Chapter 21: Reaction, Revolution and Romanticism, 1815-1850

What was French police like?

- France was the first with this approach to policing - essential object of our municipal police is the safety of the inhabitants of Paris. Safety by day and night, free traffic movement, clean streets, the supervision of and precaution against accidents, the maintenance of order in public places, the seeking out of offenses and their perpetrators. - in March 1829 the serjents appeared, dressed in blue uniforms to make them easily recognizable by all citizens. They were also lightly armed with a white cane during the day and a saber at night, underscoring the fact that they were a civilian, not a military, body.

What was the Congress of Vienna? Who led it? What role did he have, where was he from, and what was his primary goal at the meetings?

- The Congress of Vienna was made up of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. They all agreed to meet at a congress in Vienna in September 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement after the war involving France. - Francis the first of Austria held the meetings - it was led by the Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich An experienced diplomat who was also conceited and self-assured He wanted to reestablish peace and stability in Europe. He considered this necessary in order to restore legitimate monarchs that would preserve old traditional institutions. - undo everything that napoleon had done (reduce france to old boundaries, get old monarchs)

What kept liberalism and nationalism movements initially weak throughout most places in Europe?

- The Habsburg empire and its chief agent, Prince Klemens von Metternich, played an important role. - Metternich's spies were everywhere, searching for evidence of liberal or nationalist plots. Although both liberalism and nationalism emerged in the German states and the Austrian Empire, they were initially weak as central Europe tended to remain under the domination of aristocratic landowning classes and autocratic, centralized monarchies.

Eventually Austria itself dismissed Metternich and faced some revolutionary sentiments. From whom did these movements arise and what were their demands?

- The Hungarian liberals under Louis Kossuth agitated for "commonwealth" status; they were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature.

What was the window of opportunity that Creoles had to instigate change in their Latin American colonies?

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Napoleon's European wars provided the Creoles with an opportunity for change. When Bonaparte toppled the monarchies of Spain and Portugal, the authority of the Spaniards and Portuguese in their colonial empires was weakened, and between 1807 and 1824, a series of revolts enabled most of Latin America to become independent.

What were the views of John Stuart Mill as presented in his work "On Liberty"?

Mill argued for an "absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects" that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of the majority.

What is nationalism? How was the view of "nationhood" very different from how people viewed their identity in previous generations?

Nationalism arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, historical traditions, language, and customs. This community constitutes a "nation," and it, rather than a dynasty, city-state, or other political unit, becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty. Each nationality should have its own government

How did the Polish nationalist uprising of 1830 turn out?

Poland, too, had a nationalist uprising in 1830 when revolutionaries tried to end Russian control of their country. But the Polish insurgents failed to get the hoped-for support from France and Britain, and by September 1831, the Russians had crushed the revolt and established an oppressive military dictatorship over Poland.

What happened to France's government after Napoleon's defeat?

The immediate response to the defeat of Napoleon was the desire to contain revolution and the revolutionary forces by restoring much of the old order.

What was the Second Republic, when was it established, and how did it function? Who was elected to lead the new republic?

The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, established a republic (the Second Republic) with a unicameral (one-house) legislature of 750 elected by universal male suffrage for three years and a president, also elected by universal male suffrage, for four years. - In the elections for the presidency held in December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, resoundingly defeated four republicans who had been associated with the early months of the Second Republic. Within four years, President Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon

How did John Stuart Mill feel about the role of womens' rights?

was also instrumental in expanding the meaning of liberalism by becoming an enthusiastic supporter of women's rights. When his attempt to include women in the voting reform bill of 1867 failed, Mill published an essay titled On the Subjection of Women, which he had written earlier with his wife, Harriet Taylor. He argued that the legal subordination of one sex to the other was wrong. Differences between women and men, he said, were due not to different natures but simply to social practices. With equal education, women could achieve as much as men. On the Subjection of Women would become an important work in the nineteenth-century movement for women's rights.

In what way did David Ricardo extend Malthus's teachings? What was his major economic argument?

- "iron law of wages." - Following Malthus, Ricardo argued that an increase in population means more workers; more workers in turn cause wages to fall below the subsistence level. The result is misery and starvation, which then reduce the population. Consequently, the number of workers declines, and wages rise above the subsistence level again, which in turn encourages workers to have larger families as the cycle is repeated. According to Ricardo, raising wages arbitrarily would be pointless since it would accomplish little but perpetuate this vicious circle.

What is the principle of legitimacy? How did this factor into the Congress of Vienna's objectives?

- the idea that after the Napoleonic wars, peace could best be reestablished in Europe by restoring legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions - this principle guided Metternich at the Congress of Vienna. - it had been followed in France and Spain by restoring the bourbons, as well in a number of Italian states, but elsewhere it was largely ignored and overshadowed by more practical considerations of power

Who was Simon Bolivar? Explain his background, major accomplishments, and how he developed the title "El Libertador".

- "the George Washington of Latin America" - Born into a wealthy Venezuelan family, he was introduced as a young man to the ideas of the Enlightenment. While in Rome to witness the coronation of Napoleon as king of Italy in 1805, he committed himself to free his people from Spanish control. - When he returned to South America, Bolívar began to lead the bitter struggle for independence in Venezuela as well as other parts of northern South America. Although he was acclaimed as the "liberator" of Venezuela in 1813 by the people, it was not until 1821 that he definitively defeated Spanish forces there. He went on to liberate Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Already in 1819, he had become president of Venezuela, at the time part of a federation that included Colombia and Ecuador. - Bolívar took on the task of crushing the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. By then, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile had all become free states. In 1823, the Central American states became independent, and in 1838-1839, they divided into five republics (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua). Earlier, in 1822, the prince regent of Brazil had declared Brazil's independence from Portugal.

Describe some of the causes of the brand new revolution in France (again) that started in 1848.

- A severe industrial and agricultural depression beginning in 1846 brought great hardship to the French lower middle class, workers, and peasants. - Scandals, graft, and corruption were rife, and the government's persistent refusal to extend the suffrage angered the disenfranchised members of the middle class. - As Louis-Philippe's government continued to refuse to make changes, opposition grew. Radical republicans and socialists, joined by the upper middle class under the leadership of Adolphe Thiers, agitated for the dismissal of Guizot. Since they were forbidden by law to stage political rallies, they used the political banquet to call for reforms.

In what ways did nationalism operate as a force against conservatism in the early years of the 19th century? By the same token, why was nationalism closely identified with liberalism in the early years of the 19th century?

- A united Germany or united Italy would upset the balance of power established in 1815. By the same token, an independent Hungarian state would mean the breakup of the Austrian Empire. Because many European states were multinational, conservatives tried hard to repress the radical threat of nationalism. - Most liberals believed that liberty could be realized only by peoples who ruled themselves. One British liberal argued that the boundaries of governments should coincide in the main with those of nationalities. Many nationalists believed that once each people obtained its own state, all nations could be linked together into a broader community of all humanity.

Who was the Tsar of Russia at the start of the 19th century and how was he a conservative reactionary? What was the response to his policies? What was the Decembrist Revolt? Who led it? Why did it happen? And how did it come to an end?

- Alexander I - After the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander became a reactionary, and his government reverted to strict and arbitrary censorship. Soon opposition to Alexander arose from a group of secret societies. - the Northern Union, included both young aristocrats who had served in the Napoleonic wars and become aware of the world outside Russia and intellectuals alienated by the censorship and lack of academic freedom in Russian universities. The Northern Union favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom. - Although Alexander's brother Constantine was the legal heir to the throne, he had renounced his claims in favor of his brother Nicholas. Constantine's abdication had not been made public, however, and during the ensuing confusion in December 1825, the military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against the accession of Nicholas. This so-called Decembrist Revolt was soon crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas, and its leaders were executed.

What happened to Louis-Philippe? What was primary focus of the new provisional government in his absence?

- Although Louis-Philippe now proposed reform, he was unable to form another ministry and abdicated on February 24 and fled to Britain - A provisional government, established by a group of moderate and radical republicans, ordered that a constituent assembly be convened to draw up a new constitution; the members of the assembly were to be elected by universal manhood suffrage. - also established national workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc. As Blanc envisioned them, the workshops were to be cooperative factories run by the workers. In fact, the workshops primarily provided unskilled jobs, such as leaf raking and ditch digging, for unemployed workers. The cost of the program became increasingly burdensome to the government.

What happened at the third and fourth conferences?

- Austria, Prussia, and Russia met in a third congress at Laibach in January 1821 and authorized the sending of Austrian troops to Naples. These forces crushed the revolt, restored Ferdinand I to the throne, and then moved north to suppress the rebels in Piedmont. - At the fourth postwar conference, held at Verona in October 1822, the same three powers authorized France to invade Spain to crush the revolt against Ferdinand VII. In the spring of 1823, French forces restored the Bourbon monarch.

How much was the new King of France from 1830 to 1848 a real champion of the lesser bourgeoisie and Parisian working class? Why was his reign disappointing in many ways?

- Constitutional changes that favored the interests of the upper bourgeoisie were instituted. - Financial qualifications for voting were reduced yet remained sufficiently high that the number of voters increased only from 100,000 to barely 200,000, guaranteeing that only the wealthiest people would vote. - To the upper middle class, the bourgeois monarchy represented the stopping place for political progress. To the lesser bourgeoisie and the Parisian working class, who had helped overthrow Charles X in 1830, it was a severe disappointment because they had been completely excluded from political power. - The rapid expansion of French industry in the 1830s and 1840s gave rise to an industrial working class concentrated in certain urban areas. Terrible working and living conditions and the periodic economic crises that created high levels of unemployment led to worker unrest and sporadic outbursts of violence.

What was the result of the Hungarian revolts in Austria? How did it occur?

- In March, demonstrations in Buda, Prague, and Vienna led to Metternich's dismissal, and the arch symbol of the conservative order fled abroad. - in Vienna, they took control of the capital and insisted that a constituent assembly be summoned to draw up a liberal constitution. Hungary was granted its wish for its own legislature, a separate national army, and control over its foreign policy and budget. Allegiance to the Habsburg dynasty was now Hungary's only tie to the Austrian Empire. In Bohemia, the Czechs began to demand their own government as well. - a military force under General Alfred Windischgrätz ruthlessly suppressed the Czech rebels in Prague. In October, the death of the minister for war at the hands of a Viennese mob gave Windischgrätz the pretext for an attack on Vienna. By the end of the month, the radical rebels there had been crushed. - In December, the feebleminded Ferdinand I agreed to abdicate in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I who worked vigorously to restore the imperial government in Hungary. The Austrian armies, however, were unable to defeat Kossuth's forces, and it was only through the intervention of Nicholas I, who sent a Russian army of 140,000 men to aid the Austrians, that the Hungarian revolution was finally crushed in 1849. - The revolutions in Austria had also failed. Autocratic government was restored; emperor and propertied classes remained in control, and the numerous nationalities were still subject to the Austrian government.

What kinds of political and institutional reforms did Prussia make during the late Napoleonic Era to strengthen the state?

- King Frederick William III (1797-1840), following the advice of his two chief ministers, Baron Heinrich von Stein and Prince Karl von Hardenberg, instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon. - The reforms included the abolition of serfdom, municipal self-government through town councils, the expansion of primary and secondary schools, and universal military conscription to form a national army. The reforms, however, did not include the creation of a legislative assembly or representative government as Stein and Hardenberg wished.

Summarize the significance of the new revolutions that began in the German states in 1848. What is the difference between Grossdeutsch and Kleindeutsch? What was the Frankfurt Parliament, or Frankfurt Assembly? Was it a success or failure? Why?

- King Frederick William IV agreed to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, and work for a united Germany. This last promise had its counterpart throughout all the German states as governments allowed elections by universal male suffrage for deputies to an all-German parliament to meet in Frankfurt, the seat of the Germanic Confederation. Its purpose was to fulfill a liberal and nationalist dream—the preparation of a constitution for a new united Germany. - the assembly became embroiled in a debate over the composition of the new German state. Supporters of a Grossdeutsch solution wanted to include the German province of Austria, while proponents of a Kleindeutsch solution favored excluding Austria and making the Prussian king the emperor of the new German state. - The problem was solved when the Austrians withdrew, leaving the field to the supporters of the Kleindeutsch solution. Their victory was short-lived, however, as Frederick William IV gruffly refused the assembly's offer of the title of "emperor of the Germans" in March 1849 and ordered the Prussian delegates home.

So, after Napoleon, the Bourbons were restored in France. How did the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X go? Explain with some details.

- Louis understood the need to accept some of the changes brought to France by the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code with its recognition of the principle of equality before the law. The property rights of those who had purchased confiscated lands during the Revolution were preserved. A two-house legislature was established, consisting of the Chamber of Peers, chosen by the king, and the Chamber of Deputies, chosen by an electorate restricted to slightly fewer than 100,000 wealthy people. Louis's grudging moderation, however, was opposed by liberals eager to extend the revolutionary reforms and by a group of ultraroyalists who criticized the king's willingness to compromise and retain so many features of the Napoleonic era. The ultras hoped to return to a monarchical system dominated by a privileged landed aristocracy and to restore the Catholic Church to its former position of influence. - in 1824 Louis died and was succeeded by his brother, Charles X. In 1825, Charles granted an indemnity to aristocrats whose lands had been confiscated during the Revolution. Moreover, the king pursued a religious policy that encouraged the Catholic Church to reestablish control over the French educational system. Public outrage, fed by liberal newspapers, forced the king to compromise in 1827 and even to accept the principle of ministerial responsibility—that the ministers of the king were responsible to the legislature. But in 1829, he violated his commitment. A protest by the deputies led the king to dissolve the legislature in 1830 and call for new elections. France was on the brink of another revolution.

After the Bourbon dynasty was ousted, who became the new king? Where did he draw his support from? What was his nickname?

- Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) was soon called the bourgeois monarch because political support for his rule came from the upper middle class.

Briefly explain what happened to Poland at the Congress of Vienna.

- Prussia and Austria were allowed to keep some Polish territory. -A new, small, nominally independent Polish kingdom, was established, with the Romanov dynasty of Russia as its hereditary monarchs. Although Poland was guaranteed its independence, the kingdom's foreign policy (and the kingdom itself) remained under Russian control. - As compensation for the Polish lands it lost, Prussia received two-fifths of Saxony, the Napoleonic German kingdom of Westphalia, and the east bank of the Rhine. Austria was compensated for its loss of the Austrian Netherlands by being given control of two northern Italian provinces, Lombardy and Venetia

What was the Risorgimento and who was Giuseppe Mazzini? What was the goal of Mazzini and in what manner did he plan to achieve it?

- Risorgimento was a movement in Italy in the nineteenth century aimed at the creation of a united Italian republica. - it lead led by Giuseppe Mazzini, a dedicated Italian nationalist who founded an organization known as Young Italy in 1831 - This group set as its goal the creation of a united Italian republic. In The Duties of Man, Mazzini urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the Italian nation

For the first half of the 19th century, Italy is still not a unified state. Name the nine different states.

- The Congress of Vienna had established nine states in Italy, including Piedmont (part of the kingdom of Sardinia) in the north, ruled by the house of Savoy; the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily); the Papal States; a handful of small duchies ruled by relatives of the Austrian emperor; and the important northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, which were now part of the Austrian Empire.

What did the Poor Law of 1834 accomplish? What was the theory behind it? What was the Anti-Corn Law League and who helped go get it repealed in Parliament? Why was his aid somewhat unexpected?

- The Poor Law of 1834 was based on the theory that giving aid to the poor and unemployed only encouraged laziness and increased the number of paupers. The Poor Law tried to remedy this by making paupers so wretched they would choose to work. Those unable to support themselves were crowded together in workhouses where living and working conditions were intentionally miserable so that people would be encouraged to find gainful employment. - manufacturers Richard Cobden and John Bright, formed the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838 to help workers by lowering bread prices. But abolishing the Corn Laws would also aid the industrial middle classes, who, as economic liberals, favored the principles of free trade. Repeal came in 1846 when Sir Robert Peel, the leader of the Tories, persuaded some of his associates to support free trade principles and abandon the Corn Laws.

Revival of Religion

- The Romantics' attraction to the Middle Ages and their emphasis on emotion led them to their own widespread revival of Christianity. - Catholicism, Especially among German Romantics, were many conversions to the Catholic faith - François-René de Chateaubriand's "Genius of Christianity" detailed as a faith, Catholicism echoed the harmony of all things. Its cathedrals brought one into the very presence of God; according to Chateaubriand - Protestantism also experienced a revival. Methodist missionaries from England and Scotland carried their messages of sin and redemption to liberal Protestant churches in France and Switzerland, winning converts to their strongly evangelical message. Germany, too, witnessed a Protestant awakening as enthusiastic evangelical preachers found that their messages of hellfire and their methods of emotional conversion evoked a ready response among people alienated by the highly educated establishment clergy of the state churches.

Russia has an autocracy, what is this? How was Russia still very politically behind-the-times from the rest of Western Europe?

- The Russian tsar was still regarded as a divine-right monarch.

How did the political boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire change after the fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna? Which two states emerged as the most powerful? What was the German Confederation?

- The Vienna settlement in 1815 had recognized the existence of thirty-eight sovereign states in what had once been the Holy Roman Empire. Austria and Prussia were the two great powers; the other states varied considerably in size. - Together these states formed the Germanic Confederation, but the confederation had little power. It had no real executive, and its only central organ was the federal diet, which needed the consent of all member states to take action, making it virtually powerless.

How well did these revolutions across Italy manage to establish liberal reform and national unity?

- The dreams of Mazzini and Belgioioso seemed on the verge of fulfillment when a number of Italian states rose in revolt in 1848. rebellions spread northward as ruler after ruler granted a constitution to his people. Citizens in Lombardy and Venetia also rebelled against their Austrian overlords. The Venetians declared a republic in Venice. - The king of the northern Italian state of Piedmont, Charles Albert, took up the call and assumed the leadership for a war of liberation from Austrian domination. His invasion of Lombardy proved unsuccessful, however, and by 1849, the Austrians had reestablished complete control over Lombardy and Venetia. Counterrevolutionary forces also prevailed throughout Italy. French forces helped Pope Pius IX regain control of Rome. Elsewhere Italian rulers managed to recover power on their own. - Only Piedmont was able to keep its liberal constitution.

What were the characteristics of romantic art?

- The revival of medieval Gothic architecture left the European countryside adorned with pseudo-medieval castles and cities bedecked with grandiose cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and even railway stations - All artistic expression to them was a reflection of the artist's inner feelings; a painting should mirror the artist's vision of the world and be the instrument of his own imagination. - deliberately rejected the principles of Classicism. Beauty was not a timeless thing; its expression depended on one's culture and one's age

During the meetings from 1818-22, why were there revolts in Spain and Italy? Why was Metternich so concerned with these revolts? His reaction was to establish the "principle of intervention," but what did this mean?

- The revolt in Spain was directed against Ferdinand VII, the Bourbon king who had been restored to the throne in 1814. - In southern Italy, the restoration of another Bourbon, Ferdinand I, as king of Naples and Sicily sparked a rebellion that soon spread to Piedmont in northern Italy. - he saw them as a threat to Austria's domination of the peninsula - principle of intervention - the idea, after the Congress of Vienna, that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries experiencing revolution to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

What maneuvers did Tsar Nicolas I take that made him even more reactionary than Alexander I?

- The revolt transformed Nicholas I from a conservative into a reactionary - He strengthened both the bureaucracy and the secret police. The political police, known as the Third Section of the tsar's chancellery, were given sweeping powers over much of Russian life. They deported suspicious or dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance of foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion. - Matching Nicholas's fear of revolution at home was his fear of revolution abroad. There would be no revolution in Russia during the rest of his reign; if he could help it, there would be none in Europe either. Contemporaries called him the Policeman of Europe because of his willingness to use Russian troops to crush revolutions.

Why were the revolutions of 1848 wrought with failure?

- The unity of the revolutionaries had made the revolutions possible, but divisions soon shattered their ranks. - moderate liberals from the propertied classes failed to extend suffrage to the working classes who had helped achieve the revolutions. But as radicals pushed for universal male suffrage, liberals everywhere pulled back. Concerned about their property and security, they rallied to the old ruling classes for the sake of order and out of fear of social revolution by the working classes. All too soon, established governments were back in power. - divisions among nationalities proved utterly disastrous. Instead of joining together against the old empire, minorities fought each other.

Who was Jose de San Martin? How was he similar and/or different than Simon Bolivar in his beliefs and how he carried out his revolts? Where were his efforts focused?

- They were both leaders of the independence movement, even attended European universities, where they imbibed the ideas of the Enlightenment. They especially resented the domination of their trade by Spain and Portugal. - he concentrated his efforts on the southern part of the continent. - Son of a Spanish army officer in Argentina, San Martín went to Spain and pursued a military career in the Spanish army. In 1811, after serving twenty-two years, he learned of the liberation movement in his native Argentina, abandoned his military career in Spain, and returned to his homeland in March 1812. - Argentina had already been freed from Spanish control, but San Martín believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any nation was to remain free. In January 1817, he led his forces over the high Andes Mountains, The arrival of San Martín's troops in Chile surprised the Spaniards, whose forces were routed at the Battle of Chacabuco - In 1821, San Martín moved on to Lima, Peru, the center of Spanish authority. Convinced that he was unable to complete the liberation of all of Peru, San Martín welcomed the arrival of Bolívar and his forces. Highly disappointed, San Martín left South America for Europe, where he remained until his death outside Paris in 1850.

What efforts did Zoe Gatti de Gamond and Comte de Saint-Simon attempt to make in restructuring society?

- Zoe established her own phalanstery, which was supposed to provide men and women with the same educational and job opportunities. As part of collective living, men and women were to share responsibilities for child care and housecleaning. - Comte combined Christian values, scientific thought, and socialist utopianism, proved especially attractive to a number of women who participated in the growing political activism of women that had been set in motion during the French Revolution. Saint-Simón's ideal cooperative society recognized the principle of equality between men and women, and a number of working-class women

Who was Robert Owen? What was he remembered for in Scotland and what ideas did he bring to the US?

- a British cotton manufacturer who believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. - At New Lanark in Scotland, he was successful in transforming a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community. - But when he attempted to create a self-contained cooperative community at New Harmony, Indiana, in the United States in the 1820s, bickering within the community eventually destroyed his dream.

What is liberalism in the classical, European history sense of the word? Which group of people most commonly held beliefs in liberalism?

- an ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. Economic liberalism is the idea that the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy. Political liberalism is the idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly.

Explain the ideology of conservatism. Who were some major advocates of conservatism in the early 19th century? What were their broad views?

- an ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and resisted change, especially abrupt change. - Burke: society was a contract, but only a partnership agreement in trade, "to be taken up for a temporary interest and to be dissolved by the fancy of the parties." The state was a partnership but one "not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead and those who are to be born." No one generation has the right to destroy this partnership; each generation has the duty to preserve and transmit it to the next. Burke advised against the violent overthrow of a government by revolution, but he did not reject all change. Sudden change was unacceptable but that did not mean that there should never be gradual or evolutionary improvements. - no greater symbol of conservatism in the first half of the nineteenth century than Prince Klemens von Metternich of Austria. - Maistre: the most influential spokesman for a counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism. espoused the restoration of hereditary monarchy, which he regarded as a divinely sanctioned institution. Only absolute monarchy could guarantee "order in society". - despite differences, most: favored obedience to political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, and were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revolutionary era. The community took precedence over individual rights; society must be organized and ordered, and tradition remained the best guide for order. After 1815, the political philosophy of conservatism was supported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucracies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches, be they Protestant or Catholic. The conservative forces appeared dominant after 1815, both internationally and domestically.

What was early socialism? How was it "utopian" and what does this term mean? What kinds of conditions brought about socialist sentiments?

- an ideology that calls for collective or government ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods - early socialism was largely the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism. - To later Marxists, such ideas were impractical dreams, and they contemptuously labeled the theorists utopian socialists.

Who was Flora Tristan? What was her vision of the future of civilization and how relevant was her work, and the work of other utopian socialists, at the time it was created?

- attempted to foster a "utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism." She traveled through France preaching the need for the liberation of women - She envisioned this absolute equality as the only hope to free the working class and transform civilization. - Flora Tristan, like the other utopian socialists, was largely ignored by her contemporaries. Although criticized for their impracticality, the utopian socialists at least laid the groundwork for later attacks on capitalism that would have a far-reaching result. In the first half of the nineteenth century, however, socialism remained a fringe movement largely overshadowed by liberalism and nationalism.

What were the Karlsbad Decrees of 1819? Why were they passed?

- closed the Burschenschaften, provided for censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control. Thereafter, except for a minor flurry of activity from 1830 to 1832, Metternich and the cooperative German rulers maintained the conservative status quo.

Who were the "creoles" in Central and South America? What ideas became increasingly appealing to them in the beginning of the 19th century?

- descendants of Europeans who became permanent inhabitants of Latin America - the ideas of the Enlightenment and the new political ideals stemming from the successful revolution in North America were beginning to influence the Creole elites

What was British police like?

- fearful of the powers exercised by military or secret police in authoritarian continental states, Britain depended on a system of unpaid constables recruited by local authorities. Often these local constables were incapable of keeping order, preventing crimes, or apprehending criminals. Such jobs could also be dangerous and involve incidents - failure of this system led to a new approach, and between September 1829 and May 1830, three thousand uniformed police officers appeared on the streets of London. They came to be known as bobbies after Sir Robert Peel, who had introduced the legislation that created the force - primary goal to prevent crime - police were also useful for imposing order on working-class urban inhabitants. On Sundays, they were called on to clean up after Saturday night's drinking bouts. As demands for better pay and treatment led to improved working conditions, British police began to develop a sense of professionalism

What are the characteristics of the Romantic period in general?

- it emerged to challenge the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason in discovering truth. The Romantics tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, sentiment, inner feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing. - individualism, an interest in the unique traits of each person. The Romantics' desire to follow their inner drives led them to rebel against middle-class conventions. Long hair, beards, and outrageous clothes served to reinforce the individualism that young Romantics were trying to express. - The Romantic hero was a solitary genius who was ready to defy the world and sacrifice his life for a great cause - passionate interest in the past - attraction to the bizarre and unusual - love of nature - the emerging industrialization would cause people to become alienated from their inner selves and the natural world around them - Pantheism - identifying the great force in nature with God - critique the mechanistic materialism of eighteenth-century science, which, they believed, had reduced nature to a cold object of study - abandoned classical restraint for warmth, emotion, and movement

What were the July Ordinances put in place by Charles X? What was the immediate response to them? What happened to Charles X?

- it imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections - produced an immediate rebellion—the July Revolution. Liberal newspapers defied Charles's censorship and published articles that fueled the revolt. Barricades went up in Paris as a provisional government led by a group of moderate, propertied liberals was hastily formed and appealed to Louis-Philippe, the duke of Orléans, a cousin of Charles X, to become the constitutional king of France. - Charles X fled to Britain; a new monarchy had been born.

What was the Concert of Europe? Which countries were affiliated in this "concert"?

- it was made as a means to maintain the new status quo they had constructed (to maintain peace) - Great Britain, Russia, Prussia - renewed their commitment against any attempted restoration of Bonapartist power and agreed to meet periodically in conferences to discuss their common interests and examine measures that would be judged most helpful for "the maintenance of peace" in Europe.

What was the Corn Law? Why was it put into place? What was the reaction of various groups?

- it was put into place by the Tory government in 1815 as a resounded to falling agricultural prices - it imposed extraordinarily high tariffs on foreign grain. Though the tariffs benefited the landowners, the price of bread rose substantially, making conditions for the working classes more difficult. - Mass protest meetings took a nasty turn when a squadron of cavalry attacked a crowd of 60,000 demonstrators at Saint Peter's Fields in Manchester in 1819. The deaths of eleven people, called the Peterloo Massacre by government detractors, led Parliament to take even more repressive measures. The government restricted large public meetings and the dissemination of pamphlets among the poor, while extending police powers of search and arrest.

What was the Chamber of Deputies? What two upper-middle-class groups emerged as representatives and what were their differing views?

- it was the legislature - The Party of Movement, led by Adolphe Thiers, favored ministerial responsibility, the pursuit of an active foreign policy, and limited expansion of the franchise. The Party of Resistance, led by François Guizot, believed that France had finally reached the "perfect form" of government and needed no further institutional changes. After 1840, the Party of Resistance dominated the Chamber of Deputies. Guizot cooperated with Louis-Philippe in suppressing ministerial responsibility and pursuing a policy favoring the interests of the wealthier manufacturers and tradespeople.

What were the characteristics of romantic literature?

- numerous novels and plays appeared whose plots revolved around young maidens tragically carried off at an early age (twenty-three was most common) by disease (usually tuberculosis, at that time a protracted disease that was usually fatal) to the sorrow and despair of their male lovers. - novels reflecting historical consciousness - a form of literature used by Romantics to emphasize the bizarre and unusual, especially evident in horror stories. - sought the unusual in their own lives by pursuing extraordinary states of experience in dreams, nightmares, frenzies, and suicidal depression or by experimenting with cocaine, opium, and hashish to produce altered states of consciousness. - poetry ranked above all other literary forms because they believed it was the direct expression of one's soul. The Romantic poets were viewed as seers who could reveal the invisible world to others.

How did the use of police systems spread

- organized throughout the Western world during the nineteenth century. - After the revolutions of 1848 in Germany, a state-financed police force called the Schutzmannschaft, was established for Berlin. - The Schutzmannschaft began as a civilian body, but already by 1851, the force had become organized more along military lines and was used for political purposes. Its military nature was reinforced by the force's weaponry, which included swords, pistols, and brass knuckles.

What did the Whigs realize about revolution by the 1830s? What did the Reform Act of 1832 do to change life in Britain? Who did it benefit and why?

- realized that concessions to reform were superior to revolution; the demands of the wealthy industrial middle class could no longer be ignored. - It disenfranchised fifty-six rotten boroughs and enfranchised forty-two new towns and cities and reapportioned others. This gave the new industrial urban communities some voice in government. - A property qualification for voting was retained, however, so the number of voters increased only from 478,000 to 814,000, a figure that still meant that only one in every thirty people was represented in Parliament. - the Reform Act of 1832 primarily benefited the upper middle class; the lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers still had no vote. Moreover, the change did not significantly alter the composition of the House of Commons.

Who were the Carbonari? Why did they have such a difficult time inciting revolt in Italy? (hint, at least two major reasons)

- secret societies motivated by nationalistic dreams and known as the Carbonari ("charcoal burners") continued to conspire and plan for revolution. - They had many problems trying to incite revolt in italy because the kingdom of two sicilies (sicily and naples) overwatched any revolt and slashed it before it could take flight

Alternative to police forces, what were other approaches to solving the crime problems?

- some contemporary reformers believed that the increase in crime was related to the dramatic increase in poverty - influenced by the middle-class belief that unemployment was the result of sheer laziness, European states passed poor laws that attempted to force paupers to either find work on their own or enter workhouses designed to make people so utterly uncomfortable that they would choose to reenter the labor market. - another group of reformers was arguing that poor laws failed to address the real problem, which was that poverty was a result of the moral degeneracy of the lower classes, increasingly labeled the "dangerous classes" - one group of secular reformers formed institutes to instruct the working classes in the applied sciences in order to make them more productive members of society (The London Mechanics' Institute, established in Britain, and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in the Field of Natural Sciences, Technical Science, and Political Economy, founded in Germany,) - British evangelicals set up Sunday schools to improve the morals of working children, and in Germany, evangelical Protestants established nurseries for orphans and homeless children, women's societies to care for the sick and poor, and prison societies that prepared women to work in prisons. The Catholic Church attempted the same kind of work through a revival of its religious orders; dedicated priests and nuns used spiritual instruction and recreation to turn young male workers away from the moral vices of gambling and drinking and female workers from lives of prostitution.

Who was Charles Fourier? What was his model of living? How were phalansteries supposed to work?

- sought to create voluntary associations that would demonstrate the advantages of cooperative living. - proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries. These were self-contained cooperatives, each consisting ideally of 1,620 people. Communally housed, the inhabitants of the phalanstery would live and work together for their mutual benefit. Work assignments would be rotated frequently to relieve workers of undesirable tasks.

What was the Burschenschaften? What were its goals? Who participated in it and what kinds of activities did they arrange?

- student societies in the German states dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany. - "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland," inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn who had organized gymnastic societies during the Napoleonic wars to promote the regeneration of German youth and support the "War of German Liberation" against the French. Jahn encouraged Germans to pursue their Germanic heritage and urged his followers to disrupt the lectures of professors whose views were not nationalistic.

Why was there a revolt in Greece and how did the "principle of intervention" work differently in this case? Give a brief synopsis of the Greek Revolt and the roles that Britain, France, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire played in this event.

- the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters. Although subject to Muslim control for four hundred years, the Greeks had been allowed to maintain their language and their Greek Orthodox faith. A revival of Greek national sentiment at the beginning of the nineteenth century added to the growing desire for liberation - a combined British and French fleet went to Greece and defeated a large Ottoman armada. A year later, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire and invaded its European provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. By the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829, which ended the Russian-Turkish war, the Russians received a protectorate over the two provinces. By the same treaty, the Ottoman Empire agreed to allow Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of Greece. In 1830, the three powers declared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new royal dynasty was established. The revolution had been successful only because the great powers themselves supported it.

Describe the status of the British government during the first part of the 19th century. Who was in charge? Who are the Whigs and the Tories?

- the aristocratic landowning classes that dominated both houses of Parliament governed Great Britain. Suffrage for elections to the House of Commons, controlled by the landed gentry, was restricted and unequal. Large new industrial cities such as Birmingham and Manchester had no representatives, while landowners used pocket and rotten boroughs to control seats in the House of Commons. - the power of the crown was largely in the hands of the ruling party in Parliament. - There were two political factions in Parliament, the Tories and the Whigs. Both were still dominated by members of the landed classes, although the Whigs were beginning to receive support from the new industrial middle class. Tory ministers largely dominated the government until 1830 and had little desire to change the existing political and electoral system. - whigs were liberals, and supported worker rights

Why were delegates at the Congress of Vienna so concerned with establishing a new Balance of Power? What did they argue it achieved? How was France positioned in this balence?

- the diplomats at Vienna believed they were forming a new balance of power that would prevent any one country from dominating Europe - It was decided, to punish the French people for their enthusiastic response to Napoleon's return. France's borders were pushed back to those of 1790, and the nation was forced to pay an indemnity and accept an army of occupation for five years. The order established by the Congress of Vienna managed to avoid a general European conflict for almost a century.

How does political liberalism differ from economic liberalism? What views did liberals have of human rights and his society should function under law?

- the protection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people, which included equality before the law; freedom of assembly, speech, and press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of these freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document - religious toleration for all, separation of church and state, right if peaceful opposition to the government in and out of parliament and the making of laws by a representative assembly (legislature) elected by qualified voters constituted two other liberal demands. Many liberals believed, then, in a constitutional monarchy or constitutional state with limits on the powers of government to prevent despotism and in written constitutions that would help guarantee these rights. - ministerial responsibility, which would give the legislative branch a check on the power of the executive because the king's ministers would answer to the legislature rather than to the king. Limited suffrage: all people were entitled to equal civil rights, they should not have equal political rights. The right to vote and hold office should be open only to men who met certain property qualifications.

Why did police forces begin to be established?

- the ruling elites were made nervous about social disorder and the potential dangers to their lives and property. - At the same time, the influx of large numbers of people from the countryside into the rapidly growing cities had led to horrible living conditions, poverty, unemployment, and great social dissatisfaction. - The rise in property crimes provoked a severe reaction among middle-class urban residents, who feared that the urban poor posed a threat to their security and possessions. New police forces soon appeared to defend the propertied classes from criminals and social misfits. - these groups of well-trained law enforcement officers were to preserve property and lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime, and arrest offenders. It was hoped that their very presence would prevent crime and protect citizens

What was prison reform like?

- the the indiscriminate use of capital punishment, even for crimes against property, was increasingly being viewed as ineffective and was replaced by imprisonment - Prisons served to isolate criminals from society, but a growing number of reformers questioned their purpose and effectiveness, especially when prisoners were subjected to harsh and even humiliating work as punishment - Motivated by the desire not just to punish but to rehabilitate and transform criminals into new persons, the British and French sent missions to the United States in the early 1830s to examine how the two different systems then used in American prisons accomplished this goal. After this, both the French and the British constructed prisons on the Walnut Street model with separate cells that isolated prisoners from one another. At Petite Roquette in France and Pentonville in Britain, prisoners wore leather masks while they exercised and sat in separate stalls when in chapel. Solitary confinement, it was believed, forced prisoners to examine their consciences, led to greater remorse, and increased the possibility that they would change their evil ways. -

Why did Britain refuse to agree to the principle? As with anything, there's the reasons they state overtly as their reason, and underlying one's that actually motivated their refusal.

- they argued that it had never been the intention of the Quadruple Alliance to interfere in the internal affairs of other states, except in France. -

Name some notable romantic artists and their most famous works

Caspar David Friedrich - painted landscapes with an interest that transcended the mere presentation of natural details, conveyed a feeling of mystery and mysticism, a manifestation of divine life, as is evident in "The Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog", Joseph Malford William Turner - more than 20,000 paintings, drawings, and watercolors, the encroachment of industrialization upon nature, convey its moods by using a skilled interplay of light and color to suggest natural effects. In allowing his objects to melt into their surroundings, he anticipated the Impressionist painters of the second half of the nineteenth century Eugène Delacroix - Largely self-taught, he was fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color, "The Death of Sardanapalus", light and its patches of interrelated color and the sinuous nature of the bodily forms, theatricality and movement with a daring use of color. Many of his works reflect his own belief that "a painting should be a feast to the eye."

What was laissez-faire economics? Explain the extent to which the government should play a role in the economy according to liberals. Why do they believe this?

Economic liberalism: the belief that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand. Government should not restrain the economic liberty of the individual and should restrict itself to only three primary functions: defense of the country, police protection of individuals, and the construction and maintenance of public works too expensive for individuals to undertake. If individuals were allowed economic liberty, ultimately they would bring about the maximum good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society.

Although Austria was a single state under the Habsburg dynasty, what made it somewhat fractured from within?

Essentially, the dynasty, the imperial civil service, the imperial army, and the Catholic Church held the Austrian Empire together. But its national groups, especially the Hungarians, with their increasing desire for autonomy, acted as forces to break the empire apart.

How did the realm of foreign economic dominance change after the establishment of new free states in South America?

Great Britain instead of Spain and Portugal now dominating the Latin American economy. British merchants moved in in large numbers, while British investors poured in funds, especially in the mining industry. - exports—especially of wheat, tobacco, wool, sugar, coffee, and hides—to the North Atlantic countries noticeably increased. At the same time, finished consumer goods, especially textiles, were imported in increasing quantities, causing a decline in industrial production in Latin America. - The emphasis on exporting raw materials and importing finished products ensured the ongoing domination of the Latin American economy by foreigners.

What did French socialist Louis Blanc propose as an alternative to capitalism?

In The Organization of Work, he maintained that social problems could be solved by government assistance. Denouncing competition as the main cause of the economic evils of his day, he called for the establishment of workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale. The state would finance these workshops, but the workers would own and operate them.

What were the broad views of Thomas Malthus? What was his major work?

In his major work, Essay on the Principles of Population, Malthus argued that population, when unchecked, increases at a geometric rate while the food supply correspondingly increases at a much slower arithmetic rate. The result will be severe overpopulation and ultimately starvation for the human race if this growth is not held in check. According to Malthus, nature imposes a major restraint with severe labor and exposure to the seasons, extreme poverty, bad nursing of children, excesses of all kinds, many common diseases, epidemics, wars, plague, and famine. Thus, misery and poverty were simply the inevitable result of the law of nature; no government or individual should interfere with its operation.

Name some notable romantic writers, poets, and their most famous works.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - The Sorrows of the Young Werther (story abt a romantic figure who sought freedom, misunderstood, believed his own worth and feelings but his love for a girl made him commit suicide) Thomas Carlyle - the Romantic hero did not destroy himself in ineffective protests against society but transformed society instead the Grimm brothers / Hans Christian Anderson - collected and published local fairy tales Walter Scott - Ivanhoe (the clash between Saxon and Norman knights in medieval England) Mary Shelley - Frankenstein, a cautionary tale of the danger of science when it tries to conquer nature Percy Bysshe Shelley - expelled from school for advocating atheism, "Prometheus Unbound" is a portrait of the revolt of human beings against the laws and customs that oppress them. Lord Byron - dramatized himself as the melancholy Romantic hero that he had described in his work "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage". He participated in the movement for Greek independence and died in Greece fighting the Ottomans. William Wordsworth - nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive and learn from. Nature served as a mirror into which humans could look to learn about themselves. Nature was, in fact, alive and sacred, the scientists' dry, mathematical approach left no room for the imagination or for the human soul

Name some notable romantic composers and their most famous works.

Ludwig van Beethoven - served as a bridge between Classicism and Romanticism, For Beethoven, music had to reflect his deepest inner feelings, his work was largely classical framework of the eighteenth century, and the influences of Haydn and Mozart are apparent. But with the composition of the Third Symphony (1804), also called the Eroica, which was originally intended for Napoleon, Beethoven broke through to the elements of Romanticism in his use of uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions, became deaf Hector Berlioz - achieving fame in Germany, Russia, and Britain, although the originality of his work kept him from receiving much recognition in his native France, one of the founders of program music, which was an attempt to use the moods and sound effects of instrumental music to depict the actions and emotions inherent in a story, an event, or even a personal experience, the first complete program symphony, known as the Symphonie Fantastique, used music to evoke the passionate emotions of a tortured love affair, including a fifth movement in which he musically creates an opium-induced nightmare of a witches' gathering.