Chapter 2: Theories

When is social learning most powerful?

adolescence

How does the central focus of behaviorism differ from psychoanalytic theory?

central focus of behaviorism pertains to modeling. Psychoanalytic is about consciousness pertaining to sexual interests and desires at a young age

Who develops theories—everyone or just scientists?

everyone because everyone raises question or forms hypothesis about something in life. We all gather information for our own personal research

What are the similarities and differences between folk theories and scientific theories?

scientific theories are testable and folk theories are not

Grand Theories

two opposing theories—psychoanalytic and behaviorism—dominated the discipline of psychology, each with extensive applications to human development. -These three are called "grand theories" because they are comprehensive, enduring, and far-reaching. In developmental studies, these three theories continue to be useful, which is why they are considered grand and are explained here. >But be forewarned: None of them is now considered as grand as developmentalists once believed.

Why is the sociocultural perspective particularly relevant within the United States?

Because the US is so multicultural so their are so many things to learn from

Why would behaviors and emotions that benefited ancient humans be apparent today?

Because they are genetically passed down

The three types of Learning

Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it emphasizes the learning process, as shown here. Type of Learning Learning Process Result 1. Classical Conditioning -Learning occurs through association. -Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned response. 2. Operant Conditioning -Learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment. -Weak or rare responses become strong and frequent—or, with punishment, unwanted responses become extinct. 3. Social Learning -Learning occurs through modeling what others do. -Observed behaviors become copied behaviors.

What did Piaget discover that earlier psychologists did not realize?

Cognitive theory

Some Techniques Used by Neuroscientists

EEG (electroencephalogram) The EEG measures electrical activity in the cortex. This can differentiate active brains (beta brain waves—very rapid, 12 to 30 per second) from sleeping brains (delta waves—1 to 3 per second) and brain states that are half-awake, or dreaming. Complete lack of brain waves, called flat-line, indicates brain death. Photo shows a EEG screen. EEG of a participant in a sleep disorder study ERP (event-related potential) The amplitude and frequency of brain electrical activity changes when a particular stimulus (called an event) occurs. First the ERP establishes the usual patterns, and then researchers present a stimulus (such as a sound, an image, a word) that causes a blip in electrical activity. ERP indicates how quickly and extensively people react—although this method requires many repetitions to distinguish the response from the usual brain activity. Photo of a toddler smiling at the camera, wearing a ERP cap. ERP when listening MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) The water molecules in various parts of the brain each have a magnetic current, and measuring that current allows measurement of myelin, neurons, and fluid in the brain. MRI scan shows a human brain MRI scan of a healthy brain fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) In advanced MRI, function is measured as more oxygen is added to the blood flow when specific neurons are activated. The presumption is that increased blood flow means that the person is using that part of the brain. fMRI has revealed that several parts of the brain are active at once—seeing something activates parts of the visual cortex, but it also may activate other parts of the brain far from the visual areas. fMRI scan of a human brain shows the highlighted visual cortex while viewing an object fMRI showing the visual cortex light up while viewing an object PET (positron emission tomography) When a specific part of the brain is active, the blood flows more rapidly in that part. If radioactive dye is injected into the bloodstream and a person lies very still within a scanner while seeing pictures or other stimuli, changes in blood flow indicate thought. PET can reveal the volume of neurotransmitters; the rise or fall of brain oxygen, glucose, amino acids; and more. PET is almost impossible to use with children (who cannot stay still) and is very expensive with adults. Photo shows PET scan of the human brain PET scan of normal brain metabolic activity fNIRS (functional near infrared spectroscopy) This method also measures changes in blood flow. But, it depends on light rather than magnetic charge and can be done with children, who merely wear a special cap connected to electrodes and do not need to lie still in a noisy machine (as PET or the in the fMRI). By measuring how each area of the brain absorbs light, neuroscientists infer activity of the brain (Ferrari & Quaresima, 2012). Photo shows a male collage student wearing a electric head band with a couple of wires for a fNIRS. fNIRS of a college student DTI (diffusion tensor imaging) DTI is another technique that builds on the MRI. It measures the flow (diffusion) of water molecules within the brain, which shows connections between one area and another. This is particularly interesting to developmentalists because life experiences affect which brain areas connect with which other ones. Thus, DTI is increasingly used by clinicians who want to individualize treatment and monitor progress (Van Hecke et al., 2016).

Cognitive Equilibrium

In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas.

Guided Participation

The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations. -the method used by parents, teachers, and entire societies to teach novices the skills and habits expected within their culture. -Active apprenticeship and sensitive guidance are central to sociocultural theory because each person depends on others to learn. All cultural beliefs are social constructions, not natural laws, according to sociocultural theorists.

Assimilation

The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas.

Accommodation

The restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences. -Accommodation is more difficult than assimilation, but it advances thought. Children—and everyone else—actively develop new concepts when the old ones fail. In Piagetian terms, they construct ideas based on their experiences.

Cognitive disequilibrium

Then the individual experiences cognitive disequilibrium, an imbalance that creates confusion. As Figure 2.1 illustrates, disequilibrium can cause cognitive growth if people adapt their thinking.

What is the relationship between theories and facts?

Theories can be refuted facts cannot

Do not confuse theories with norms or facts.

Theories raise questions and suggest hypotheses, and they lead to research to gather empirical data. Those data are facts that suggest conclusions, which may reveal a norm or verify some aspect of a theory. Other interpretations of the data and new research to confirm or refute the theory are possible.

How is a norm different from a theory?

Theories raise questions, suggest hypothesis, and lead to research to gather empirical data and norms are a standard of behavior, there is not really any questioning it is just so

apprenticeship in thinking

Vygotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society.

Reinforcement

When a behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person.

What is the basic emphasis of psychoanalytic theory?

2. He listened to his patients' remembered dreams and to their uncensored streams of thought. 3. According to Freud, development in the first six years of life occurs in three stages, each characterized by sexual interest and pleasure arising from a particular part of the body.

Cognitive theory

A grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. -thoughts and expectations profoundly affect attitudes, values, emotions, and actions.

Psychoanalytic Theory

A grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior. -These unconscious forces are thought to influence every aspect of thinking and behavior, from the smallest details of daily life to the crucial choices of a lifetime.

Behaviorism

A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned.

Developmental theory

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development.

Sociocultural theory

A newer theory which holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces. -is that human development results from the dynamic interaction between developing persons and their surrounding society. Culture is not something external that impinges on developing persons but is internalized, integral to everyday attitudes and actions.

Information Processing

A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output. -Information processing is "a framework characterizing a large number of research programs" (Miller, 2011, p. 266). Instead of interpreting responses by infants and children, as Piaget did, this cognitive theory focuses on the processes of thought—that is, when, why, and how neurons fire before a response. - Information-processing theorists examine stimuli and responses from the senses, body movements, hormones, and organs, all of which affect thinking (Glenberg et al., 2013).

humanism

A theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background.

What three things do theories do?

-Theories produce hypotheses. -Theories generate discoveries. -Theories offer practical guidance.

Vygotsky

-Vygotsky noted that people everywhere were taught the beliefs and habits valued within their culture. He noted many specific cultural variations. For example, his research included how farmers used tools, how illiterate people thought of abstract ideas, and how children learned in school. -Vygotsky believed that children become apprentices to adults, who teach them how to think by explaining ideas, asking questions, and repeating values. -Vygotsky stressed that children with disabilities should be educated (Vygotsky, 1994b). This belief has been enshrined in U.S. law since about 1970, but it is not yet part of every culture.

The two crucial differences between Erikson and Freud

1. Erikson's stages emphasized family and culture, not sexual urges. 2. Erikson recognized adult development, with three stages after adolescence.

What similarities and differences are found between Freud's and Erikson's theories of adulthood?

1. Erikson's stages emphasized family and culture, not sexual urges. 2. Erikson recognized adult development, with three stages after adolescence.

Pavlov's Original Experiment

1. Pavlov began by sounding a tone just before presenting food. After a number of repetitions of the tone-then-food sequence, dogs began salivating at the sound even when there was no food. 2. In Pavlov's original experiment, the dog associated the tone (the neutral stimulus) with food (the meaningful stimulus) and eventually responded to the tone as if it were the food itself. -The conditioned response to the tone, no longer neutral but now a conditioned stimulus, was evidence that learning had occurred.

Five perspectives on human Development p.58

1. Psychoanalytic theory a. Psychosexual (Freud) or psychosocial (Erikson) stages b. Battle unconscious impulses and overcome major crises. c. More nature (biological, sexual impulses, and parent-child bonds) 2. Behaviorism a. Conditioning through stimulus and response Respond to stimuli, reinforcement, and models. b.More nurture (direct environment produces various behaviors) 3. Cognitive theory Thinking, remembering, analyzing a. Seek to understand experiences while forming concepts. b. More nature (mental activity and motivation are key) 3. Sociocultural theory a. Social control, expressed through people, language, customs Learn the tools, skills, and values of society through apprenticeships. b.More nurture (interaction of mentor and learner, within cultures) 4. Evolutionary a. Needs and impulses that originated thousands of years ago b. Develop impulses, interests, and patterns to survive and reproduce. More nature (needs and impulses apply to all humans)

Freud's Ideas

1. Psychoanalytic theory originated with Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian physician who treated patients suffering from mental illness. 2. He listened to his patients' remembered dreams and to their uncensored streams of thought. 3. According to Freud, development in the first six years of life occurs in three stages, each characterized by sexual interest and pleasure arising from a particular part of the body. >In infancy, the erotic body part is the mouth (the oral stage); in early childhood, it is the anus (the anal stage); in the preschool years, it is the penis (the phallic stage), a source of pride and fear among boys and a reason for sadness and envy among girls. >Then, after a quiet period (latency), the genital stage arrives at puberty, lasting throughout adulthood. (Table 2.1 describes stages in Freud's theory.) 4. Freud maintained that sensual satisfaction (from stimulation of the mouth, anus, or penis) is linked to major developmental stages, needs, and challenges. 5. One of Freud's most influential ideas was that each stage includes its own struggles. Conflict occurs, for instance, when parents wean their babies (oral stage), toilet train their toddlers (anal stage), deflect the sexual curiosity and fantasies of their 5-year-olds (phallic stage), and limit the sexual interests of adolescents (genital stage)

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development

A. Birth to 2 years 1. Sensorimotor -Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection. -Infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight (object permanence) and begin to think through mental actions. (The sensorimotor period is discussed further in Chapter 6.) B. 2-6 years 1. Preoperational -Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their own perspective. -The imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self-expression and social influence. (The preoperational period is discussed further in Chapter 9.) C. 6-11 years 1. Concrete operational -Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience. -By applying logic, children grasp concepts of conservation, number, classification, and many other scientific ideas. (The concrete-operational period is discussed further in Chapter 12.) D. 12 years through adulthood 1. Formal operational -Adolescents and adults use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use analysis, not only emotion. -Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults use abstract, theoretical reasoning. (The formal-operational period is discussed further in Chapter 15.)

Norm

An average, or typical, standard of behavior or accomplishment, such as the norm for age of walking or the norm for greeting a stranger. abnormal: implies that something is wrong, but norms are neither right nor wrong. normal (norm): A norm is an average—not an arithmetical mean or median, but a mode, a common standard.

Social learning Theory

An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. (Also called observational learning.) -Social learning is particularly noticeable in early adolescence, when children want to be similar to their peers despite their parents' wishes. That impulse may continue into adulthood, especially when adults are in an unfamiliar place

Comparison of Freud's Psychosexual and Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Approximate Age Freud (Psychosexual) Erikson (Psychosocial) A. Birth to 1 year Freud: Oral Stage The lips, tongue, and gums are the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, and sucking and feeding are the most stimulating activities. Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust Babies either trust that others will satisfy their basic needs, including nourishment, warmth, cleanliness, and physical contact, or develop mistrust about the care of others. B. 1-3 years Freud: Anal Stage The anus is the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby's body, and toilet training is the most important activity. Erikson: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Children either become self-sufficient in many activities, including toileting, feeding, walking, exploring, and talking, or doubt their own abilities. C. 3-6 years Freud: Phallic Stage The phallus, or penis, is the most important body part, and pleasure is derived from genital stimulation. Boys are proud of their penises; girls wonder why they don't have them. Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt Children either try to undertake many adultlike activities or internalize the limits and prohibitions set by parents. They feel either adventurous or guilty. D. 6-11 years Freud: Latency Not really a stage, latency is an interlude. Sexual needs are quiet; psychic energy flows into sports, schoolwork, and friendship. Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority Children busily practice and then master new skills or feel inferior, unable to do anything well. E. Adolescence Freud: Genital Stage The genitals are the focus of pleasurable sensations, and the young person seeks sexual stimulation and satisfaction in heterosexual relationships. Identity vs. Erikson: Role Confusion Adolescents ask themselves "Who am I?" They establish sexual, political, religious, and vocational identities or are confused about their roles. F. Adulthood 1. Freud believed that the genital stage lasts throughout adulthood. He also said that the goal of a healthy life is "to love and to work." Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation Young adults seek companionship and love or become isolated from others, fearing rejection. - Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle-aged adults contribute to future generations through work, creative activities, and parenthood or they stagnate. - Integrity vs. Despair Older adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life as a meaningful whole or despairing at goals never reached.

What do theories contribute?

Each major theory discussed in this chapter has contributed to our understanding of human development (see Table 2.5): 1. Psychoanalytic theories make us aware of the impact of early-childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development. 2. Behaviorism shows the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment and over time. 3. Cognitive theories bring an understanding of intellectual processes, including the fact that thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development. 4. Sociocultural theories remind us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context, evident in every social interaction. 5. Evolutionary theories suggest that human impulses need to be recognized before they can be guided.

Erikson's Ideas

Erikson described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis (summarized in Table 2.1). -Although Erikson named two polarities at each crisis, he recognized a wide range of outcomes between those opposites. Typically, development at each stage leads to neither extreme but to something in between. 1. Initiative v.s guilt: ages 3-6 - undertake activities that exceed the limits set by their parents and their culture. They leap into swimming pools, pull their pants on backward, make cakes according to their own recipes, and wander off alone. -preschool initiatives produce feelings of pride or failure. 2. He thought the first stage, trust versus mistrust, was particularly crucial. For example, an adult who has difficulty establishing a secure, mutual relationship with a life partner may never have resolved that first crisis of early infancy. 3. Every stage echoes throughout life. For example, in late adulthood, one person may be outspoken while another avoids expressing opinions because each resolved the initiative-versus-guilt stage in opposite ways.

What do theories do?

Every theory is an explanation of facts and observations, a set of concepts and ideas that organize the confusing mass of sensations that each of us encounters every moment. Some theories are idiosyncratic, narrow, and useless to anyone except the people who thought of them. Others are much more elaborate and insightful, such as the major theories described in this chapter. -Theories produce hypotheses. -Theories generate discoveries. -Theories offer practical guidance.

zone of proximal development

In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone," surrounding a learner that includes all of the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close ("proximal") to acquiring but cannot yet master without help. -According to sociocultural theory, all learning is social, whether people are learning a manual skill, a social custom, or a language. -an imaginary area surrounding the learner that contains the skills, knowledge, and concepts that are close (proximal) to being grasped but not yet reached. -Moreover, within each culture, learners have personal traits, experiences, and aspirations. Consequently, education must be individualized. Some people need more assurance; some seek independence. Some learn best by looking, others by hearing, although no one is exclusively one kind of learner.

How does information processing contribute to the cognitive revolution?

Information processing changes over time with the progression of human development

Behaviorism

Learning in behaviorism is far more comprehensive than the narrow definition of learning, which focuses on academic knowledge, such as learning to read or multiply. Instead, for behaviorists, everything that people do and feel is learned. ex./ preschoolers learn to hold hands when crossing the street. -Behaviorists believe that development occurs not in stages but bit by bit. A person learns to talk, read, and everything else one tiny step at a time.

White coat syndrome

One example of classical conditioning is white coat syndrome, when past experiences with medical professionals (who wore white coats) conditioned a person to be anxious.

Rewards

Pleasant consequences are sometimes called rewards, but behaviorists do not call them that because what some people consider a reward may actually be a punishment, an unpleasant consequence. ex./some teachers think they are rewarding children by giving them more recess time, but some children hate recess.

Selective adaptation

The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. -Genes that enhance survival and reproduction ability to select over the generations, to become more prevalent -The process of selective adaptation works as follows: If one person happens to have a trait that makes survival more likely, the gene (or combination of genes) responsible for that trait is passed on to the next generation if that person lives long enough to reproduce. ex./ For example, originally almost all human babies lost the ability to digest lactose at about age 2, when they were weaned from breast milk. Older children and adults were lactose intolerant, unable to digest milk

How do mentors and mentees interact within the zone of proximal development?

Some people need more assurance; some seek independence. Some learn best by looking, others by hearing, although no one is exclusively one kind of learner.

Why are most developmentalists eclectic in regard to theories?

The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.

eclectic perspective

The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory.

Evolutionary Theory

The basic idea of evolutionary theory in development is that in order to understand the emotions, impulses, and habits of humans over the life span ex./ why some people have a fear of snakes and not cars why we protect babies

Modeling

The central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them. -Generally, modeling is most likely when the observer is uncertain or inexperienced (which explains why modeling is especially powerful in childhood) and when the model is admired, powerful, nurturing, or similar to the observer.

Operant Conditioning

The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning.) -Skinner: He focused instead on what happens after a behavior elicits a particular response. If the consequence that follows is enjoyable, the animal tends to repeat the behavior; if the consequence is unpleasant, the animal does not do that action again.

Classical Conditioning

The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning. (Also called respondent conditioning.) -In classical conditioning, a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same way as to the meaningful one.

Punishment

The opposite is true as well: Something thought to be a punishment may actually be reinforcing. For example, parents "punish" their children by withholding dessert. But a particular child might dislike the dessert, so being deprived of it is no punishment. ex./ However, if a child hates the teacher, leaving class is rewarding, and if a child hates school, suspension is a reinforcement.