Chapter 14

ecumenical council

(meaning "universal" - which it wasn't because most were Italians) Pope Julius II summoned it in 1512 to 1517 where the bishops and theologians strove earnestly to reform the church. Recommendation of higher standards for education of the clergy, eliminating bureaucratic corruption (on the pope), and suggested significant doctrinal reform.

Cardinal Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros

1436-1517 - in Spain would visit religious houses and encourage monks and friars to uphold their rules and constitutions and set high standards for the training of the clergy

Martin Luther

1483-1546 - a German Augustinian friar, launched the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. He articulated the widespread desire for reform of the Christian church and a deep yearning for salvation.

Italian officials holding benefices in England, Spain, and Germany provoked charges of:

absenteeism but also nationalistic resentment because revenue from those countries paid for the Italian priests' salaries

Examples of external religious observances in early sixteenth century

villagers in processions honoring saints middle class making pilgrimages to the the great shrines, Saint Peter's upper class willing their wealth to the church people of all social classes devoted an enormous amount of tiem and income to religious causes and foundations

Revolution of 1559

???

Sacraments - Catholics vs Lutherans

Lutherans have 2 sacraments, the Holy Communion and Baptism, Catholics have 7 sacraments which include Baptism, Reconciliation, Holy Communion, Confirmation, Matrimony, Holy Order, and Sacrament of the Sick

Millenarian Groups

According to Collins, many if not most Millenarian groups claim that the current society and its rulers are corrupt, unjust, or otherwise wrong. They therefore believe they will be destroyed soon by a powerful force. The harmful nature of the status quo is considered intractable without the anticipated dramatic change.[4] Some who held millenarian views were condemned in 1530 by the Lutherans

Life of Martin Luther

Born in Saxony second son of a copper miner - later turned mine owner father sent him to school - then University of Erfurt master's degree at 21 years old - with intent that he become a lawyer Luther joined the monastery in 1505 - after being frightened by a thunderstorm - ordained in 1507 - and earned a doctorate of theology 1512 until his death was professor of the Scriptures at the new University of Wittenberg valued his doctorate - which led to his professorship - which conferred his authority to teach - used his professorship as justification for his reforming work although he conscientiously observed religious routine, he did not trust that it did not lead to salvation - came to believe (from reading letters of Paul - that salvation comes through a simple faith in Christ.

Calvin - Luther

Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther.[65] Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other. However, a doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zurich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on the interpretation of the eucharist. Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp.

consubstantiation

Consubstantiation is a theological doctrine that (like Transubstantiation) attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in concrete metaphysical terms. It holds that during the sacrament, the fundamental "substance" of the body and blood of Christ are present alongside the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present. The doctrine of consubstantiation is often held in contrast to the doctrine of transubstantiation. The adjective consubstantial however describes a different theological concept. The doctrine of consubstantiation is erroneously identified as the eucharistic doctrine of Martin Luther,[1] who defined his doctrine as the sacramental union.[2] While some Lutherans believe in consubstantiation, others reject the concept because it substitutes what they believe to be the biblical doctrine with a philosophical construct and implies, in their view, a natural, local inclusion of the body and blood of Christ in the consecrated bread and wine of the eucharist.[3

Johann Eck

Dr. Johann Maier von Eck (13 November 1486 - 13 February 1543) was a German Scholastic theologian and defender of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation.

Predestination

However, God remained the judge and lawgiver of men. Predestination remained a vital belief in Calvinism. "We call predestination God's eternal decree, by which He determined what He willed to become of each man. For all are not created in equal condition; rather, eternal life is ordained for some, eternal damnation for others." (Institutes)

Calvin Theology - Impact

During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. As the Ottoman Empire did not force Muslim conversion on its conquered western territories, the ideas of reformation were quickly adopted on the occupied 2/3 of Hungary (the Habsburg-ruled 1/3 part of Hungary remained catholic). A Reformed Constitutional Synod was held in 1567 in Debrecen, the main hub of Hungarian Calvinism, where the Second Helvetic Confession was adopted as the official confession of Hungarian Calvinists. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea.[120] Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character.[121] Calvin is recognized as a Renewer of the Church in Lutheran churches, and as a saint in the Church of England, commemorated on 26 May.[122]

Erasmus

Dutch Northern humanist who kept distance from Luther but fought for reform within the church against abuses - He was middle of the road and both sides did not like him

Politics of Edward VI and Mary

Edward her half-brother who willed his sucession to Lady Jane Grey over his half sisters - will not recognized and Mary assended throne and threw Elizabeth in prison - when Mary died - Elizabeth assended the throne

Diet of Worms

Emperor Charles V commenced the Imperial Diet of Worms on 28 January 1521. Luther was summoned to renounce or reaffirm his views. When he appeared before the assembly on 16 April, Johann Eck, an assistant of the Archbishop of Trier (Richard von Greiffenklau zu Vollrads at that time), acted as spokesman for the emperor.

Martin Luther's conclusion

Faith is the means by which God sends humanity his grace, and is a free gift that can not be earned.

Francis I

Francis I (Francis Stephen; 8 December 1708 - 18 August 1765)[2] was Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke of Tuscany, though his wife effectively executed the real powers of those positions. With his wife, Maria Theresa, he was the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty

Frederick of Saxony

Frederick III of Saxony (17 January 1463 - 5 May 1525), also known as Frederick the Wise (German "Friedrich der Weise"), was Elector of Saxony (from the House of Wettin) from 1486 to his death. . He is notable as being one of the most powerful early defenders of Martin Luther,[1] Lutheranism and the Protestant Reformation, even though staying a Roman Catholic for all of his life. He protected Martin Luther from the Pope's enforcement of the edict by faking a highway attack on Luther's way back to Wittenberg, and hid him at Wartburg Castle following the Diet of Worms.

Zwingly

Huldrych (or Ulrich/Ulricht[a]) Zwingli[b] (1 January 1484 - 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Huldrych (or Ulrich/Ulricht[a]) Zwingli[b] (1 January 1484 - 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Zwingli's ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers. They met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. In 1531 Zwingli's alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons. The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zurich was badly prepared. Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47. His legacy lives on in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of the Reformed churches of today.

Calvin - Geneva

Geneva became the most influential city in the Protestant movement. It represented the city where religion had been most truly reformed and changed for the better. John Knox, the Scottish Protestant leader, called Geneva "the most perfect school of Christ." In July 1536, Calvin went to Geneva which became the centre of his work. He had been trying to go to Strasbourg but the spread of the Habsburg-Valois Wars made him detour to Geneva where a fiery Protestant called Guillaume Farel persuaded him to stay. Geneva was a French-speaking Swiss city. At the time of Calvin's arrival the city was struggling to achieve independence against two authorities who were trying to exercise control over Geneva. The first was the Dukes of Savoy and the second was the Bishop of Geneva. Geneva was not yet part of Switzerland (not until 1815) and the city allied with the cantons of Bern and Fribourg against Savoy. The bishop fled Geneva and Savoy was defeated in 1535. In May 1536 the city adopted religious reform: 1) monasteries were dissolved 2) Mass was abolished 3) Papal authority renounced But within Geneva itself a struggle took place between those who wanted mild reform (such as no compulsory church attendance) and those who demanded radical reform such as Calvin and Farel. The split was deeper than this however. The mild reformers were called the Libertines and they wanted magistrates firmly in control of the clergy. Calvin wanted a city controlled by the clergy - a theocracy. In 1538, the Libertines won the day and Farel and Calvin fled the city and went to Strasbourg. In September 1541 Calvin returned to Geneva after the Libertines had fallen from power in 1540. It took Calvin 14 years before he could fully impose his version of liturgy, doctrine, organisation of the church and moral behaviour.

Vasa

Gustav I of Sweden Gustav worked to raise taxes, end Feudalism and bring about a Swedish Reformation, replacing the prerogatives of local landowners, noblemen and clergy with centrally appointed governors and bishops. His 37-year rule, which was the longest of a mature Swedish king to that date (subsequently passed by Gustav V and current Carl XVI Gustav) saw a complete break with not only the Danish supremacy of the Union but also the Roman Catholic Church, whose assets were nationalised, with the Lutheran Church of Sweden established under his personal control. He became the first truly autocratic native Swedish sovereign and was a skilled propagandist and bureaucrat, with his main opponent, Christian's, infamous mark as the "tyrant king" and his alleged adventures during the liberation struggle still widespread to date.

Henry VIII

Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and his own establishment as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Yet he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, even after his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church

Elizabeth I

Henry VIII's illegitimate child - the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day.

The Holy Trinity

Holy Trinity most often refers to the Christian concept of God as three entities: the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.

Charles V

In 1519, Charles became Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria. From that point forward, his empire spanned nearly four million square kilometers across Europe, the Far East, and the Americas.[4] Charles is best known for his role in opposing the Protestant Reformation.[6] Several German princes abandoned the Catholic Church and formed the Schmalkaldic League in order to challenge Charles' authority with military force. Unwilling to allow the same religious wars to come to his other domains, Charles pushed for the convocation of the Council of Trent, which began the Counter-Reformation. The Society of Jesus was established by St. Ignatius of Loyola during Charles' reign in order to peacefully and intellectually combat Protestantism, and continental Spain was spared from religious conflict largely by Charles' nonviolent measures.

Henry VIII Parliament Acts

In 1534, the English Parliament passed the first Act, during the reign of King Henry VIII and a Second Supremacy Act 1559 was passed in 1559 during the reign of his daughter Queen Elizabeth 1. Both of these, the Acts , were passed with the same aim, to remove all authority from the Pope in Rome, and to establish officially, the position of the English Monarch, as the head of the Church of England, thereby supplanting the power of the Pope.

Institutes of Christian Religion

In 1536 the first edition of "Institutes of the Christian Religion" was published in Basle. It was revised on a number of occasions and the final edition was published in 1559. This book was a clear explanation of his religious beliefs. The later versions expanded on how his church should be organised. Institutes of the Christian Religion (Latin: Institutio Christianae religionis) is John Calvin's seminal work of Protestant systematic theology. Highly influential in the Western world[1] and still widely read by theological students today, it was published in Latin in 1536 (at the same time as the English King Henry VIII's Dissolution of the Monasteries) and in his native French in 1541, (And was a landmark in the elaboration of the French language in the 16th Century to become a national language) with the definitive editions appearing in 1559 (Latin) and in 1560 (French). The book was written as an introductory textbook on the Protestant faith for those with some previous knowledge of theology and covered a broad range of theological topics from the doctrines of church and sacraments to justification by faith alone and Christian liberty. It vigorously attacked the teachings of those Calvin considered unorthodox, particularly Roman Catholicism to which Calvin says he had been "strongly devoted" before his conversion to Protestantism. The Institutes is a highly regarded secondary reference for the system of doctrine adopted by the Reformed churches, usually called Calvinism.

Brethren of the Common Life

In Holland, in the late 14th century, a group of pious laypeople, lived in stark simplicity while carrying out the Gospel teaching of feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and visiting the sick. Taught in local schools to prepare candidates for the priesthood. Sought to make religion a personal, inner experience.

John Tetzel

John Tetzel is famous for arousing the ire of Martin Luther by his outrageous claims for the sale of Catholic indulgences.

German princes

Many rulers of Germany's various principalities functioned as autocratic rulers who recognized no other authority within their territories. Princes had the right to levy taxes and borrow money as they saw fit. The growing costs of administration and military upkeep impelled them to keep raising demands on their subjects.[9] The princes also worked to centralize power in the towns and estates.[10] Accordingly, princes tended to gain economically from the ruination of the lesser nobility, by acquiring their estates. This ignited the Knights' Revolt that occurred from 1522 through 1523 in the Rhineland. The revolt was "suppressed by both Catholic and Lutheran princes who were satisfied to cooperate against a common danger".[

Thomas More

Northern Humanist opposed Martin Luther and Reformation and Henry VIII

Petri

Olaf Perrson - major contributor to the Protestant Reformation in Sweden

Quakers

Quakers, or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. Friends' central doctrine is the priesthood of all believers,[1][2] a doctrine derived from a verse in the New Testament, 1 Peter 2:9.[3] Most Quakers view themselves as a Christian denomination. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional conservative Quaker understandings of Christianity. They based their message on the religious belief that "Christ has come to teach his people himself," stressing the importance of a direct relationship with God through Jesus Christ, and a direct religious belief in the universal priesthood of all believers.[7] They emphasized a personal and direct religious experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible.[8] Quakers focused their private life on developing behavior and speech reflecting emotional purity and the light of God.[9] In the past, Quakers were known for their use of thou as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism - the opposition to alcohol.

Confession of Augsburg

The Augsburg Confession, also known as the "Augustana" from its Latin name, Confessio Augustana, is the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Lutheran Reformation. The Augsburg Confession was written in both German and Latin and was presented by a number of German rulers and free-cities at the Diet of Augsburg on June 25, 1530. The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V had called on the Princes and Free Territories in Germany to explain their religious convictions in an attempt to restore religious and political unity in the Holy Roman Empire and rally support against the Turkish invasion. It is the fourth document contained in the Lutheran Book of Concord.

Henry VIII Reformation

The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church Church taxes were paid straight to Rome, and the Pope had final say over appointment of bishops. The split from Rome made the English monarch the Supreme Governor of the English church by Royal Supremacy, thereby making the Church of England the established church of the nation. Doctrinal and legal disputes now rested with the monarch, and the papacy was deprived of revenue and the final say on the appointment of bishops.

Swabian Revolts

The German Peasants' War or Great Peasants' Revolt (German: Deutscher Bauernkrieg) was a widespread popular revolt in the German-speaking areas of Central Europe, 1524-1525. It failed because of the intense opposition of the aristocracy, who slaughtered up to 100,000 of the 300,000 poorly armed peasants and farmers. The survivors were fined and achieved few if any of their goals. The war consisted, like the preceding Bundschuh movement and the Hussite Wars, of a series of both economic and religious revolts in which peasants and farmers, often supported by Protestant clergy, took the lead. The German Peasants' War was Europe's largest and most widespread popular uprising prior to the French Revolution of 1789. The fighting was at its height in the spring and summer of 1525. The war began with separate insurrections, beginning in the southwestern part of what is now Germany and neighboring Alsace, and spread in subsequent insurrections to the central and eastern areas of Germany and present-day Austria.[1] After the uprising in Germany was suppressed, it flared briefly in several Swiss Cantons. In mounting their insurrection, peasants faced insurmountable hurdles. The democratic nature of their movement left them without a command structure and they lacked artillery and cavalry. Most of them had little, if any, military experience. In combat they often turned and fled, and were massacred by their pursuers. The opposition had experienced military leaders, well-equipped and disciplined armies, and ample funding. The revolt incorporated some principles and rhetoric from the emerging Protestant Reformation, through which the peasants sought freedom and influence. Historians have interpreted the economic aspects of the German Peasants' War differently and social and cultural historians continue to disagree on its causes and nature.

Hapsburg - Valois Wars

The Italian Wars, often referred to as the Great Italian Wars or the Great Wars of Italy and sometimes as the Habsburg-Valois Wars or the Renaissance Wars, were a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, most of the major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) as well as the Ottoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals.

Colliquee of Marburg

The Marburg Colloquy was a meeting at Marburg Castle, Marburg, Hesse, Germany which attempted to solve a dispute between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli over the Real Presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper. It took place between 1 October and 4 October 1529. The leading Protestant reformers of the time attended at the behest of Philipp I of Hessen. Philipp's primary motivation for this conference was political; he wished to unite the Protestant states in political alliance, and to this end, religious harmony was an important consideration. Although the two prominent reformers, Luther and Zwingli, found a consensus on fourteen points, they kept differing on the last one pertaining to the Eucharist: Luther maintained that by Sacramental Union, the consecrated bread and wine in the Lord's Supper were united to the true body and blood of Christ for all communicants to eat and drink; whereas, Zwingli considered bread and wine only symbols of the body and blood of Christ. On this issue they parted without having reached an agreement. Underlying this disagreement was their theology of Christ. Luther believed that the human body of Christ was ubiquitous (present in all places) and so present in the bread and wine. This was possible because the attributes of God infused Christ's human nature. Luther emphasized the oneness of Christ's person. Zwingli, who emphasized the distinction of the natures, believed that while Christ in his deity was omnipresent, Christ's human body could only be present in one place, that is, at the right hand of the Father.[1] Because of the differences Luther initially refused to acknowledge Zwingli and his followers as Christians,[2] though following the colloquy the two Reformers showed relatively more mutual respect in their writings.[3] At the later Diet of Augsburg the Zwinglians and Lutherans again explored the same territory as that covered in the Marburg Colloquy, and presented separate statements which showed the differences in opinion.

Mennonites

The Mennonites are a Christian group based around the church communities of Anabaptist denominations named after Menno Simons (1496-1561) of Friesland (at that time, a part of the Holy Roman Empire). Through his writings, Simons articulated and formalized the teachings of earlier Swiss founders. The teachings of the Mennonites were founded on their belief in both the mission and ministry of Jesus Christ, which they held to with great conviction despite persecution by the various Roman Catholic and Protestant states. Rather than fight, the majority survived by fleeing to neighboring states where ruling families were tolerant of their radical belief in believer's baptism. Over the years, Mennonites have become known as one of the historic peace churches because of their commitment to pacifism (opposition to war and violence).[

Augsburg Settlement

The Peace of Augsburg, also called the Augsburg Settlement,[1] was a treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of Augsburg, now in present-day Bavaria, Germany. It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire.

Protestant Ethic

The Protestant work ethic (or the Puritan work ethic) is a concept in theology, sociology, economics and history which emphasizes hard work, frugality and diligence as a constant display of a person's salvation in the Christian faith, in contrast to the focus upon religious attendance, confession, and ceremonial sacrament in the Catholic tradition.

Twelve Articles

The Twelve Articles demanded the right for communities to elect and depose clergymen and demanded the utilization of the "great tithe" for public purposes after subtraction of a reasonable pastor's salary.[41] (The "great tithe" was assessed by the Catholic Church against the peasant's wheat crop and the peasant's vine crops. The great tithe often amounted to more than 10% of the peasant's income.[42]) The Twelve Articles also demanded the abolition of the "small tithe" which was assessed against the peasant's other crops. Other demands of the Twelve Articles included the abolition of serfdom, death tolls, and the exclusion from fishing and hunting rights; restoration of the forests, pastures, and privileges withdrawn from the community and individual peasants by the nobility; and a restriction on excessive statute labor, taxes and rents. Finally, the Twelve Articles demanded an end to arbitrary justice and administration.[41]

Structure of the Anglican Church

The governing structure of the church is based on the traditional parishes which are gathered into dioceses presided over by a bishop. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the Primate of All England and a focus of unity for the whole Anglican Communion worldwide. The General Synod is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, clergy and laity. Although it is only the established church in England, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members.

Anabaptist beliefs

The name Anabaptist is derived from the Greek term anabaptista, or "one who baptizes over again." This name was given them by their enemies in reference to the practice of "re-baptizing" converts who "already had been baptized" (or sprinkled) as infants.[5] Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected baptism of infants. The early members of this movement abhorred the name "Anabaptist", claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a "re-baptism" but in fact the first baptism for them.

John Calvin

all the colleges that Calvin attended had Humanistic leanings and it was only natural that this influenced Calvin. He became an admirer of Erasmus. At some point between 1528 and 1533 he experienced a "sudden conversion" and grasped Protestantism. "God subdued my soul to docility by a sudden conversion" was how Calvin described this experience. Many historians look on the time from 1531 to 1533 as being the key time as this was the first time that he had been free from his father's 'shackles'. Calvin was highly critical of the abuses in the French Catholic church but he never doubted that he was God's chosen instrument in the spiritual regeneration of the world.

Anabaptists

are Christians of the Radical Reformation of 16th-century Europe, considered Protestant by some, although some consider Anabaptism to be a distinct movement from Protestantism.[3][page needed][4] The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the movement.

The Imitation of Christ

by Thomas a Kempis, who urged Christians to take Christ as their model and seek perfection in a simple way of life.

critics of the church concentrated on three disorders

clerical immortality clerical ignorance clerical pluralism

Transubstantiation

is the doctrine that the substance of the bread and the wine used in the sacrament of the Eucharist is changed, not merely as by a sign or a figure, but also in reality,[1][2] into the substance of the Body and the Blood of Jesus,[3] while all that is accessible to the senses (the outward appearances - species[4][5][6] in Latin) remains unchanged.[7][8] What remains unaltered is also referred to as the "accidents" of the bread and wine,[9] but this term is not used in the official definition of the doctrine by the Council of Trent

define absenteeism and pluralism in the church

many higher ecclesiastics held several offices and hired lower level priests to fulfill their duties - many did not ever step foot into their own diocese or cathedral

education of priests in the 16th century

many priests barely able to read and write not as educated as the educated laity

clerical immortality included:

neglecting celibacy drunkenness gambling indulgence in fancy clothes