Chapter 18: Colonial Encounters in Asia and Africa, 1750-1950

39) Define "indentured servant"

*An indentured servant or indentured laborer is an employee within a system of unfree labor who is bound by a signed or forced contract to work without pay for the owner of the indenture for a period of time. Some working as indentured laborers: received free passage and enough money to survive in return for five to seven years of heavy labor

Explain "social Darwinism"

"Survival of the fittest." Suggesting that European dominance inevitably involved the displacement or destruction of backward people or "unfit" races.

12) What was the European "duty" to the rest of the world?

"They have the duty to civilize the inferior races." This included bringing Christianity to the heathen, good government to disordered lands, work discipline and production for the market to "lazy natives."

46) Despite your opinion on whether European colonialism had more positive or negative affects on Asian and African development - what 3 things can be seen as effects of European colonization. 1. 2. 3.

1) Colonial rule served, for better or worse, to further the integration of Asian and African economies into a global network of exchange, now centered in Europe. Nonetheless, it is apparent that within the colonial world far more land and labor were devoted to production for the global market at the end of the colonial era than at its beginning. 2) Europeans could hardly avoid conveying to the colonies some elements of their own modernizing process. It was in their interests to do so, and many felt duty bound to "improve" the societies they briefly governed. 3) Nowhere in the colonial world did a major breakthrough to modern industrial society occur. When India became independent after two centuries of colonial rule by the world's first industrial society, it was still one of the poorest of the world's developing countries. Colonial had become an economic dead end, whereas independence represented a grand opening new and more helpful possibilities.

2) What are the two ways the industrial revolution caused the need for Europe to expand and take colonies? a. One b. Two

1) The enormous productivity of industrial technology and Europe's growing affluence now created the need for extensive raw materials and agricultural products. This demand radically changed patterns of economic and social life in the countries of their origin. 2) Europe needed to sell its own products. One of the peculiarities of industrial capitalism was that it periodically produced more manufactured good sthan its own people could afford to buy. Wealthy Europeans saw social benefits to foreign market.

25) What was distinctive about European empires of the 19th century? (4 main reasons)

1) The prominence of race in distinguishing rulers and ruled, as the high tide of "scientific racism" in Europe coincided with the acquisition of Asian and African colonies. 2) The extent to which colonial states were able to penetrate the societies they governed. Not only were Europeans foreign rulers, but they also bore the seeds of a very different way of life, which grew out of their own modern transformation. 3) Their penchant for counting and classifying their subject people. Collected a vast amount of information, sought to organize it "scientifically," and used it to manage the unfamiliar, complex, varied , and fluctuating societies that they governed. 4) European colonial practices contradicted their own core values and their practices at home to an unusual degree. While Britain and France were becoming more democratic, their colonies were essentially dictatorships, offering perhaps order and stability, but certainly not democratic government.

35) How did increased sales of cash crops affect labor within the colonies

African farmers who took the initiative to develop export agriculture. "A hybrid society was taking shape. Partly peasant, in that most members farmed their own land with family labor, and partly capitalist, in that a minority employed wage laborers, produced chiefly for the market, and reinvested profits.

11) Why did Europeans view their global expansion as inevitable?

Almost everyone saw it as inevitable, a natural outgrowth of a superior civilization. A sense of responisbility to the "weaker races" that Europe was fated to dominate. "Superior races have a right, because they have a duty"

17) what were the most difficult places to subdue and why?

Among the most difficult to subdue were those decentralized societies without any formal state structure. In such cases, Europeans confronted no central authority with which they could negotiate or that they might decisively defeat.

40) What kind of working and living conditions did these migrants experience?

Appalling living conditions, disease, and accidents generated extraordinary high death rates.

57) What arguments could be made to support the argument that African culture was distinct from European culture?

Blyden accepted the assumption that the world's carious races were different but argued that each had its own distinctive contribution to make to world civilization. The uniqueness of AFrican culture lay in its cooperative societies contrasted with Europe's highly individualistic societies.

23) How could a native's education be affected if they chose to cooperate with Europeans?

Both colonial governments and private missionary organizations had an interest in promoting a measure of European education.-A small Western-educated class, whose members served the colonial state, European businesses, and Christian missions as teachers, clerks, translators, and lower-level administrators arose. *A few received higher education abroad and returned home as lawyers, doctors, engineers, or journalists. As colonial governments and business enterprises became more sophisticated, Europeans increasingly depended on the Western-educated class at the expense of the more traditional elites

55) Explain why a common "african identity" evolved as a result

By the end of the nineteenth century, number of AFrican thinkers, familiar with Western culture, began to define the idea of an "African Identity." Previously, few if any people on the continent had regarded themselves as Africans. Now however, influenced by the common experience of colonial oppression and by highly derogatory European racism, well-educated AFricans began to think in broader terms, similar to Indian reformers who were developing the notion of Hinduism.

6) Explain how nationalism fueled the desire for colonies

Colonies abroad became symbols of "great power" for a nation, and their acquisitions was a matter of urgency, even if they possess little immediate economic value.

15) What military and diplomatic methods did the Europeans employ in order to build their empires

Europeans preferred informal control, which operated through economic penetration and occasional military intervention but without a wholescale colonial takeover. Such as course was cheaper and less likely to provoke wars.

9) Overtime, how did Europeans use racism to support their prejudices and preferences

Europeans viewed the culture and achievements of Asian and African peoples through the prism of a new kind of racism, expressed now in terms of modern science. Used the prestige and apparatus of science to support their racial preferences and prejudices. The result was a hierarchy of races, with the whites on top and the less developed "child races" beneath them.

43) How were women's roles affected by increasing labor migration within these colonies

Further increasing women's workload and differentiating their lives from those of men was labor migration. As growing numbers of men sought employment in the cities, their wives were left to manage the domestic economy almost alone. In many cases women also had to supply food to men in the cities to compensate for very low urban wages.

27) Give an example of a new alternative way Europeans began classifying their conquered people

Gender too entered into European efforts to define both themselves and their newly acquired subject peoples. European colonizers-mostly male- took pride in their "active masculinity" while defining the "conquered races" as soft, passive, and feminine.

42) How were women's role affected in cash-crop producing colonies

In colonies where cash-crop agriculture was dominant, men often withdrew from subsistence production in favor of more lucrative export crops. Women assumed near total responsibility for domestic food production. Thus men acted to control the most profitable aspects of cash-crop agriculture and in doing so greatly increased the subsistence workload of women.

8) Initially how did European perceptions of others change in the 19th century?

In earlier centuries, Europeans had defined others with largely religious terms. Even as they held onto this sense of religious superiority, Europeans nonetheless adopted many of the ideas and techniques of more advanced societies. With the advent of the industrial age, however, Europeans developed a secular arrogance that fused with or in some cases replaced their notions of religious superiority.

41) Describe women's roles in AFrica before European colonization

In precolonial Africa, women almost everywhere were active farmers, with responsibility for planting, weeding, and harvesting in addition to food preparation and child care. Within the division of labor, women were expected to feed their own families and were usually allocated their own fields for that purpose. Many were involved in local trading activity. African women nevertheless had a measure of economic autonomy.

33) In what ways were local farmers affected by the increased production of cash crops?

In some places, colonial rule created conditions that facilitated and increased cash-crop production to the advantage of local farmers. *Local small farmers benefited considerably because they were now able to own their own land, build substantial houses, and buy imported goods.

34) How did cash crop production affect the environment

It involved the destruction of mangrove forests and swamplands. Depleted soils in the deltas of major river systems. This kind of agriculture generates large amounts of methane gas, a major contributor to global warming.

49) Ironically what did the European educated natives end up leading in the 20th century?

Many among the Western-educated elite saw themselves as a modernizing vanguard, leading the regeneration of their societies in association with colonial authority.

36) What was the economic danger of these colonies specialising in only one or two cash crops

Many colonies came to specialize in one or two cash crops, creating an unhealthy dependence when world market prices dropped. Thus African and Asian farmers were increasingly subject to the uncertain rhythms of the international marketplace as well as to those of the seasons and the weather.

22) How did native elites manage to maintain their status after European conquest?

Many individuals willing cooperated with colonial authorities to their own advantage. Many men found employment, status, and security in European-led armed forces. *The shortage and expense of European administrators and the difficulties of communicating across cultural boundaries made it necessary for colonial rulers to rely heavily on a range of local intermediaries. Thus Indian princes, Muslim emirs, and African rulers, found it possible to retain their elite status and privileges.

21) List some of the responses to European conquest by native peoples

Many initially sought to enlist Europeans in their own internal struggles for power or in their external rivalries with neighboring states or peoples. Some tried to play off imperial powers against one another, while other resorted to military action. Many societies were divided between those who wanted to fight and those who believed that resistance was futile.

44) How did women cope with their newfound diffuculties?

Many sought closer relations with their families of birth rather than with their absent husband's families, as would otherwise have been expected. In the cities, they established a variety of self-help associations including those for prostitutes and for brewers of beer.

48) In what ways did education make native peoples "Europeans"

Many such people ardently embraced European culture, dressing in European clothes, speaking French or English, building European-style houses, and otherwise emulating European ways.

50) What were some of the attractions of Christianity in the colonial world?

Military defeat shook confidence in the old gods and local practices, fostering openness to a new source of supernatural power that could operate in the wider world now impinging on their societies. Furthermore, Christianity was widely associated with modern education, and, especially in Africa, mission schools were the primary providers of Western education.

52) List some of the challenged and opposition Chrisitanity faced in Africa

Missionary teaching generated conflict and opposition, when they touched on gender roles. A wide range of issues focusing on the lives of women proved challenging for missionaries and spawned opposition from AFrican converts or potential converts. Nudity offended western notions of modest, polygyny contradicted Christian values, these practices sat beside the Old Testament.

28) Explain why Europeans did not want to promote progress and modernization within their colonies

Modernization: (urban growth, industrialization, individual values, religious skepticism) They feared that this kind of social change, often vilified as "detribalization," would encourage unrest and challenge colonial rule.

56) What arguments could be made to support the claim that African culture aligned with Europe?

One argument held that African culture and history in fact possessed the very characteristics that Europeans exalted. Argued that Western civilization owed much to Egyptian influence and was therefore derived from Africa. Black people, in short, had a history of achievement fully comparable to that of Europe and therefore deserved just as much respect and admiration.

31) Describe the forced labor of natives in Indonesia under Dutch colonial rule

Peasants were required to cultivate 20 percent or more of their land in cash crops such as sugar or coffee to meet their tax obligations to the state. When sold to government contractors at fixed and low prices, it proved highly profitable for Dutch traders and shippers as well as for the Dutch state and its citizens.

What was the "scramble for Africa"

Pitted half a dozen European powers against one another as they partitioned the entire continent (of africa) among themselves in only about twenty-five years (1875-1900).

30) Describe the experiences of forced laborers in the Belgian Congo of the Congo

Private companies in the Congo, operating under the authority of the state, forced villagers to collect rubber, which was much in demand for bicycle and automobile tires, with a reign of terror and abuse that cost millions lives.

10) According to Europeans, race determined what?

Race, in this view, determined human intelligence, moral development, and destiny.

19) Explain the term "settler colonies" and give an example of a setter colony

Settler colonialism is a form of colonialism which seeks to replace the original population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers.

38) Asians also migrated in mass during this era- what jobs were available in Asian markets

Some 29 million Indians and 19 million Chinese migrated to Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, or the lands around the Indian Ocean basin. Impoverished workers by the hundreds of thousands came from great distances to these plantations, where they were subject to strict control.

7) What developments in transportation and communication made imperialism easier?

Steam-driven ships, allowed Europeans to reach distant Asian and AFrican ports more quickly and predictably and to penetrate interior rivers as well. The underwater telegraph made possible almost instant communication with far-flung outposts of empire.

18) Examine maps, which two European countries seem to be acquiring the most territory in AFrica and Asia? a. What places managed to remain independent of European rule in Asia and Africa?

The French (northwest africa) and the British (southern and northeast africa). a. Liberia (west coast) and Ethiopia (east)

45) What are some examples of women gaining economic opportunities as a result of European colonization?

The colonial economy sometimes provided a measure of opportunity for enterprising women, particularly in small-scale trade and marketing. In some parts of West Africa, women came to dominate this sector of the economy by selling food, cloths, and inexpensive imported goods, while men or foreign farms controlled the more profitable wholesale and import-export trade.

26) Give an example of a colony that had a large European population that caused a deep racial divide between Europeans and the native poplulation

The most extreme case was South Africa, where a large European population and the widespread use of African labor in mines and industries brought blacks and whites into closer and more prolonged contact than elsewhere. The racial fears that were aroused resulted in extraordinary efforts to establish race as a legal, not just a customary, feature of South African society.

51) Especially in africa who was largely responisble for the spread of Chrisitanity?

The spread of Christianity was less the work of European missionaries than of those many thousand African teachers, catechists, and pastors who brought the new faith to remote villages as well as the local communities that begged for a teacher and supplied the labor and materials to build a small church or school.

20) Why were Ethiopia and Siam able to avoid European control?

These countries' military and diplomatic skills, their willingness to make modest concessions to the Europeans, and the rivalries of the imperialists all contributed to these exceptions to the rule of colonial takeover in East Africa and Southeast Asia.

54) How did the divide between Muslims and Hindus in India begin

This new notion of Hinduism provided a cultural foundation for emerging ideas of India as a nation, but is also contributed to a clearer sense of Muslims as a distinct community in India. As some anti-British patriots began to cast India in Hindu terms, the idea of Muslims as a separate community, which was perhaps threatened by the much larger number of Hindus, began to make sense to some who practiced Islam.

What is the difference between colonialism and imperialsim?

Though both the words underline suppression of the other, Colonialism is where one nation assumes control over the other and Imperialism refers to political or economic control, either formally or informally. In simple words, colonialism can be thought to be a practice and imperialism as the idea driving the practice.

What were some of the positive affects of education for native peoples? Positive: Negative:

To many European colonizers, education was a means of "uplifting native races," a paternalistic obligation of the superior to the inferior. a. To previously illiterate people, the knowledge of reading and writing of any kind often suggested an almost magical power. Within the colonial setting, it could mean an escape from some of the most onerous obligations of living under European control and access to better-paying positions. Moreover, education often provided social mobility and elite status within their own communities and an opportunity to approach equality.

53) Give an example of syncretism in AFrican Christianity

Within missionary churches, many converts continued using protective charms and medicines and consulting local medicine men, all of which caused their missionary mentors to speak frequently of "backsliding." Thousands of separatist movements established a wide array of independent churches, which were thoroughly Christian but under African rather than missionary control and which in many cases incorporated African cultural practices and modes of worship. "African Reformation."

Define "imperialism"

a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force. "the struggle against imperialism"Imperialism promised to solve the class conflicts of an industrializing society while avoiding revolution or the serious redistribution of wealth. What made imperialism so popular was nationalism.

37) List the reasons for African migration both abroad and within Africa: a. Reasons to migrate abroad: b. Reasons to migrate within Africa:

a. Need of money, loss of land adequate to support their families, and sometimes by the orders of colonial authorities, millions of colonial subjects across Asia and Africa sought employment in European-owned plantations and homes. b. As the slave trade diminished and colonial rule took shape in Africa, internal migration mounted within or among particular colonies. Africans migrated to European farms or plantations because they had lost their land. The gold and diamond mines of South Africa likewise set in motion a huge pattern of labor migration that encompassed all of Africa south of the Belgian Congo.

14) How was the second wave of European conquest different from the first wave in the following categories: a. Focus: b. Countries involved:

a. Now it was focused in Asia and Africa rather than in the western hemisphere. b. Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Japan, while the Spanish and Portuguese only had minor roles.

29) What happened to the following groups as a result of European colonialism? a. Subsistence Farmer: b. Artisans:

a. Subsistence farming, in which peasant families produced largely for their own needs, diminished as growing numbers directed at least some of their energies to working for wages or selling what they produced for a cash income. b. Artisans suffered greatly when cheaper machine-manufactured merchandise displaced their own hand-made goods.

24) Describe the causes and outcomes for the Indian rebellion a. Causes: b. Outcomes:

a. Triggered by the introduction into the colony's military forces of a new cartridge smeared with animal fat from cows and pigs. Because Hindus venerated cows and Muslims regarded pigs as unclean, both groups viewed the innovation as a plot to render them defiled and to convert them to Christianity. Local rulers who had lost power, landlords deprived of their estates or rent, peasants overtaxed and exploited, and religious leaders outraged by missionary preaching. b. Although it was crushed in 1858 the rebellion greatly widened the racial divide in colonial India and eroded British tolerance for those they views as "______ natives" who had betrayed their trust. It made the British more conservative and cautious about deliberately trying to change Indian society for fear of provoking another rebellion. Moreover, it convinced the British government to assume direct control over India, ending the era of British East India Company rule to the subcontinent.

1) List the "western" countries that were involved in colonizing Asia and Africa in the 1800's (19th Century)

the British, French, Germans, Italians, Belgians, Portuguese, Russians, or Americans.

Define "colonialism"

the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.