Chapter 2 - Theories of Aging

Programmed Theory of Aging (Genetic Theory and Non-Stochastic Theory)

One of the earliest genetic theories that proposed that animals and humans are born with a genetic program or biological clock that predetermines the life span. Studies done support the theory that senescence (the process of becoming old)

Ego Transcendence verse Ego Preoccupation

To achieve satisfaction through reflection on one's past life and accomplishments rather than be preoccupied with the infinite number of years left to live.

Ego Differentiation versus Role Preoccupation

To develop satisfactions from oneself as a person rather than through parental or occupational roles.

Nutrition Theory (Non-Stochastic Theory)

Deficiencies of vitamins and other nutrients and excesses of nutrients such as cholesterol may cause various disease processes. The influence of nutritional supplements on the aging process; vitamin E, bee polon, ginseng, gotu kola, peppermint, and kelp are among the nutrients believed to promote a healthy, long life.

Erik Erikson (Psychological Theories of Aging)

Described eight stages through which human beings progress from infancy to old age and challenges, or tasks, that confront individuals during each of these stages. The challenge of old age is to accept and find meaning in the life the person has lived; this gives the individual ego integrity that aids in adjusting and coping with the reality of aging and mortality. Feelings of anger, bitterness, depression, and inadequacy can result in inadequate ego integrity.

Free Radicals (Stochastic Theories)

Highly unstable, reactive molecules containing an extra electrical charge that are generated from oxygen metabolism. They can result from normal metabolism, reactions with other free radicals, or oxidation of ozone, pesticides, and other pollutants. These molecules can damage proteins, enzymes, and DNA by replacing molecules that contain useful biological information with faulty molecules that create genetic disorder. They generate other free radicals. The body has natural antioxidants that can counteract. Beta-carotene and vitamins C and E are antioxidants that can offer protection against free radicals.

Radiation Theory (Non-Stochastic Theory)

In human beings, repeated exposure to ultraviolet light is known to cause solar elastosis, the "old age" type of skin wrinkling that results from the replacement of collagen by elastin. Ultraviolet light is also a factor in the development of skin cancer. Radiation may induce cellular mutations that promote aging.

Developmental Tasks (Psychological Theories of Aging)

The challenges that must be met and adjustments that must be made in response to life experiences that are part of an adult's continued growth through the life span.

Environmental Theory (Non-Stochastic Theory)

The ingestions of mercury, lead, arsenic, radioactive isotopes, certain pesticides, and other substances can produce pathological changes in human beings. Smoking and breathing tobacco smoke and other air pollutants also have adverse effects. Crowed living conditions, high noise levels, and other factors are thought to influence how we age.

Aging

The process of growing older that begins at birth.

Apoptosis (Non-Stochastic Theory)

The process of programmed cell death that continuously occurs throughout life due to biochemical events. The cell shrinks and there is nuclear and DNA fragmentation, although the membrane maintains its integrity. This programmed cell death is part of the normal development process that continues throughout life.

Autoimmune Reactions (Non-Stochastic Theory)

The reduction in immunologic functions is evidenced by an increase in the incidence of infections and many cancers with age. One hypothesis regarding the role of autoimmune reactions in the aging process is that the cells undergo changes with age, and the body misidentifies these aged, irregular cells as foreign agents and develops antibodies to attack them. An alternative explanation for this reaction could be that cells are normal in old age, but a breakdown of the body's immunochemical memory system causes it to misinterpret normal cells as foreign substances.

Biogerontology (Stochastic Theory)

The study of the connection between aging and disease processes. Bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other organisms are thought to be responsible for certain physiologic changes during the aging process. Pathogens may be present in the body for decades before they begin to affect body systems.

Activity Theory (Sociologic Theories of Aging)

Asserts that an older person should continue a middle-aged lifestyle, denying the existence of old age as long as possible, and that society should apply the same norms to old age as it does to middle age and not advocate diminishing activity, interest, and involvement as its members grow old. It suggest ways of maintaining activity in the presence of multiple losses associated with the aging process, including substituting intellectual activities for physical activities when physical capacity is reduced, replacing the work role with other roles when retirement occurs, and establishing new friendships when old ones are lost. Declining health, loss of roles, reduced income, a shrinking circle of friends, and other obstacles to maintain an active life are to be resisted and overcome instead of being accepted. A problem with the activity theory is its assumption that most older people desire and are able to maintain a middle-aged lifestyle.

Wear-and-Tear Theory (Stochastic Theories)

Attribute aging to the repeated use and injury of the body over time as it performs its highly specialized functions. The body will function less efficiently with prolonged use and numerous insults (smoking, poor diet, and substance abuse). Stresses to the body can have adverse effects and lead to conditions such as gastric ulcers, heart attacks, thyroiditis and inflammatory dermatoses. The role of stress in aging in inconclusive.

Disengagement Theory (Sociologic Theories of Aging)

Developed by Elaine Cumming and William Henry. It has been one of the earliest, most controversial, and most widely discussed theories of aging. It views aging as a process in which society and the individual gradually withdraw, or disengage, from each other, to the mutual satisfaction and benefit of both. Several difficulties with this concept are obvious and this theory has now been discredited. Many older persons desire to remain engaged and do not want their primary satisfaction to be derived from reflection on younger years. Some older individuals may wish to disengage from the mainstream of society, this is not necessarily a process to be expected from all aged persons.

Non-stochastic Theories

Explain biological aging as resulting from a complex, predetermined process.

Psychological Theories of Aging

Explore the mental processes, behavior, and feelings of persons throughout the life span, along with some of the mechanisms people use to meet the challenges they face in old age.

Error Theory (Genetic Theory and Non-Stochastic Theory)

Proposes a genetic determination of aging. It holds that genetic mutations are responsible for aging by causing organ decline as a result of self-perpetuating cellular mutations: (1) mutation of DNA, (2) perpetuation of mutation during cells division, (3) increasing number of mutant cells in the body, (4) malfunction of tissues, organs, and systems, (5) decline in body functions.

Cross-Linking Theory (Stochastic Theories)

Proposes that cellular division is threatened as a result of radiation or chemical reaction in which cross-linking agent attaches itself to a DNA strand and prevents normal parting of the strands during mitosis. An effect of cross-linking on collagen (an important connective tissue in the lungs, heart, blood vessels, and muscle) is the reduction in tissue elasticity associated with many age-related changes.

Neuroendocrine and Neurochemical Theories (Non-Stochastic Theory)

Suggest that aging is the result of changes in the brain and endocrine glands.

Lipofuscin "Age-Pigments" (Stochastic Theories)

A lipoprotein byproduct of oxidation that can e seen only under a fluorescent microscope. It is associated with the oxidation f unsaturated lipids so it is believed to have a role similar to that of free radicals in the aging process. It interferes with the diffusion and transport of essential metabolites and information-bearing molecules in the cells. A positive relationship exists between an individual's age and the amount of lipofuscin in the body.

Gerotranscendence (Psychological Theories of Aging)

A recent theory that suggest aging entails a transition from a rational, materialistic metaperspective to a cosmic and transcendence vision. As people age, they are less concerned with their physical bodies, material possessions, meaningless relationships, and self-interests and instead desire a life of more significance and a greater connection with others.

Sociologic Theories of Aging

Address the impact of society on older adults and vice versa. The norms of society affected how the older adult's roles and relationships were viewed.

Mutation Accumulation Theory (Evolutionary Theory)

Aging occurs due to a declining force of natural selection with age. So genetic mutations that affect children will eventually be eliminated because the victim will not have lived long enough to reproduce and pass this to future generations. But genetic mutations that appear late in life, however, will accumulate because the older individuals they affect will have already passed these mutations to their offspring.

Continuity Theory (Sociologic Theories of Aging)

Also referred to as the developmental theory. Relates personality and predisposition toward certain actions in old age to similar factors during other phases of the life cycle. Personality and basic patterns of behavior are said to remain unchanged as the individual ages. Patterns developed over a lifetime will determine whether individuals remain engaged and active or become disengaged and inactive. The recognition that the unique features of each individual allow for multiple adaptations to aging and that the potential exists for a variety of reactions gives this theory validity and support.

Disposable Soma Theory (Evolutionary Theory)

Proposing that aging is related to the use of the body's energy rather than to genetics. Claims that the body must use energy for metabolism, reproduction, maintenance of functions, and repair, and with finite supply of energy from food to perform these functions, some compromise occurs.

Robert Peck (Psychological Theories of Aging)

Refined Erikson's description of old age tasks in the eighth stage of development. Detailed three specific challenges facing the older adults that influence the outcome of ego integrity or despair: (1) ego differentiation versus role preoccupation, (2) body transcendence versus body preoccupation, (3) ego transcendence versus ego preoccupation.

Evolutionary Theory (Stochastic Theories)

Related to genetics and hypothesize that the differences in the aging process and longevity of various species occur due to interplay between the processes of mutation and natural selection.

Antagonistic Pleiotropy Theory (Evolutionary Theory)

Suggests that accumulated mutant genes that have negative effects in late life may have had beneficial effects in early life.

Age Stratification Theory (Sociologic Theories of Aging)

Suggests that society is stratified by age groups. Persons within a similar age group generally have similar experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and life transitions that offer them a unique shared history. New age groups are continually being formed with the birth of new individuals; thus, the interaction between society and the aging population is dynamic. There is interdependence between society and the group.

Body Transcendence versus Body Preoccupation

To find psychological pleasures rather than become absorbed with heath problems or physical limitations imposed by aging.

Stochastic Theories

View the effects of biological aging as resulting from random assaults from both the internal and external environment.

Subculture Theory (Sociologic Theories of Aging)

Views older adults as a groupd with distinct norms, beliefs, expectations, habits,, and issues that separate them from the rest of society. Their formation of a subculture is a response to the negative attitudes and treatment by society. It has a component that the argument for social reform and greater empowerment of the older populations so that their rights and needs can be respected.