Chapter 16

Kepler

First, largely through observations of the planet Mars, he demonstrated that the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular. Second, he dem onstrated that the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits. W

Joseph II's enlightened policies

This measure was violently rejected not only by the nobility but also by the peasants it was intended to help, because they lacked the necessary cash.

Copernican hypothesis

the idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe; this had enormous scientific and religious implications.

Copernican hypothesis Protestant vs. Catholics

A few Protestant scholars be came avid Copernicans, while others accepted some elements of his criticism of Ptolemy, but firmly re jected the notion that the earth moved, a doctrine that contradicted the literal reading of some passages of the Bible. Among Catholics, Copernicus's ideas drew little attention prior to 1600. Because the Catholic Church had never held to literal interpretations of the Bible, it did not officially declare the Copernican hypothesis false until 1616.

Natural Philosophy

An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today.

Maria Theresa Enlightened policies

First, she initiated church reform, with measures aimed at limiting the papacy's influence, eliminating many religious holidays, and reducing the number of monas teries. Second, a whole series of administrative renova tions strengthened the central bureaucracy, smoothed out some provincial differences, and revamped the tax system, taxing even the lands of nobles, previously ex empt from taxation. Third, the government sought to improve the lot of the agricultural population, cau tiously reducing the power of lords over their heredi tary serfs and their partially free peasant tenants.

Leopold II's actions after Joseph

His brother Leopold II (r. 1790-1792) canceled Joseph's radical edicts in order to reestablish order. Peasants once again were required to do forced labor for their lords.

Joseph II's conversion of peasant labor obligations to cash payments

Joseph abolished serfdom in 1781, and in 1789 he decreed that peasants could pay landlords in cash rather than through labor on their land. This measure was violently rejected not only by the nobility but also by the peasants it was intended to help, because they lacked the necessary cash.