presented as facts? Does the writer make broad claims, such as "It is widely believed that . . ." without citing any surveys to support this? DOES THE INFORMATION MAKE SENSE? Finally, step back and ask whether the information makes sense. If that little voice in your head says something feels suspicious, pay attention to it. You probably won't have time to conduct a thorough background check on all your sources, so focus your efforts on the most important or most suspicious pieces of information.

Trends

Identify patterns that tend to repeat over time.

A research summary

Is an unbiased presentation of information regarding a topic without attempts to draw conclusions or make recommendations.

Checklist ✓ Conducting Effective Information Interviews

Learn about the person you will be interviewing. Formulate your main idea to ensure effective focus. Choose the duration, style, and organization of the interview. Select question types to elicit the specific information you want. Design each question carefully to collect useful answers. Limit the number of questions you ask. During the interview, be alert to new topics that you might want to probe. Consider recording the interview if the subject permits. Review your notes as soon as the interview ends.

Whether you're looking for information in printed materials or in databases, each type of resource serves a special function:

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS. Libraries offer access to a wide variety of popular magazines, general business magazines, trade journals(which provide information about specific professions and industries), and academic journals (which provide research-oriented articles from researchers and educators). Check the library's website or ask a librarian to find out which periodicals are available in print or digital formats. BUSINESS BOOKS. Although generally less timely than newspapers, periodicals, and online sources, business books provide in-depth coverage of a variety of business topics. DIRECTORIES. Thousands of directories are published in print and digital formats in the United States, and many include information for all kinds of professions, industries, and special-interest groups. ALMANACS. Almanacs are handy guides to factual and statistical information about countries, politics, the labor force, and so on. GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS AND STATISTICAL RESOURCES. Information on laws, court decisions, tax questions, regulatory issues, and other governmental concerns is often available in collections of government documents. In addition, state and federal government agencies compile data on many subjects that can be valuable to business researchers. Local, state, and federal government agencies publish a huge variety of information that is helpful to business researchers. DATABASES. Databases offer vast collections of searchable information, often in specific areas, such as business, law, science, technology, and education. Some of these are available only by institutional subscription, so the library may be your only way to gain access to them. Some libraries offer remote online access to some or all databases; for others, you need to visit in person.

You can often maximize the impact of secondary material in your own writing by paraphrasing it: restating the underlying ideas and information in your own words.10 Paraphrasing helps you maintain a consistent tone while using vocabulary that's familiar to your audience. Of course, you still need to credit the originator of the information, but you don't need quotation marks or indented paragraphs. Follow these tips to paraphrase effectively and ethically:11

Paraphrasing is expressing someone else's ideas in your own words. Read and analyze the source material until you are thoroughly familiar with its main idea and key points. Reread it as many times as needed to make sure you understand it. For longer passages or technical material, jot down notes in your own words to remind yourself of the key points. Without looking at the original, express its main idea and key points in your own words. You are writing from your memory of the material or from your notes here, not from the material itself. As you write your version, imagine that you are explaining it to someone else. If it helps with expressing the key ideas in your own words, consider changing the structure of the material (making sure it still flows logically and smoothly). For words or phrases that are commonly used in a particular field, you don't need to replace them with your own language. For example, "closing the books" is a common phrase in accounting, so you don't need to replace it. However, if the source used an original phrasing such as "slam the door on a disastrous quarter," you would need to rephrase this in your own language or quote it directly. Revise your draft for clarity and conciseness, and to make sure it is written in your voice. Document the source using a footnote or other citation method.

Your research tactics can affect the people you gather data and information from, and your research results can have wide-ranging effects inside and outside your company. To avoid ethical lapses, keep the following points in mind:

Take precautions to avoid ethical lapses in your research. DON'T FORCE A SPECIFIC OUTCOME BY SKEWING YOUR RESEARCH. Approach your research with an open mind and a willingness to accept whatever you find, even if it's not what you expect or want to see. RESPECT THE PRIVACY OF YOUR RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS. Privacy is a contentious issue today. Businesses believe they have a right to protect their confidential information from competitors, and consumers believe they have a right to protect their personal information from businesses. You must take care to respect the privacy of research participants. DOCUMENT SOURCES AND GIVE APPROPRIATE CREDIT. Whether you are using published documents, personal interviews, or company records, citing your sources not only is fair to the people who created and provided the information but also helps your audience members confirm your information or explore it in more detail, if they so choose. RESPECT THE INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND DIGITAL RIGHTS OF YOUR SOURCES. For example, your research might turn up a great new way to sell services online, but that doesn't mean you're free to implement that process. It might be protected by one of the many patents that have been granted in recent years for business process models. Don't automatically assume that you can use all the ideas and information you find online. DON'T EXTRACT MORE FROM YOUR SOURCES THAN THEY REALLY PROVIDE. In other words, don't succumb to the temptation to put words in a source's mouth. For instance, if an industry expert says that a sales increase is possible, don't quote him or her as saying that a sales increase is probable. DON'T MISREPRESENT WHO YOU ARE OR WHAT YOU INTEND TO DO WITH THE RESEARCH RESULTS. One classic example of ethical lapses in this area is known as sugging, short for selling under the guise of research.2 For example, a firm might seem to be conducting a survey when it is, in fact, using the questions to identify hot sales leads. Another unethical variation on sugging is following up a real survey with sales calls, using information that respondents shared in the belief that they were only participating in a survey.

Instapaper

The Instapaper mobile app lets you instantly save webpages and articles to read later, a convenient capability when you're exploring a topic and want to collect potential sources for review.

After all your planning, research, and processing, you're finally ready to apply your findings.

This step can involve summarizing your results, drawing conclusions based on those results, and making recommendations.

To develop an effective survey questionnaire, start with the information gaps you identified earlier and then break these points into specific questions, choosing an appropriate type of question for each point. The following guidelines will help you produce results that are both valid and reliable:

To develop an effective survey questionnaire, start with the information gaps you identified earlier and then break these points into specific questions. Provide clear instructions to make sure people can answer every question correctly. Provide clear instructions in questionnaires to prevent incorrect or ambiguous answers. Emphasize closed-ended questions, which are generally easier to answer than open-ended questions. Survey Monkey, for example, suggests having no more than two open-ended questions in a survey and putting them at the end so that you still capture all the earlier data if respondents abandon the survey when they reach the open-ended questions.7 Don't ask for information that people can't be expected to remember, such as how many times they went grocery shopping in the past year or how many online ads they saw this week.8 Keep the questionnaire short as short as possible, and let people know approximately how long it will take to complete. Unless you are offering some form of compensation, don't expect people to give you more than 5 or 10 minutes of their time. Avoid leading questions that could bias your survey. If you ask, "Do you prefer that we stay open in the evenings for customer convenience?" you'll get many "yes" answers simply because that sounds like a positive thing. Instead, ask, "What time of day do you normally do your shopping?" Avoid ambiguous descriptors such as often or frequently. Such terms mean different things to different people. Don't force people to answer every question. Doing so can increase the number of people who abandon a survey before completing it.9 Avoid compound questions such as "Do you read books and magazines?" People who read one but not the other won't know whether to answer yes or no. Before you conduct a survey, test it on a sample group first to identify questions that might be confusing or ambiguous.

The problem statement

defines the purpose of your research and guides your investigation.

In a focus group

a moderator guides a group discussion while researchers observe through a one-way mirror.

You usually won't have enough time or money to

answer every question that comes to mind, so setting priorities is a must.

Search engines

are online tools that index millions of webpages to identify those that contain specific words or phrases.

Avoid false starts and blind alleys

by familiarizing yourself with new subject areas before you start your research

Online research tools

can be used to search for existing information and to monitor for new information.

Metasearch engines

can save you time by using multiple search engines at once.

Researching without a plan

can waste time and produce flawed results.

Start your research by

conducting secondary research first.

Watch out for errors that might have

crept in during the collection and processing of data.

Primary research

efforts collect data and information for the first time rather than analyzing and reusing what other researchers have found.

Secondary research

efforts gather and analyze information that has been previously collected for other purposes.

A closed-ended question

has a predetermined set of answer choices.

Focus your research by

identifying the most important gaps in your information.

You may be able to interview people via email

if you can't reach them in person or over the phone.

correlation

indicates simultaneous changes in two variables that may not necessarily be causally related.

a recommendation

is a suggested course of action.

Summarizing

is similar to paraphrasing but distills the content into fewer words.

a mean

is the average of a group of data values

the median

is the midpoint with an equal number of values higher and lower

the mode

is the most common value in the set.

For a survey to produce valid results

it must be based on a representative sample of the population of interest.

An open-ended question

lets people provide whatever information they would like to provide.

Online databases give you access to some of the most important resources that search engines usually can't reach:

millions of newspaper, magazine, and journal articles.

Libraries

offer information and resources you can't find anywhere else—including research librarians who can show you how to plan and conduct effective searches.

Quoting a source means

reproducing the content exactly and indicating who originally created the information.

Causation

shows cause-and-effect relationships

Readers expect you to

support your business messages with solid research.

Think carefully about the sequence of questions so

that you can uncover layers of information.

After you have collected your research results

the next step is to convert them into usable information.

Evaluate your sources carefully

to avoid embarrassing and potentially damaging mistakes

Interviews are easy

to conduct but require careful planning to produce useful results.

Copyright protections may prevent you from

using some materials without obtaining permission from the copyright holder