Chapter 17 endocrine system part two

What is diabetes mellitus?

Distribution of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism due to hyposecretion or inaction of insulin

What is hormonal stimuli?

Example hypothalamic hormone, TRH, stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete TSH, That stimulates the thyroid to release thyroid hormones

Third stage of GAS?

Exhaustion. When stress continues for several months, and fat reserves are gone, homeostasis is overwhelmed. Body realized primarily on cannibalizing proteins for energy, resulting in muscle wasting. Loss of glucose homeostasis if adrenal cortex stops producing glucocorticoids. Aldosterone continues to promote water retention that leads to hypertension eventually death can occur

There are two forms of diabetes type one diabetes which is 5% to 10% of the cases in the United States. What are the causes?

Genetic susceptibility, followed by infection with certain viruses, and then antibodies mount autoimmune attack on pancreatic beta cells, resulting in no/too low insulin production. Puts patients at risk for diabetic retinopathy/neuropathy, heart disease and stroke

What do prostaglandins do?

Have several affects, including fever/pain promotion.

And today's modern medicine stage III does not entirely occur because interventions typically intercede however the significant health problems are absolutely stress related what are they?

Heart disease, asthma, obesity, diabetes, headaches, depression and anxiety, G.I. problems, accelerated aging, premature death

What are the risk factors and the treatment for type two diabetes?

Heredity, age of 40+, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and ethnicity (Native American, Hispanic, and Asian) treatment is attain and maintain a healthy weight with dietary management and physical activity why is this? Loss of muscle mass causes difficulty with regulation of glycemia adipose signals interfere with glucose uptake in most cells and if necessary, also use glycemia lowering oral medications and, if still not enough, use insulin

What happens once the hormone which is its target cell?

Hormones stimulate only those cells that have receptors for them specifically. Where are those receptors located? On the plasma membrane in the cytoplasm or in the nuclear us notice hydrophobic steroid and thyroid hormones enter the cell and act directly on jeans but the metabolic affect takes time where is hydrophilic peptides and catecholamines act more quickly, binding to surface receptors and activate intracellular processes, working through second messengers like cAMP

What are signal amplification?

How one hormone molecule can activate 1 million enzyme molecules.

How are hormones transported to their target cells?

In the blood but monoamines and peptides Are hydrophilic, so they mix easily with blood plasma these are called unbound (three) hormones. Steroids and thyroid hormone are hydrophobic, so they must buy in to hydrophilic transport proteins they're called bound hormones.

Type two diabetes is 90% to 95% of diabetics characterized by pancreatic beta cells still producing some insulin, yet hyper glycemia persists with two possible causes what are they?

Insulin is defective and can't act on target cells. Target cells are defective and can't recognize insulin insulin resistance

The beta cells of the pancreatic islets Secrete the hormone insulin. When secreted during and after meals or when glucose and amino acid blood levels are rising what's the effect?

Insulin stimulates cells to absorb nutrients and store or metabolize them, lowering blood glucose levels. Insulin also promotes synthesis of glycogen, fat, and proteins that's promoting storage of excess nutrients. Antagonizes glucagon, so it suppresses use of already stored fuels. Insulin insufficiency or an action is because of diabetes mellitus

What is the treatment for type one diabetes?

Insulin, via injections, insulin pump, or dry insulin in Hailer. Monitoring blood glucose levels and healthful dietary intake

What hormones are secreted by skin?

Keratinocytes convert a cholesterol like steroid into the hormone cholecalciferol, Leads to vitamin D3 synthesis, using UV from sun

The Delta cells of the pancreatic Islets secret the hormone, somatostatin. When it is released along with insulin during and after meals what are the effect?

Limit secretion of stomach acid, thus slowing the emptying of the stomach, results reduction of blood glucose spikes and prolongs absorption of nutrients, ask concurrently with the beta cell hormone Amylin, that has similar function to somatosatin

Peptides are what?

Long chains or rings of amino acids synthesize to be a transcription/translation like other proteins

What do leukotrienes do?

Mediate allergic and inflammatory reactions

What is the first stage alarm reaction?

Mediated by norepinephrine from the sympathetic nervous system and epinephrine and the adrenal medulla. Perhaps body for fighter flight. Stored glycogen is consumed, angiotensin helps raise blood pressure, aldosterone Promotes sodium and water conservation

What is neural stimuli?

Nerve fibers supply some endocrine glands and elicit The release of their hormones example sympathetic stimulation of adrenal Medela in response to stress

What kind of stimuli influence hormone secretion?

Neural stimuli, hormonal stimuli, humoral stimuli

Signs and symptoms of diabetes mellitus?

Polyuria (excess urine output) Polydipsia (intense thirst) Polyphagia (hunger) Revealed by hyperglycemia (elevated blood glucose, glucosuria (glucose in urine), and ketonuria (ketones in urine) Polyuria (with thirst and dehydration) occurs bc kidneys exhibit a transport maximum-limit to how fast the glue ice transporters can work to reabsorb Excess glucose enters urine and water fallows it

What do thrombocytes do?

Produced by platelets stimulate clotting/basal constriction

What is down regulation?

Reduces number of receptors, resulting in cell being less sensitive to Hormel example insulin receptors can be down regulated and type two diabetes occurs with long-term exposure to high hormone concentrations like hormone therapy

What hormones are secreted by the kidneys?

Secrete most of the erythropoietin, Ask on red bone marrow to increase red blood cell production

What hormones or secreted by the heart?

Secretes atrial natriuretic proteins (and P) then ask on kidneys to lower blood volume and pressure by promoting sodium and water loss

Monoamines Are what?

Small molecules made from amino acids and defined by amino groups synthesize wherever they are needed; melatonin is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan; and all other monoamines synthesized from tyrosine

Hormones: what are their chemical classes, where/how are they synthesized? There are three hormone classes what are they?

Steroids, monoamines, peptides

How does the body adapts stress through the endocrine and sympathetic nervous system's?

Stress equals any situation that upsets homeostasis and threatens one's physical or emotional well-being example injury, surgery, infection, intestine exercise, pain, grief, depression, anger, anxiety, guilt, etc.

When cells are sensitive to less than one hormone, and what ways do the hormones interact?

Synergistic effect - multiple hormones act together for greater effect than alone example FSH and testosterone on sperm production

What is up regulation?

Target cell Increases number of hormone receptors, becoming more sensitive to hormone example in Lake pregnancy, uterus produces oxytocin receptors to prep for labor

The testis and their endocrine function. Testes secret to Maine Endocrine hormones what are they?

Testosterone and inhibin

How does testosterone work?

The anterior pituitary hormone, LH, acts upon the interstitial cell to secrete testosterone then testosterone ask upon germ cells to support sperm production, secondary sex characteristics and libido

What hormones are secreted by the liver?

The liver secretes several hormones, one of which is a form of angiotensin, A vasoconstrictor that increases blood pressure

What is humoral stimuli?

These are blood-borne stimuli example rising blood glucose stimulates release of insulin

What is the pancreatic Endocrine tissue?

They pancreatic islets

What hormones are secreted by the stomach and intestines?

They secrete several associated with digestion and appetite including: Cholecystokinin - Acts on gallbladder to release pile Gastrin - acts on stomach to increase acid secretion Ghrelin and leptin - secreted by stomach and adipose tissue

What happens to circulating hormones once they've done their work?

They're taking up for a degradation by liver or kidney

Target cells can adjust their sensitivity to hormones by doing what?

Changing the number of receptors for it

What is stress response or general adoption to syndrome (GAS)?

Consistent way the body reacts to stress; typically involves elevated levels of epinephrine and glucocorticoids especially cortisol this occurs in three stages the first stage is alarm reaction the second stage is stage of resistance and the third is stage of exhaustion

Steroids or what?

Derived from cholesterol, synthesized in gonads and adrenal cortex

What is the most prevalent metabolic disease worldwide?

Diabetes mellitus (DM)

What do prostaclyclins do?

Inhibit blood clotting/vasoconstriction

What diffuse short distances to nearby cells?

Paracrines

Second stage of resistance?

After a few hours, glycogen reverse is gone, but brain still needs glucose, so alternate fuels for metabolism are needed. Hypothalamus secretes corticotropin releasing hormones, pituitary secretes ACTH that stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and other glucocorticoids. Cortisol promotes breakdown of fat and protein into glycerol, fatty acids, and amino acids, for gluconeogenesis. Adverse effect of excessive cortisol is suppressed sex hormones and immune function. Can also be thought of as chronic stress; signs are irritability, frustration, poor concentration etc. If this stage continues to long without pauses to offset The effects of stress, can lead to next stage.

What are the main islet cell types?

Alpha, beta, and delta cells that's create unique hormones with unique effects

Because hormones are extremely potent chemicals a single molecule can trigger the production of mini molecules of metabolic product due to what?

Amplification at each step. Thus, blood hormone concentrations comparatively very low, and target sells don't need a lot of hormone receptors

The alpha cells of the pancreatic islets Secrete the hormone glucagon. When secreted between meals or when blood glucose concentration Falls to low what are the effects?

And liver, glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis (glucose synthesis) and glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose) both resulting in the release of glucose into the circulation raising blood glucose levels. And adipose tissue, stimulates fat cannibalism and release of free fatty acids, glucagon also released in response to rising amino acid levels in blood after high-protein meal

Permissive effects- one hormone and hands of the target organs response to a second, later hormone example estrogen prepares you dress for action of progesterone

Antagonistic effects - One hormone opposes the action of another example in the liver, insulin lowers blood glucose and glycogen raises it

How does inhibin work?

Anterior pituitary hormone, FSH, acts upon sustentacular cells to help initiate sperm production then inhibin is secreted by sustentacular cells to limit FSH secretion to regulate sperm production

How are paracrines formed?

Arachnidonic acid is formed by the plasma membrane then two enzymes are required to convert AA to various eicosanoids