Chapter 19 The French Revolution
Napoleon Bonaparte
(1769-1821), seized power during Coup d'etat in 1799 after he abandoned his army in Egypt, born Corsica in 1769, family Florentine nobility, military school, lieutenant in 1785, studied past military leaders, captain 1792, brigadier general 1794 at age of 25, saved National convention from Parisian mob and was promoted to major general, married Josephine de Beauharnais, made commander of French army in Italy; charming, intellectual, confident
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
1764-1814; German philosopher, originally welcomed the French revolution, proponent of German national spirit, awakened German nationalism
Directory
5 directors elected by council of elders from a list presented by council of 500, relied on military, era of materialistic reaction to reign of terror and republic of virtue (elaborate fashion, gambling)
Assignats
A form of paper money, issued based on the collateral of the newly nationalized church property.
Maximilien Robespierre
A small town lawyer that moved to Paris as a member of the Estates General. He dedicated his life for politics and using it to benefit people.
Toussaint L'Ouverture
A son of african slaves. lead the revolt that seized control of all of Hispaniola by 1801. In 1802, Napoleans army captured L'Ouverture, and he died in a French dungeon within a year.
Stamp Act
A tax levied on the American colonists to pay for the debts of the Seven Years' War.
Active vs Passive Citizens
Active citizens were men over the age of twenty five paying taxes equal in value to three days' unskilled labor. Only active citizens could vote. However both passive and active citizens had the same civil rights, except the right to vote.
Nation In Arms
An army of 650,000 was formed within a year, and by September 1794, the number was 1,169,000. This republic's army was the largest ever in European history. They pushed the anti French coalition of 1793 across the Rhine, conquering the Austrian Netherlands, and by May of 1795 the coalition started breaking up.
Foreign Crises
At the beginning of 1793, when Louis XVI was executed, most of Europe formed an informal coalition of Austria Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Dutch Republic against France. Most of the French were not scared and were actually welcoming the crisis.
Financial Crisis
Before the French Revolution, there was a collapse of the government finances. The debts came because of the extravagance of royal life and costly wars. Debt reached 4 billion livres (about 40 billion). Charles de Calonne, the controller of finance, wanted to change the change the fiscal system, unfortunately they brought even more disaster. An Estates-General meeting had to be called, something that hadn't happened since 1614.
Indirect causes of the French Revolution
Both the nobles and bourgeoisie were frustrated by a monarchical system and an old social order based off of estates. Revolution had its origins in political grievances. Monarch also had inabilities to deal with new social problems
New Constitution
By 1791, the National Assembly completed a new constitution that established a limited constitutional monarchy. The king now enjoyed few powers not subject to review by the new Legislate Assembly.
Committee of Public Safety
Created by the national convention for the purpose of administering the government. It was given broad executive powers. It was first dominated by Danton, and the basically the same twelve members were reelected over twelve months. It gave France the leadership needed to get through the domestic and foreign crises of 1793.
Law of General Maximum
Established price controls on goods declared a necessity, including food, drinks, fuel, an clothing. For the most part, these controls failed, since the government couldn't enforce them.
Domestic Crises in 1792 and 1793
Faction disputes between the Gridirons and the Mountain; the commune controlled the local government and pushed the National Convention to a very radical position; commune invaded National Convention beginning of June 1793, arrested and executed Girondins, left Mountain in control of convention; National Convention not able to establish authority in Western Europe, revolts against the new military draft in the department of Vendee, known as Vendean rebellion; major cities of Lyons and Marseilles began to break away from the central authority, wanted a decentralized republic separate from Paris
Mountain
Faction of the National Convention representing the interests of Paris and also supported the execution of the King. Members of the Jacobin club. They were called this, because the seats of the members' at the convention were on the side of the hall where the floor slanted upward. The Mountain represented the interests of the city of Paris, they were mostly middle class.
Girondins
Faction of the National Convention that favored keeping the king alive. Members of the Jacobin club. They were called the Girondins, because their leaders were from Gironde, in southwestern France. They represented the provinces and were afraid of the radical mobs in Paris.
Jacobins
Famous group of radical people with radical ideas at the beginning of the French Revolution. The Jacobin clubs expanded and had a large correspondence networks. They also were affiliated with the Parisian center.
The Making of the New Country
First the Article's of Confederation were proposed in 1777. After realizing that the Article's left the federal government with no power, 55 delegates attended the Philadelphia Convention(Constitutional Convention) and wrote the Constitution in 1787.
Great Britain's Army v. America's army
Great Britain had an army of 50,000 British soldiers and 30,000 German mercenaries. 400,000 men served in the Continental Army but never more than 20,000 in a single battle.
"Marseillaise"
Group of French National Guardsmen protecting Paris from Marseilles sang a song, eventually called the "Marseillaise," and three years later it was made the national anthem.
George Danton
He was the newly appointed minister of justice that lead the sans-culottes on wanted revenge on people that helped the king or resisted the popular will. They arrested and executed thousands of supposed traitors. These were intensified by the advancement of the Prussian army on Paris.
The Restructuring of France
In 1789, The National Assembly divided France into eighty three departments, each almost equal in size and population. These departments were divided into districts, which were watched over by elected officials.
Haiti
In 1791, black slaves rebelled against their French plantation owners and their was bloodshed on both sides in Saint-Domingue, Hispaniola. Eventually the slaves took over all of Hispaniola by 1801. In 1802, Napoleon reinstated slavery in French West Indian Colonies, sending an army. This army was weakened by disease and fell to the slave forces. The western part of Hispaniola, Haiti, announced its freedom, becoming the first independent stat in Latin America on January 1, 1804.
Decline of Committee of Public Safety
In 1794, Committee of Public Safety turned against its radical Parisian supporters, executing the leaders of the revolutionary Paris Commune.
Declaration of Pillnitz
Issued on August 27, 1791, by Emperor Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of Prussia. It was an invitation for European monarchs to take "the most effectual means...," to put the King of France more power for the well being of France. However, it didn't really work because the European monarchs were far too suspicious of each other to undertake such a plan.
Law of 14 Frimaire
It was passed on December 4, 1793 by the Committee of Public Safety. It centralized the administration of France effectively, so it could check the excesses of the Reign of Terror. Activities of revolutionary army and representatives on mission were scrutinized. Campaign against Christianity dampened.
Social Composition of National Convention
Most members were lawyers, professionals, and property owners. For the first time, there were also a couple of artisans. Two thirds of deputies were below forty five; majority of the members had political experience due to the revolution and didn't trust the king or his activities.
Battle of Waterloo
Napoleon attacked nearest allied forces in Belgium, June 18; suffered bloody defeat to British and Prussian army; Napoleon exiled to Saint Helena
Concordat in France in 1801
Napoleon was not religious but saw need for Catholic Church to stabilize his regime; Napoleon gained more from the agreement; it acknowledged the Revolution and the people that had acquired church lands during that time
Thermidorean Reaction
National Convention curtailed power of Committee of Public Safety, gave freedom of worship to all cults, laissez-faire economic policies enacted, moderate forces gaining control over Revolution, new constitution written 1795 that reflected conservative republicanism
New Ideas of the 18th Century
New ideas included criticisms privileges of the upper class. Some of the influence-rs of these new ideas were Enlightenment thinkers especially Rousseau.
The Women's March To Versailles
October 5, thousands of Parisian women marched to Versailles to confront king Louis XVI and the National Assembly, described the starvation of their children due to the lack of bread, Louis XVI promised grain supplies for Paris; women's action forced the Pairs National Guard under Lafayette to follow their lead and march to Versailles, insisted the royal family return to Pairs; king brought wagonloads of flour on October 6th; king now accepted National Assembly's decrees
End of the Radical Stage of French Revolution
On July 28, 1794, Robespierre was guillotined. This began a reaction that ended this radical stage of the French Revolution.
National Assembly
On June 17, 1889, the third estate voted to constitute itself a national assembly and they decided to draw up a constitution. They did this on a tennis court hence the nickname Tennis Court Oath. This was the first step of the French Revolution, arguably.
French Declare War on Austria
One April 20, 1792, the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria. This was because of the enthusiasm for war. Reactionaries thought a preoccupation with war would cool down the Revolution, possibly even lead to the old regime's restoration , with French defeat. Lefties hoped it would make the revolution more stronger and united, and possibly spreading it to all of Europe.
Sans-culottes
Ordinary patriots without good clothes. Many people in the Paris Commune called themselves this. Most of them were poor or working class people. however many merchants and artisans, the elites of their areas, were also included.
De-Christianization
Policy in the radical phase of the revolution. It's goal was to create a secular society through elimination Christian institutions and forms from French society. Robespierre eventually realized that it created more enemies than friends, as France was still full of Catholics. Even the calendar was changed. On January 1, 1806 Napoleon abandoned the unpopular calendar.
"Self Denying Ordinance"
Prohibited reelection of the National Assembly. It was passed by the National Assembly also.
End of The Reign of Terror
Reign of Terror had no purpose after the military successes, yet it continued because of Robespierre, obsessed with purifying the body politic of all who were corrupt. Many members of the National Convention feared that they weren't safe as long as Robespierre was free to act. An anti-Robespierre coalition within the National Convention gathered enough votes to condemn Robespierre.
Guillotine
Revolutionary device for quick and efficient separation of heads from bodies.
Catholic Church
The Catholic Church was also impacted by reform. Much of the lands of the church were confiscated and assignats were used. The church was also secularized.
The French Parlements and Their Failures
The French Parlements are thirteen law courts that could block royal edicts. Louis XIV had forced them into submission, but they gained new strength in the 18th century. They often pushed their own agendas such as blocking taxes for nobles.
American Revolution v. French Revolution
The French revolution was more violent, more complex, and more radical as it wanted to construct a new social order and political order. The French Revolution provided a model for revolution and is the movement that truly inaugurated the modern political world.
Abolition of Slavery
The Friends of the Blacks was a club advocating the abolition of slavery, which was abolished in France in September 1791. However, French planters in the West Indies profited greatly from slaves on sugar plantations and opposed the abolition of it in the French colonies. Nevertheless, the National Convention abolished slavery in the colonies on February 4, 1794.
Destruction of Old Regime
The National Assembly, on August 4, 1789, voted to abolish segneurial rights as well as fiscal privileges of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces.
Reign of Terror
The National Convention and the Committee of Public Safety organized the courts to protect the Republic from internal enemies. Anyone who seemed to support tyranny or not support the war were killed. Most of the victims were people that had opposed the radical activities of the sans-culottes. Within nine months, officially 16,000 people were killed by the guillotine, however the real number was most likely around 50,000. The Reign of Terror had little class prejudice and during this time was led by group of twelve men.
The Role of Women and The Society for Revolutionary Republican Women
The Society for Revolutionary Republican Women was created in 1793 by an actress and a chocolate manufacturer and was mostly composed of working class Parisian women. It was a "family of sisters" vowing "to rush to the defense of the Fatherland." However in the radical phase, women's clubs and presence at meetings of the Paris Commune were outlawed.
Tea Act of 1773 and the Boston Tea Party
The Tea Act, passed by parliament, allowed the East India Company to bypass American wholesalers and sell its tea directly to distributors. Americans retaliated by dressing as Native Americans and dumped tea into the Boston Harbor.
American Revolution
The cause of the American Revolution stemmed from Great Britain levying taxes on Americans without representation. The Americans gained their freedom from Britain in the American revolution.
The Common People and the Storming of the Bastille
The common people held a couple uprisings in July and August 1789. The most famous of which is the fall of the Bastille. The common people used the third estate as a way to wage war on the rich.
Representatives in the Estates-General
The first and second estates both had about 300 delegates each. The third estate had 600 people consisting of legally trained fellows and townspeople. Each had one vote meaning that the first two estates would always overpower the third estate.
Louis XVI's Response to the Uprisings
The king increased the number of troops at Versailles and at arsenals. This just further inflamed the mob. After learning that the troops were unreliable and Paris belonged to the insurgents, he gave up. This signaled the sharp downfall of royal authority.
Execution of Louis XVI
The king was found guilty of treason and was sentenced to death by the National Convention at the beginning of 1793. On January 12,1793,he was executed via the guillotine. This marked the completion of the destruction of the old regime.
Beginning of National Convention Sessions
The newly elected National Convention started having its sessions in September 1792. They're job was to not only make a new constitution but to be the sovereign ruling body of France.
Storming of the Bastille
The revolutionaries needed arms so they decided to to storm the Invalides and the Bastille. It was a great victory for the fighters and the storming of the Bastille became a symbol of the revolution.
National Conventions decisions
Their first huge step was turning the monarchy into a republic.. This was on September 21 The convention soon split into two factions over the fate and destiny of the king.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
This was a charter of basic liberties that reflected the major philosophies of the French Enlightenment.
Seven Years' War
War form 1756 to 1763 which started with the French and the British. First global conflict as it took place in Europe, North America, South America, Africa, and Asia. War was successful for Great Britain who gained a lot of land like the the bulk of New France in North America, Spanish Florida, some individual Caribbean islands in the West Indies, the colony of Senegal on the West African coast.
Common Sense
Written by Thomas Pain, this is a pamphlet that encouraged the public to mobilize and crave independence. He said it was ridiculous for "a continent to be perpetually governed by an island"
Estates-General
an assembly of representatives from all three estates that met to approve a tax on the nobility The calling of the Estates General in 1789 led to the French Revolution.
Gracchus Babeuf
appalled by misery of common people, wanted to abolish public property and private enterprise, "Conspiracy of Equals" crushed in 1796, executed 1797
Napoleon's new aristocracy
based on merit in the state service; between 1808 and 1814 created new nobles from military and high ranks of civil service
Tax collection during Napoleons rule
became systematic and efficient, collectors employed by the state dealt directly with each individual taxpayer; balanced budget in 1802
Government after the coup of 1799 in France
bicameral legislative assembly elected indirectly, executive power in 3 consuls, with Napoleon controlling them, returned to monarchy in 1804 and crowned himself consul for life, government more autocratic than before the revolution
Collapse of Napoleon's Grand Empire
caused by the survival of Great Britain and the strong British navy, and nationalism spreading to other countries like Spain; Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, Russians set villages on fire so French wouldn't have any supplies, made "Great Retreat" to Poland; Napoleon's defeat in April 1814
Napoleon's Grand Army
composed of 3 major parts: French empire, dependent states (Spain, Holland, Italy, Swiss republic, Grand Duchy of Warsaw), and allied states (Prussia, Austria, Russia); 1803 war renewed with Britain followed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia
Napoleon as a military leader
considered leader of Grand Empire, demanded obedience; accepted revolutionary principles like legal equality, religious tolerance, and economic freedom; offices open to talent
The Legislative Assembly
consisted of 745 representatives chosen by an indirect election system, election system preserved power in the hands of the more affluent members of society
Parisian Crowds
continued to affect the king and Parisian politics after the Women's march of Versailles
Direct Causes of the French Revolution
economic collapse, bad harvests, deregulation of grain market, social inequality, poverty in 1/3 of population food scarcity, income lagging behind rising prices of food and corrupt and unfit rulers like Louis XVI.
Civil Code/Code Napoleon
equality of all citizens before the law, right of individuals to choose profession, religious tolerance, abolition of serfdom and feudalism; reflected revolutionary gains, however took away some of the rights gained by women during the radical phase of the French Revolution
Constitution of 1795
established a national legislative assembly with 2 chambers: the lower house/Council of 500 to initiate legislation and the upper house/Council of Elders to accept or reject laws; chosen by electors; electors chosen by active citizens
Permanent Committee
formed by Parisian leaders; made to keep order
Three Estates
held before the 1789 Revolution, "Old Regime" France was divided into three estates: First Estate: Roman Catholic clergy (approximately 1% population) 1st estate was made of clergy and consisted of about 130,000 people, exempt from taille, French tax, and owned 10 percent of land. Half of them were from aristocratic families while the other half were poor commoners. Second Estate: nobility (approximately 2% population) nobility who owned 25-30 percent of the land. They held many government positions. Many tried to expand power at expense of monarchy. Generally exempt from taxes. Third Estate: all the rest, including the bourgeoisie, city workers, rural peasants, and artisans (97% population). They were very taxed and there were relics of feudalism that included loyalty to your landlord and payment of fees to use village facilitates and tithes to the clergy.
Mob attack on Royal Palace and Legislative Assembly
king taken captive on August 1792; legislative assembly forced to suspend the monarchy and call for a national convention that would decide the future form of government through universal male suffrage; the beginning of the radical stage of the French Revolution, the new Paris Commune gained the power of the assembly until the national convention would meet
Baron Heinrich von Stein
led Prussia in series of political and military reforms: abolition of serfdom, election of city councils, creation of larger standing army
Prefects
officials instituted by Napoleon when he eliminated locally elected assemblies; responsible for supervising local government
Amiens in March 1802
peace between France and second coalition of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria; left France with new frontiers and client territories; peace didn't last
Civil Constitution of The Clergy
put into affect July 1790; bishops and priests of Catholic church elected by people ad paid by state; all clergy required to swear oath of allegiance to Civil Constitution, however, since the pope forbade it, only 54% of the French parish clergy took the oath and the majority of bishops refused, Catholic Church became enemy of revolution; arousing the opposition of the church and gave counterrevolution a popular base to operate from
Louis XVI
remained inactive at Versailles; refused to promote decrees on abolition of feudalism and the declaration of rights, Women's march to Versailles changed this; tried to flee France in June 1791 during Revolution, was captured
Louis XVIII
ruler of France after Napoleon; had little support
Josephine de Beauharnais
widow of guillotined general, married Napoleon in 1796, stayed married for many years even though she had multiple affairs
Germaine de Staël
writer 1766-1817; created a salon in Paris that was a prominent intellectual center by 1800; denounced Napoleon's rule as tyrannical; her books banned and exiled to German states until the overthrow of Napoleon