chapter 19: empires in collision

What strategies did China adopt to confront its various problems? In what ways did these strategies reflect China's own history and culture as well as the new global order?

1. "Self strengthening"program to bolster traditional China while borrowing from the West 2. new examination system to find better candidates for government 3. infrastructure was improved 4. industrial factories producing textile and steel were built and older industries producing coal expanded, and the telegraph system was initiated 5. industries were dependent on foreigners and served to strength local authorities rather than the central state 6. China tried to limit fears that the traditional systems of power were being lost through the "self strengthening" program 7. China tried to catch up to Western powers by creating a number of modern arsenals, shipyards, and foreign-language schools 8. traditional regional officials controlled industrial enterprises which strengthened their own positions rather than the nation as a whole 9. failure of self-strengthening movement became apparent in anti-foreign Boxer Uprising 10. many educated Chinese became disillusioned with the Qing dynasty, and formed a variety of groups to examine China's desperate situation and explore alternative paths 11. Qing dynasty's Hundred Days of Reform did little to aid the situation 12. more emphasis on education 13. European dominance led to Chinese nationalism 14. support for landlords

What kinds of debates, controversies, and conflicts were generated by European intrusion within each of the societies examined in this chapter?

1. all reacted through modernization programs, though Japan's modernization program was more radical and far-reaching than that of China or the Ottoman 2. all dealt with issues of identity, as they sought new ways to define themselves 3. all debated the extent to which Western models should be followed 4. all dealt with conflicts between modernizers and more conservative elements 5. in Japan, response to opening trade included a civil war and a political takeover from a small group of samurai

What differences can you identify in how China, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan experienced Western imperialism and confronted it? How might you account for those differences

1. both China and the Ottoman Empire became more reliant on Western finance than Japan 2. both China and the Ottoman Empire experienced occupation of some of their territory by Western military forces; Japan did not 3. China, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan all were forced by Western powers to sign unequal treaties or capitulations, but Japan eventually was able to renegotiate its treaties in its favor 4. all three launched modernization programs, but Japan's was more thorough and more successful than those of China and the Ottoman Empire, turning Japan into a modern, united, industrial nation causes: 1. the amount of internal strife within each state, 2. the strategic and economic importance to European powers of the Ottoman Empire and China as compared to Japan 3. relatively late and accidentally lucky (fortuitous) timing of Japan's interactions with Western powers

In what respects was Japan's nineteenth century transformation revolutionary?

1. cumulative effect, transforming Japan far more thoroughly than China or the Ottoman 2. genuine national unity, which required attack on power and privileges of daimyo and samurai 3. new regime ended the semi-independent domains of the daimyo, replacing them with governors 4. samurai relinquished their ancient role as the country's warrior class and their right to carry swords 5. Confucian-based social order was largely dismantled:almost all became legally equal, and abolition of class restrictions on occupation, marriage, residence, clothes, trade, and travel 6. selective borrowing of West: constitution, legal and education systems, dance clothes, hair, and literature 7. knowledge about the West was encouraged and sought out by official missions to Europe and the US 8. reformers argued the suppression of women 9. state-guided industrialization program 10. government established a number of enterprises and acted to create a modern infrastructure 11. organized zaibatsu 12. became a major exporter of textiles and was able to produce its own munitions and industrial goods 13. national army 14. Shinto became a state cult 15. heavy taxes to pay for modernization: many peasant families slid into poverty

How did Japan's relationship to the larger world change during its modernization process?

1. economic growth, openness to trade, and embrace of civilization and enlightenment from the West persuaded the Western powers to revise the unequal treaties in Japan's favor 2. Anglo-Japanese Treaty acknowledged Japan as an equal player among the Great Powers of the world 3. escaped from semi-colonial entanglements with the West 4. launched empire-building enterprise 5. successful wars against China and Russia established Japan as a formidable military competitor in East Asia 6. to Europeans and Americans, Japan was now an economic, political, and military competitor in Asia 7. rise of Japan and its defeat of Russia generated admiration among those who saw Japan as a model for their own modern development and perhaps an ally in the struggle against imperialism 8. Chinese reformers and nationalists found valuable lessons for themselves 9. "awakening of the east" for Islam 10. merchants traded textiles 11. people went to Japan to study achievements 12. triggered Russian revolutoins 13. Poles, Finns, and Jews viewed the Russian defeat as an opportunity for their own liberation and were grateful to the Japanese 14. more brutal and aggressive than Europe in imperialism

What accounts for the massive peasant rebellions of nineteenth century China?

1. economy and American food crops led to population growth 2. no Industrial Revolution or agricultural production helped keep up with growing population 3. China's expansion did not generate substantial wealth 4. growing pressure on the land, smaller farms for peasants, and unemployment, impoverishment, misery, and starvation 5. state did not enlarge and was unable to perform its many functions and lost power to provincial officials and local gentry where corruption was endemic and peasants were treated harshly 6. European military pressure and economic penetration disrupted internal trade routes, created substantial unemployment, and raised peasant taxes 7. gave rise to bandit gangs and peasant rebellion 8. found leadership in charismatic figures proclaiming a millenarian religious message and expressed opposition to the Qing dynasty because of its foreign Manchu origins 8. rapidly swelling number of followers 9. the Taiping Uprising found its inspiration in a unique form of Christianity

"The response of each society to European imperialism grew out of its larger historical development and its internal problems." What evidence might support this statement?

1. growing military and political power of Western states after the Industrial Revolution and their determination to gain influence in each society provided a larger historical development that shaped responses 2. the weakened imperial state in China and the social problems that led to serious peasant revolts like the Taiping Uprising speak to the internal problems that shaped the response of China. 3 the loss of territories, the weakening of the central state, the increasing obsolescence of the army, the increasing indebtedness of the state, the decline of its centrality in Eurasian trade, and commercial competition from industrial Europe were internal problems that shaped the Ottoman Empire's response 4. corruption within the Tokugawa regime, social change, and a mounting wave of local peasant uprisings and urban riots all shaped Japan's response to demands by the West

"Deliberate government policies were more important that historical circumstances policies in shaping the history of China, the Ottoman Empire, and Japan during the nineteenth century." How might you argue for and against this statement?

1. in China, the Qing emperor was weak in responding to European imperialism after losing the Opium War 2. rebellion in China was due to peasant taxes and government rule 3. self-strengthening movement focused military and economic modernization, and left out social reform which spawned resistance 4. the need for reform in China was realized too late and the dynastic period ended 5. unsuccessful Tanzimat reforms brought the end of the Ottoman empire 6. attempts to introduce a constitution, provide religious tolerance, and advance military and medicine were largely unsuccessful due to lack of support 7. Japanese attempts transformative policy were accepted and implemented, which led to their rise as an East Asian Empire

In what different ways did the Ottoman state respond to its various problems?

1. leaders led programs of defensive modernization 2. reforms began when Sultan Selim III sought to reorganize and update the army and draw on European advisers and techniques 3. assassinated sultan 4. Tanzimat took shape as leaders sought to provide the economic, social, and legal underpinnings for a strong and recentralized state 5. factories began mining operations 6. reclamation and resettlement of agricultural land 7. telegraphs, steamships, railroads, and a modern postal service 8. Western-style law codes and courts 9. new schools to train future officials 10. modernization and Westernization 11. equality under the law 12. religious toleration 13. stimulate modest educational openings for women 14. no internal uprisings 15. hostility of powerful factions 16. secular legislation

What lay behind the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century?

1. lost land to Russian, British, Austrian and French aggression 2. other parts of the empire achieved independence based on their own nationalism and support from the British or the Russians 3. central state weakened, particularly in ability to raise revenue, as provincial authorities and local warlords gained greater power 4. the Janissaries lost their military edge and became a highly conservative force 5. centrality in Afro-Eurasian commerce diminished as Europeans achieved direct access to Asian commerce 6. difficult to compete with European manufactured goods 7. series of agreements granted Westerners various exemptions from Ottoman law ans taxation and facilitated European penetration of the economy 8. eroded Ottoman sovereignty and reflected the changing position 9. growing indebtedness led to the Ottoman empire to take out loans that they could not pay back, led to foreign control of much of its economy 10. growing technological gap with the West 11. could not defend itself against Christian powers 12. growing population

How did Western pressures stimulate change in China during the nineteenth century?

1. opium became a serious problem as the British used it to fix their trade imbalance with China 2. smuggled into China illegally, massive outflow of silvers reversed China's ability to attract much of the world's silver, and millions of addicts 3. the British sent a large naval expedition to China after being offended by seizure of their property in opium 4. China was forced to import opium 5. cede Hong Kong to Britain 6. • import tariffs were set at a low rate of 5% 7. the Treaty of Nanjing that ended the first Opium War imposed restrictions of Chinese sovereignty and opened five ports to European traders 8. defeat in second Opium War was accompanied by vandalizing of the Summer Palace and resulted in further humiliations, some ports were opened to foreign traders, foreigners could travel freely and buy land, could preach Christianity, and patrol some of China's rivers 9. Chinese could not use term barbarians to refer to the British 10. China lost control of Vietnam, Korea, and Taiwan after defeat from France, Japan, and China 11. Western nations had all carved out spheres of influence within China: they could set up military bases, take raw materials and build railroads 12. restrictions imposed by unequal treaties inhibited industrialization

. In what ways was Japan changing during the Tokugowa era?

1. samurai evolved into salaried bureaicratic or administrative class mounting to 5-6% of the population because they could not fight 2. burst of economic growth, commercialization, and urban development 3. entrepreneurial peasants grew more rice than ever before and engaged in a variety of rural manufacturing enterprises 4. became the world's most urbanized country 5. well-functioning markets linked urban and rural areas, marking Japan as a capitalist economy 6. influence of Confucianism encouraged education and generated remarkably literate population 7. some samurai participated in commerce and some became indebted to merchants 8. many merchants prospered and supported a vibrant urban culture 9. many peasants moved to the cities, becoming artisans and imitating the ways of their social betters 10. widespread corruption undermined the Tokugowa regime 11. social tension cause by merchant class and warrior class 12. uprisings by the poor 13. shogunate lost power 14. Edo became largest city

How did the experiences of China, the Ottoman Empire, Japan, and Latin America, which retained their independence despite much European pressure, differ from that of Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, which fell under formal colonial rule?

1. selectively borrow from the West while those that were colonized could not 2. central government those that retained their independence had to adjust to deal with European pressure while others lost a central government in place of local rulers aiding the colony 3. social suppression was not linked to ideas of European racial superiority

In what different ways did various groups define the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century?

Young Ottomans: 1. secular state whose people were loyal to the dynasty that ruled it, rather than a primarily Muslim state based on religious principles 2. need to embrace Western technology and science but reject materialism 3. Islam represented freedom, patriotism, progress 4. European-style democratic constitutional regime that could reduce the absolute power of the emperor: this system could mobilize the energies of the country to overcome backwardness and preserve the state against European aggression 5. reactionary reign of Abd al-Hamad II led to despotic state with a panislamic identity Young Turks: 1. opposition to revived despotism 2. advocated a militantly secular public life 3. Turkish national state 4. permitted elections and competing parties 5. encouraged Turkish as the official language 6. provided women with some opportunities