Chapter 17

Varieties and Incidence of Sexual Harassment on the Job

(1) prevalence of sexual harassment in the Workplace * American companies to provide effective workplace training on sexual harassment, or it may be a product of the economic downturn—harassed employees may be keeping quiet out of fear of jeopardizing their employment or career advancement (2) same-sex sexual harassment in the Workplace - Sexual harassment involving members of the same sex has become more of an issue, both in the workplace and in the U.S. courts. People who are victims of same-sex sexual harassment have generally found it difficult to obtain satisfactory legal judgments, regardless of their own sexual orientation. Until recently, this unfortunate situation was due in large part to the absence of a federal law specifically prohibiting same-sex sexual harassment and to many courts' narrow interpretation of Title VII as prohibiting sex discrimination only between men and women. The lack of a legal sanc- tion against same-sex sexual harassment was finally addressed in late 2007, when the U.S. Congress passed a bill making it illegal for employers to engage in discrimination or harassment related to sexual orientation, gender identity, or gender expression. Nevertheless, even with the passage of this landmark legislation, attorneys representing victims of same-sex harassment frequently find themselves needing to prove that the accused acted out of "sexual interest." Proving this can be extremely difficult, because most defendants in these cases claim to be heterosexual. Furthermore, gay or lesbian plaintiffs may fear being "outed" or exposed, and plaintiffs who are not gay or lesbian may fear being thought of as such. Nevertheless, same-sex sexual harassment claims are increasing (3) effects of Workplace sexual harassment on the Victim -On-the-job sexual harassment can seriously erode a victim's financial status, job per- formance, job satisfaction, career opportunities, psychological and physical health, and personal relationships - Various surveys report that the great majority of harassed workers (between 75% and 90%) report adverse psychological effects, including PTSD symptoms, eating disorders, crying spells, loss of self-esteem, and feelings of anger, humiliation, shame, embarrassment, nervousness, irritability, alienation, vulnerability, helplessness, and lack of motivation

Factors associated with rape

(1) psychosocial basis of rape: *Many researchers and clinicians view rape more as a product of socialization processes that occur within the fabric of "normal" society than as a product of the individual rapist's pathological condition *Sanday's research indicated that the frequency of rape in a given society is influenced by several factors. Foremost among these were the nature of the relations between the sexes, the status of women, and the attitudes that boys acquire during their developmental years. Sanday found that "rape-prone" societies tolerate and even glorify masculine violence, encouraging boys to be aggressive and competitive, and they view physical force as natural and exemplary. In these societies, men tend to have greater economic and political power than women, remaining aloof from "women's work," such as child rearing and household duties. These traits are especially pronounced in one markedly rape-prone society, South Africa, where a recent study found that 37% of 15- to 19-year-old women had experienced intimate partner sexual violence in the past year *It is not surprising, therefore, that many U.S. men view aggression as a legitimate means to obtain sexual access to women. Men whose peer groups openly legitimize and support these attitudes and behaviors are particularly likely to victimize women sexually. Men who endorse traditional gender roles are significantly more likely to accept rape myths than are men who support greater equality of the sexes (2) impact of the media: *The media play a powerful role in transmitting cultural values and norms. Some novels, films, videos, Internet websites, and video games perpetuate the notion that women want to be raped * the films Deliver- ance and The Shawshank Redemption, the violation and humiliation of rape are more likely to be realistically portrayed. *"for the majority of American men, pornography exposure . . . is not associated with high levels of sexual aggression" *A number of social scientists have suggested that sexually violent films, books, magazines, videos, and computer games contribute to some rapists' assaultive behaviors. Boeringer found that viewing pornography that depicted violent rape was strongly associated with judging oneself capable of sexual coercion and aggression and engaging in such coercive acts. Other research suggests that "exposure to media that combine arousing sexual images with violence may promote the development of deviant patterns of physiological sexual arousal" *Is rape, then, a sexualization of violence? The evidence is equivocal. In two studies, the erectile responses of matched groups of rapists and nonrapists were measured as the men listened to audiotape descriptions of rape and of mutually consenting sexual activity. In both studies, rapists were more aroused by the sexual assault description than were nonrapists. However, other research has failed to support this conclusion, finding little difference in the erectile responses of rapists and nonrapists in similar research designs (3) characteristics of rapist * Because convicted rapists are less educated, more inclined to commit other antisocial or criminal acts, and more alienated from society than are rapists who do not pass through the criminal justice system, we cannot say with certainty that men who rape without being prosecuted and convicted match the profile of convicted rapists. *However, more recent research suggests that, although power and domination are often involved in sexual coercion, such coercion is also frequently motivated by a desire for sexual gratification * As stated earlier, men who embrace traditional gender roles, particularly that of male dominance, are more likely to commit rape than are men who do not embrace traditional gender stereotypes. Anger toward women is a prominent attitude among some men who sexually assault women. Alcohol can also contribute to rapists' behavior; rapists often had been drinking just before assaulting their victims *Many rapists have self-centered personalities, which may render them insensitive to others' feelings. Research has provided strong evidence that men with a narcissistic personality trait may be especially inclined to commit rape and other acts of sexual coercion *Anger, power, and sexual gratification all play varying roles in rape. However, anger and a need to express power appear to predominate in stranger rape, whereas a desire for sexual gratification seems to predominate in acquaintance or date rape. (4) characteristics of female rape victims *Although females of all ages are raped, more than 50% of U.S. female rape victims reported that their first rape occurred before they were 18 years old, and 22% reported that their first rape occurred before they were 12. Women ages 16 to 24 are the most frequent victims of reported rape in the United States (5) Acquaintance rape and sexual coercion * Research indicates that in approximately three out of four sexual assaults against women, the perpetrator is known by the victimized person *A significant number of these acquaintance rapes occur in dating situations—hence the term date rape. Acquaintance rapes account for an estimated 90% of the rapes of women attending college in the United States. Many college women who are sexually assaulted "do not acknowledge these unwanted sexual experiences as assaults". Furthermore, many female college students who are raped or sexually assaulted are incapacitated by excessive alcohol consumption (6) Acquaintance rape: the role of perceptions and communication *As many have pointed out, in our society males and females often learn sexual scripts (Culturally learned ways of behaving in sexual situations.) that encourage men to be aggressive and women to be passive *Even if a woman clearly expresses her desire not to have sex, her date may read her actions as "token resistance," concluding that she really wants to have sex but does not want to appear "too easy" (7) Date rape drugs *In the early 1990s reports began to circulate about the increasing use of Rohypnol to facilitate sexual conquest or to incapacitate victims who are then sexually molested or raped. Rohypnol, commonly known on the street as "roofies," is the brand name for flunitrazepam, a powerful tranquilizer that has a sedative effect 7 to 10 times more potent than that of Valium. In addition to producing a sedative effect in 20 to 30 minutes that can last for several hours, Rohypnol causes muscle relaxation and mild to pronounced amnesia. Rohypnol is odor- less and is excreted from the victim's system in a relatively short time, making discovery and prosecution of rapists who use this drug difficult. Many cases have emerged in which women were raped after their dates had given them the drug surreptitiously—hence the term date rape drug. When combined with alcohol, the drug's effects are greatly enhanced and can result in a dramatic "high," markedly reduced inhibitions, unconsciousness, and total amnesia concerning events that occur while a person is under its influence. * Other drugs, such as gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and ketamine hydrochloride (Special K) have also been implicated in date rapes *As a result of abuse and deaths associated with date rape drugs, the U.S. Congress has passed laws that strengthen the penalties for possessing Rohypnol, GHB, and other similar drugs and that significantly increase the prison sentences for rapists who use drugs to incapacitate victims.

Rape and sexual assault of males

- A survey conducted on American college campuses found that about 6% of college men are victims of attempted or completed sexual assault. Surveys conducted by federal agencies recently revealed the startling finding that 38% of all rape and sexual assault events were committed against males. Other recent surveys have also reported that men often experience sexual victimization * Statistics on the frequency of male sexual victimization have been difficult to obtain for a variety of reasons, not the least of which is that men are even less likely than women to report that they have been raped

Pedophiles on the Internet

- Before the emergence of the Internet, pedophiles were largely isolated. Now, with several pedophile support groups online, child molesters can exchange child pornography, discuss their molestation experiences, validate each other's abusive acts, and secure reinforcement for the shared belief that sexual interaction between adults and children is acceptable

sexual abuse of children

- Child sexual abuse is defined as engagement by an adult in sexual contact of any kind with a child (inappropriate touching, oral-genital stimulation, coitus, etc.). --- Informed consent implies the possession of adequate intellectual and emotional maturity to understand fully both the meaning and possible consequences of a particular action. Adults' exploitation of the naiveté of unsuspecting victims has become a serious problem for children who use the Internet, as discussed later in this chapter. - pedophilia or child molestation: Sexual contact between an adult and a child who are not related. - incest: Sexual contact between two people who are related (one of whom is often a child), other than husband and wife. - Each state has its own legal codes that determine whether sexual interaction between an adult and a younger person is considered child molestation (usually if the younger person is under age 12), statutory rape (usually ages 12 to 16 or 17), or a consenting sexual act. The age of consent in the United States tends to range from 16 to 18, but it can be as low as 14 or 15. The legal codes may appear ludicrous at times, particularly in cases of teenage interactions in which one partner is technically an adult and the other technically a minor, although only one or two years separate their ages. - Although it has been commonly assumed that father-daughter incest is most prevalent, studies have shown that brother-sister and first-cousin contacts are more common

Cyberstalking: Threatening behaviors or unwanted advances that use Web technologies as weapons for stalking and harassment.

- Cyberstalking can take many forms. Some people are victimized by former date partners who may post disparaging comments about them on social networking sites such as Facebook or angry "tweets" on Twitter. Some cyberstalkers use blogs to stalk and denigrate their victims. - Cyberstalking is fueled by two major factors: the very rapid evolution of various technologies that create instantaneous large audiences and the nonchalance with which people use this technology to divulge personal details about their lives. In our discussion of Internet relationships in Chapter 7, we described how the anonymity of the Internet often allows people to express themselves with abandon. People communicating online often lose track of boundaries that are present in face-to-face relationships and thus may be more inclined to reveal intimate details that later can be used against them in episodes of cyberstalking. When a date goes wrong or after a nasty breakup, the jilted/rejected person can use these personal details to stalk and harass his or her victim online.

prevalence of rape

- Despite the fact that rape is a significant problem in our society, it has been difficult to obtain accurate statistics on its frequency - low percentage of reporting has led some writers to suggest that rape is the most underreported crime in the United States - Research has shown that intimate partner violence (IPV) is extremely common in many African nations, ranging from 25% to 48%, with women assaulted far more often than men. Women who are victims of IPV are up to three times more likely to have been exposed to HIV - Victims of rape in America, whether students or nonstudents, do not report the crime for a variety of reasons, including self-blame ("I shouldn't have had so much to drink"), fear of being blamed by others, concern for the rapist, fear of retaliation, and an attempt to block their recall of a traumatic experience

The aftermath of rape

- Feelings of shame, anger, fear, guilt, depression, and powerlessness are common - In addition to the psychological impact of rape, physical symptoms such as nausea, headaches, gastrointestinal problems, genital injuries, and sleep disorders frequently occur. Approximately 32% of women and 16% of men who were raped after age 18 reported being physically injured during the assault. Rape survivors may associate sexual activity with the trauma of their assault. As a result, sexual activity may induce anxiety rather than desire or arousal * When the emotional and physical reactions women experience following rape or attempted rape are severe, victims may be classified as suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD refers to the long-term psychological distress that can develop after a person is subjected to a physically or psychologically traumatic event (or events). People who experience a profoundly disturbing incident, such as sexual assault, wartime combat, or a horrendous accident, often exhibit a range of distressing symp- toms as an aftermath of the occurrence. These reactions include disturbing dreams, nightmares, depression, anxiety, and feelings of extreme vulnerability. In addition, just as combat veterans may have flashbacks of traumatic war experiences, so too might a rape survivor have vivid flashbacks of the attack in which she reexperiences all the terror of the assault. Research indicates that rape produces one of the highest rates of PTSD among nonwartime traumatic events

Preventing Child Sexual Abuse

- Most child sexual abuse is perpetrated by someone known to the victim. Thus some health professionals suggest that many children can avoid being victimized if they are taught about their right to say no, the difference between "okay" and "not-okay" touches, and strategies for coping with an adult's attempt to coerce them into inappropriate in- timate contact. A recent study of sex offenders revealed that children's saying no to the offender is an effective strategy for preventing child sexual abuse -The following list, drawn from the writings of a number of child abuse specialists, offers suggestions for preventing child sexual abuse. They may be helpful to parents, educa- tors, and other caregivers of children. 1. It is important to discuss sexual abuse prevention strategies with young children because victims are often younger than age 7. Be sure to include boys, because they too can be abused. 2. Avoid making a discussion of child sexual abuse unduly frightening. It is important that children be sufficiently concerned so that they will be on the lookout for potentially abusive adult behavior. However, they should also be confident in their ability to avoid such a situation. 3. Take time to carefully explain the differences between okay touches (pats, snuggles, and hugs) and not-okay touches that make a child feel uncomfortable or confused. Not-okay touches can be explained as touching under the panties or underpants or touching areas that bathing suits cover. Be sure to indicate that a child should not have to touch an adult in these areas even if the adult says it is all right. It is also a good idea to explain not-okay kisses (prolonged lip contact or tongue in mouth). 4. Encourage children to believe that they have rights—the right to control their bodies and the right to say no when they are being touched in a way that makes them uncomfortable. 5. Encourage children to tell someone right away if an adult has touched them in a way that is inappropriate or if an adult has made them do something with which they are uncomfortable. Emphasize that you will not be angry with them and that they will be okay when they tell, even if someone else has told them that they will get in trouble. Stress that no matter what happened, it was not their fault and they will not be blamed. Also, warn them that not all adults will believe them. Tell them to keep telling people until they find someone like you who will believe them. 6. Discuss with children some of the strategies that adults might use to get children to participate in sexual activities. For example, tell them to trust their own feelings when they think something is wrong, even if an adult who is a friend or relative says that it is okay and that he or she is "teaching" them something helpful. Given that many adults use the "this is our secret" strategy, it can be particularly helpful to explain the difference between a secret (something one is never to tell—a bad idea) and a surprise (a good idea because it is something one tells later to make someone happy). 7. Discuss strategies for getting away from uncomfortable or dangerous situations. Let children know that it is okay to scream, yell, run away, or get assistance from a friend or trusted adult. 8. Encourage children to state clearly to an adult who attempts to touch them inappropriately that they will tell a particular responsible adult about what went on. Interviews with perpetrators of child sexual abuse have revealed that many of them would be deterred from their abusive actions if a child said that she or he would tell a specific adult about the assault. 9. Perhaps one of the most important things to incorporate in this prevention discussion, particularly for parents, is the message that private touching can be a loving and pleasurable experience, as they will discover when they grow older and meet someone they care for or love. Without some discussion of the positive aspects of sexuality, there is a risk that a child will develop a negative view of any kind of sexual contact between people, regardless of the nature of their relationship.

Effects of Child Sexual Abuse

- Much research suggests that child sexual abuse can be a severely traumatizing and emotionally damaging experience, with long-term negative consequences for many of the victims. The negative effects of child sexual abuse tend to be more severe in girls and women than in boys and men - These two factors—physical force and victim-offender relationship— probably correlate most strongly with subsequent negative consequences for survivors of child sexual abuse. Other factors known to influence how a child responds to sexual abuse include the age of the victim and perpetrator at the onset of the abuse, the victim's feelings of responsibility for the situation, the number of perpetrators, and the social support from parents and peers received in the aftermath of the abuse. The younger the child, the greater the discrepancy in age between victim and perpetrator, the stronger the feelings of responsibility, and the higher the number of perpetrators, the greater the severity of a child's response to sexual abuse

characteristics of people who sexually abuse children

- No classic profile of the pedophile offender has been identified, other than that most pedophiles are heterosexual males and are known to the victim - Men who molest children cover the spectrum of social class, educational achievement, intelligence, occupation, religion, and ethnicity. Evidence suggests that many pedophile offenders, especially those who are prosecuted, are shy, lonely, poorly informed about sexuality, and moralistic or religious - Many are likely to have poor interpersonal and sexual relations with other adults and may feel socially inadequate and inferior. Relating to these children sexually may be a way of coping with powerful feelings of in- adequacy that are likely to emerge in sociosexual relationships with other adults. However, it is not uncommon to encounter pedophiles outside the legal system who are well educated, socially adept, civic-minded, and financially successful. They often pick their victims from among family friends, neighbors, or acquaintances -Other characteristics of some child molesters include alcoholism, severe marital problems, sexual difficulties, poor emotional adjustment, and various brain disorders. Many of these offenders were sexually victimized themselves during their own childhood. Recent research also suggests that "genetic influences play a role in shaping sexual interest toward children and adolescents among adult men". This viewpoint is supported by evidence that sexual interest in children typically has an early onset and is stable across the life span - However, the incest offender does tend to share some of the traits of many pedophiles. He tends to be economically disadvantaged, a heavy drinker, unemployed, devoutly religious, and emotionally immature. His behavior might result from general tendencies toward pedophilia, severe feelings of inadequacy in adult sexual relations, or rejection by a hostile spouse; his actions can also be an accompaniment to alcoholism or other psychological disturbances. He also tends to have certain distorted ideas about adult-child sex. For example, he may think that a child who does not resist him desires sexual contact, that adult-child sex is an effective way for children to learn about sex, that a father's relationship with his daughter is enhanced by having sexual contact with her, and that a child does not report such contact because she enjoys it

Prevalance of child sexual abuse

- One especially significant reason that child sexual abuse often is not reported is that adults who are legally required to report sexual abuse of children have little reason to fear punishment if they remain silent

When the Child Tells

- Research demonstrates that children who have been sexually abused often either delay disclosure of the abuse to a parent or another adult or do not tell at all. A Swedish study found that sexually abused children are markedly more likely to disclose the abuse to a friend their own age than to an adult - If parents react with extreme agitation, children are likely to respond with increased emotional negativity, developing a sense of being implicated in something terrible and often feeling extremely guilty about having participated in such an event. Children may feel guilty about such experiences even without parental displays of distress, because they sense the guilt of the person who molested them.

Rape: Although the legal definition of rape varies from state to state, most state laws define rape as sexual intercourse occurring under actual or threatened forcible compulsion that overcomes the earnest resistance of the victim.

- Stranger rape is rape by an unknown assailant. - Acquaintance rape, or date rape, is committed by someone known to the victim. - Statutory rape is intercourse with a person under the age of consent. (The age of consent varies by state and ranges from 14 to 18.) Statutory rape is considered to have occurred regardless of the apparent willingness of the underage partner.

false beliefs about rape

1. False belief: "Women can't be raped if they really don't want to be." The belief that women can always resist a rape attempt is false, for several reasons. First, men are usually physically larger and stronger than women. Second, female gender- role conditioning often trains a woman to be compliant and submissive. Such conditioning can limit the options a woman believes she has in resisting rape.Third, in many rapes, the rapist chooses the time and place. He has the element of surprise on his side. The fear and intimidation a woman usually experiences when attacked work to the assailant's advantage. His use of weapons, threats, or physical force further coerces her compliance. 2. False belief: "Women say no when they mean yes." Some rapists have distorted perceptions of their interactions with the women they rape—before, during, and even after the assault. They believe that women want to be coerced into sexual activity, even to the extent of being sexually abused. These distorted beliefs help the rapist justify his behavior: His act is not rape but, rather, "normal" sex play. Afterward, he may feel little or no guilt about his behavior because, in his own mind, it was not rape. 3. False belief: "Many women 'cry rape.'" False accusations of rape are uncommon, and they are even less frequently carried as far as prosecution. Nevertheless, false allegations of rape are sometimes made. Estimates range between 2 and 10% of rape accusations are classified as false. People may be motivated to fabricate a rape allegation by a need to create a "cover story" (e.g., a reason for becoming pregnant or contracting an STI), a desire for revenge or retribution directed toward the alleged rapist, an overwhelming need for attention, or an attempt to extort money from the accused. However, given the difficulties that exist in reporting and prosecuting a rape, few women (or men) could successfully proceed with an unfounded rape case. 4. False belief: "All women want to be raped." That some women have rape fantasies is sometimes used to support the idea that women want to be sexually assaulted. However, it is important to understand the distinction between an erotic fantasy and a conscious desire to be harmed. In a fantasy a person retains control. A fantasy carries no threat of physical harm or death; a rape does. 5. False belief: "Rapists are 'obviously' mentally ill." The mistaken idea that a potential rapist somehow"looks the part" is also prevalent."This rape myth is particularly dangerous because potential victims may feel that they can identify a rapist (the crazed stranger) or that they are safe with someone they know. As we discuss later, most rapes are committed by people who are not mentally ill and who are known to the victim. 6. False belief: "The male sex drive is so high that men often cannot control their sexual urges." The problem with this myth is that it shifts the responsibility from the per- petrator to the victim. Women are seen as either the precipitator of the rape ("She should not have worn that dress") or as having been careless or naive ("What did she think would happen if she went back to his apartment with him?").

Dealing with sexual harassment on the Job

1. If the harassment includes actual or attempted rape or assault, you can file criminal charges against the perpetrator. 2. If the harassment has stopped short of attempted rape or assault, consider confronting the person who is harassing you. State in clear terms that what he or she is doing is clearly sexual harassment, that you will not tolerate it, and that if it continues, you will file charges through appropriate channels. You may prefer to document what has occurred and your response to it in a letter directed to the harasser (keep a copy). In such a letter, you should include specific details of previous incidents of harassment, your unequivocal rejection of such inappropriate overtures, and your intent to take more serious action if they do not stop immediately. 3. If the offender does not stop the harassment after direct verbal or written confrontation, or both, it may be helpful to discuss your situation with your supervisor or the supervisor of the offender, or both. 4. If neither the harasser nor the supervisor responds appropriately to your concern, you may want to gather support from your coworkers. You may discover that you are not the only victim in your company. Discussing the offense with sympathetic women and men in your workplace may produce sufficient pressure to terminate the harassment. Be very sure of your facts, though, because such actions could result in a slander lawsuit. 5. If your attempts to deal with this problem within your company are unsuccess- ful or if you are fired, demoted, or refused promotion because of your efforts to end harassment, you can file an official complaint with your city or state Human Rights Commission or with the Fair Employment Practices Agency (the names may vary locally). You can also ask the local office of the federally funded EEOC to investigate the situation. 6. Finally, you may wish to pursue legal action to resolve your problem with sexual harassment. Lawsuits can be filed in federal courts under the Civil Rights Act. They can also be filed under city or state laws prohibiting employment discrimination. Moreover, a single lawsuit can be filed in a number of jurisdictions. A person who has been a victim of such harassment is most likely to receive a favorable court judgment if she or he has first tried to resolve the problem within the company before going to court. A number of legal decisions, including one made by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2004, have revealed that an employer may successfully defend against liability if a plaintiff does not seek relief from harassment by pursuing the employer's established sexual harassment grievance procedure - When an employee files a sexual harassment claim with the EEOC, the employer or supervisor who is named in the claim may retaliate against the employee in a number of ways, such as by writing poor performance evaluations or transferring the employee to another position with less status, pay, or benefits. Such retaliatory actions are clear violations of Title VII, and retaliation charges are the fastest-growing body of claims processed by the EEOC, resulting in the recovery of $124 million in 2007 alone - Nevertheless, despite these programs in business and in the military services, many women and men still keep silent when they have been harassed. They do so for many reasons, including a desire to protect their career and the fear that formal reporting will not be helpful, may lead to retaliation, and could lead to their being negatively evaluated by others

Recovered Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse

Research evidence indicates that recovered memories may be fictitious at times and authentic at other times. There is now general agreement that traumatic memories are often processed differently than memories of ordinary events and that "recovered memories are possible while not necessarily accurate in their entirety"

Sexual Harassment: Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature in the workplace or academic setting.

Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physi- cal conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when (1) submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an individual's employment, (2) submission to or rejection of such conduct by an individual is used as a basis for employment decisions affecting such individual, or (3) such conduct has the purpose or effect of unreasonably interfering with an individual's work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment. - The EEOC guidelines describe two kinds of sexual harassment. One form, commonly labeled quid pro quo, is reflected in the first two situations described in the guidelines. Here, compliance with unwanted sexual advances is made a condition for securing a job or education benefits or for favorable treatment in employment or academic settings (such as receiving a promotion or high grades). Harassment is often evident in reprisals that follow refusals to comply. - A second form of sexual harassment, often referred to as a "hostile or offensive environment," is described in the third situation in the EEOC guidelines. This kind of sexual harassment is less clear but probably more common than the quid pro quo variety. Here, one or more supervisors, coworkers, teachers, or students engage in persistent, inappropriate behaviors that make the workplace or academic environment hostile, abusive, and generally unbearable. Unlike quid pro quo harassment, this second form does not necessarily involve power or authority differences. It may, however, involve attempts to defend status and position, because men often view the entrance of women into formerly male bastions of power and privilege as threatening

Wartime Rape

Why is rape so common during war? Wartime rape, in addition to being used as a means to dominate, humiliate, and control women, "can also be intended to dis- able an enemy by destroying the bonds of family and society". In wars instigated by ethnic conflict, as in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, and Darfur, mass rape is used as a military strategy to terrorize and demoralize a whole population, to destroy its cultural integrity, and sometimes to force entire communities to flee their houses, thereby achieving the goal of "ethnic cleansing". Thus rape is an act of war that assaults not only the individual woman but also her family and her community.