Chapter 16.1 New Powers Emerge

Blockade

A military blockade is an act of war. Ships, troops, or aircraft may be used to prevent people, supplies, or other materials from leaving or entering an enemy country. Ships, aircraft, or vehicles attempting to slip through the blockade risk being shot down, sunk, or stopped and boarded. A naval blockade involves a fleet of ships surrounding an enemy port or coastline. A land blockade involves troops and military vehicles, and an air blockade uses aircraft and troops. Military blockades often mix these three.

Superpower

A superpower is a nation that can wield strong influence over other nations and international affairs. Its power may be economic, military, or both. The word became commonly used after World War II and particularly with the advent of the Cold War. The United States and the Soviet Union were both referred to as superpowers. Although many argued that the United States was the more powerful of the two, it could not make a move in world affairs without considering what the Soviet reaction would be. The same applied to the Soviet Union. Both countries posed threats to the dominance of the other.

Korean War

After World War II, Korea had no government in place. The country was divided along the 38th parallel. Soviet forces occupied the north, while U.S. forces were stationed in the south. By 1948, the two halves were still unable to agree on a unified government. The United Nations proposed creating a separate nation of South Korea, and so the Republic of Korea came into being. Communist forces were gaining strength in the north supported by assistance from the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. Both communist countries opposed the move to create a separate nation. In 1950, with the promise of support from Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin, North Korean forces pushed across the 38th parallel, launching an invasion of South Korea.

Containment

Containment is a form of foreign policy where the goal is to contain a hostile power or to stop it from spreading its ideology. In the years immediately after World War II, the United States feared the spread of communism. In 1947, the nation adopted a policy of containment. This was not a form of aggressive foreign policy. It was a more passive management of communism. Its hope was that limiting the expansion of communism would cause it to wane and die out naturally. The Truman Doctrine reflected this idea, by offering aid to Greece and Turkey so they would not collapse and seek Soviet support. U.S. involvement in the Korean War was also an attempt at containment, to stop the spread of communism into South Korea and beyond.

Yalta Conference

From February 4 to 11, 1945, President Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin met in Yalta, a resort town in southern Ukraine. They discussed how to defeat Nazi Germany and Japan and made postwar plans. The leaders of the three major Allied Powers decided that once the war was over, there should be an international court to try those suspected of war crimes. They also agreed that their obligations to the German people were minimal.

Harry S. Truman

Harry S. Truman, the 33rd president of the United States, grew up on his family's farm in Missouri. He served as a U.S. National Guard captain in France during World War I. After he returned to the United States and his attempts to start a business failed, he entered local politics. He served one term as county judge and two more as presiding judge for the county. He was then elected to the U.S. Senate in 1934 and reelected in 1940. In 1944, he was chosen to be Franklin Roosevelt's running mate in the president's bid for his fourth term. Roosevelt died 82 days after his inauguration, and Harry Truman became president.

Apollo Program

In 1961, President Kennedy informed Congress of his goal of putting a man on the moon before the end of the decade. The Apollo Program, under the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), was dedicated to that objective. The Apollo Program suffered a major setback in January 1967, when Apollo 1 caught fire during a prelaunch rehearsal. All three astronauts on board were killed. As a result, the following test flights were unmanned until Apollo 7. In 1968, Apollo 8 made significant progress toward a lunar landing when it orbited the moon.

Israel

Israel is a country in the Middle East along the eastern Mediterranean Sea. It borders the countries of Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. The capital of Israel is Jerusalem. Israel is a small country with a variety of topographical features, including a long coastal plain, highlands in the north and center, and the Negev desert in the south. Along its eastern border from north to south lies the northern end of the Great Rift Valley.

North Korea

North Korea, known formally as the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, is located on the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. The peninsula extends from the Asian mainland between the Sea of Japan and the Yellow Sea. North Korea is bordered on the north by Russia and China and on the south by South Korea. With an area of more than 120,000 square miles, North Korea occupies about 55 percent of the Korean Peninsula. Only around 22 percent of its land is suitable for farming, a contributing factor to the nation's periodic famines.

U-2 Incident

On May 1, 1960, Francis Gary Powers, a pilot from the Central Intelligence Agency, was detected by Soviet radar while flying a U-2 plane over the Soviet Union. U-2 planes had been flying spy missions since 1956 to gather intelligence and take photographs behind the Iron Curtain. They were able to record ground images from great heights. The U-2 Incident proved that Soviet radar technology was becoming more advanced.

Sputnik

On October 4, 1957, Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite was launched by the Soviet Union. The metal, beach ball—sized object took about 98 minutes to orbit the earth. Its successful launch marked the beginning of the Space Race. Sputnik 1 caught the United States by surprise, because they did not realize how quickly Russian space technology was advancing. In November of the same year, Sputnik II carried a dog into orbit. There were another eight Sputnik launches to come, all testing life support in space and reentry systems.

Military-industrial complex

President Eisenhower first used the phrase in his 1961 farewell address. He was concerned that the military-industrial complex might unduly influence Congress, for instance, regarding the nuclear arms race. Eisenhower worried that military concerns might one day overrule democracy. Despite his fears, the strength of the U.S. military-industrial complex made it possible for the nation to play a defining role in the Space Race. It also promoted the economic strength needed to endure the Cold War.

Socialism

Socialism is a political and economic system in which most property and resources, such as factories or farms, are publicly owned or controlled. Either the government or groups of workers control these resources, but in either case, the profits are divided among all people. Another principle of socialism is that the government provides people with certain benefits, which can include health care, housing, education, or guaranteed employment.

South Korea

South Korea is one of the two countries that are located on the Korean Peninsula. The other country on the peninsula is North Korea. Until the 1940s, the two Koreas were united. At that time, the communist north, aided by the Soviet Union, fought a war against the democratic south, which was aided by the United States. Neither side won the war, so they remained two separate nations.

Space Race

The 1957 launch of Sputnik 1, the Soviet satellite, took the United States by surprise and set a "Space Race" in motion. Both nations were competing to put a man into space and, in doing so, prove their superior scientific and military capabilities. Within a year of Sputnik, the United States had launched its own satellite, Explorer 1, and had created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

Berlin Wall

The Berlin Wall—erected in 1961 by the Soviets to separate East and West Berlin—symbolized the tensions of the Cold War. Following World War II and the defeat of Germany, Allied Forces occupied Berlin, the German capital. The Allies divided Berlin into zones. As tensions increased between the Western powers and the Soviet Union, they divided Germany into two countries. The West backed West Germany, the Federal Republic of Germany. The Soviet Union put a Communist regime in place in East Germany, called the German Democratic Republic. However, the Western powers still occupied a portion of Berlin, which had become part of East Germany.

Central Intelligence Agency

The Central Intelligence Agency was created in 1947 when President Truman signed the National Security Act. The agency was preceded by the Office of Strategic Services, which had been established to spy on enemy powers during World War II. The primary purpose of the Central Intelligence Agency is to gather foreign intelligence information for the U.S. government. It is a part of the National Security Council.

Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan was an economic recovery program put into place by the United States to help European nations rebuild after World War II. By strengthening their postwar societies, the United States hoped to prevent the spread of communism. Also known as the European Recovery Program, the Marshall Plan was named after U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall. Marshall was appointed by President Truman to oversee the project. At first, the plan also offered help to countries occupied by communist rule, but the Soviet Union pulled out of the plan.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an alliance of nations from North America and Europe. It was founded in 1949 to counter the threat from the armies of the Soviet Union and later the Warsaw Pact, which was a treaty organization made up of Eastern European allies of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union had stationed huge armies in Eastern Europe. NATO members agreed to consider an attack against any NATO member country as an attack against all of them. They would come to one another's defense. The Charter of the United Nations affirms the right of individual or collective self-defense.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union, was an empire established in 1917 after the Russian Revolution. Stretching from the Baltic and Black Seas to the Pacific Ocean, the USSR was the largest country in the world. Over time the USSR gained a total of 15 republics under its realm: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia (current-day Belarus), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kirgizia (current-day Kyrgyzstan), Latvia, Lithuania, Moldavia (current-day Moldova), Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. The capital of the Soviet Union was Moscow.

United Nations (UN)

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization of countries dedicated to the security and well-being of all people. The UN was established in 1945. It replaced The League of Nations, which was established in 1919 as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I. The organization is headquartered in New York City. However, it has offices around the world. The UN charter lays out its purpose: to prevent war, promote human rights, enforce international law, advance social progress, and raise standards of living. The UN also maintains peacekeeping forces made up of soldiers from member nations. These forces intervene in conflicts around the world to mediate cease-fire agreements and protect refugees fleeing war.

United Nations Security Council

The United Nations Security Council is one of the core parts of the United Nations. As the name suggests, its primary goal is maintaining international peace. The concept of a Security Council was part of the original United Nations planning discussions at Dumbarton Oaks. It was decided that there would be five permanent seats on the Council, and six others. These six would be chosen from members of the General Assembly, with each seat being held for two years. In 1965, the number of rotating members was increased to 10. The five permanent seats are held by China, the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union (now called Russia). These five hold veto powers. Any country may bring an issue to the Security Council, and if peaceful dealings fail, the council has the power to involve military action.

Warsaw Pact

The Warsaw Pact was an Eastern European defense alliance created in 1955. It included the Soviet Union, which would later become the Russian Federation, as well as Albania, Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and what was then Czechoslovakia. The full title of the alliance was the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance.

iron curtain

The term "iron curtain" refers to a political, military, and cultural barrier that once divided much of the world. On one side was the Soviet Union—along with its dependent states and allies—and on the other side were non-Communist areas referred to as the West. The iron curtain developed after World War II and prevented meaningful contact between the two groups.