Chapter 28: World War and Revolution

What was Germany hoping to achieve by sending Lenin back to Russia in 1917?

Lenin would take over the revolution and weaken Russia's war effort. → Germany sent Lenin back to Russia in order to force Russia to drop out of the war.

What tools did countries use in the First World War to ensure their citizens' support of total war?

Propaganda → All countries used propaganda to encourage patriotism and to portray their enemies as evil.

What defined modernism in art and architecture in the early twentieth century?

A constant search for new expression → Modernism rejected the conventions of the past and encouraged a constant experimentation and search for new ways of expression.

What was the Schlieffen plan?

Germany's plan for a two-front war that lead to World War I → The Schlieffen plan, named for a member of Germany's war staff, prepared Germany to fight both France and Russia simultaneously.

What did Germany's Auxiliary Service Law, enacted during World War I, mandate?

All males between seventeen and sixty were required to work only at jobs considered critical to the war effort. → Germany mobilized its civilian population with the Auxiliary Service Law, which required able-bodied men to either serve in the military or to work in jobs that supported the military.

What was the chief feature of the Bolsheviks' "War Communism" during the Russian civil war?

Application of the total-war concept to a civil conflict → The Bolsheviks seized grain from peasants, rationed resources, nationalized all banks and industry, and required everyone to work.

What led to mutinies and protests in Germany between October and November of 1918?

Armistice negotiations were taking too long. → As negotiations dragged on, food shortages and continued losses at the front led to mutinies at the front and protests in Germany.

What did this 1927 cartoon about the implications of the atom suggest about its future?

Atomic power was a dark and dangerous force. → The image shows the destruction that could result from harnessing atomic power, including the damage to buildings and the fear of the people.

The Triple Alliance of 1882 began when Germany made an alliance with what country?

Austria

In addition to the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the peace treaties signed at the end of the First World War included treaties with which defeated state?

Austria-Hungary → The Treaty of Saint-Germain outlined the peace terms with Austria, and the Treaty of Trianon outlined the terms with Hungary.

In the immediate aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War, what was Bismarck's concern about France and Russia?

Germany would be caught in a two-front war between France and Russia. → Germany had taken land from France in its unification and had concerns about Russia's ambitions in eastern Europe.

What was established by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

Bolshevik surrender to Germany → Lenin thought that Russia had lost the war with Germany and that the only realistic goal was peace at any price. That price was very high. Germany demanded that the Soviet government give up all its western territories, and a third of old Russia's population was surrendered in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed with Germany in March 1918. In return, Lenin got Russia out of the war so he could focus on implementing his revolution.

How did the Western Allies strengthen the Bolshevik cause during the Russian civil war?

By sending troops, which generated support for the Communists → Foreign military intervention in the civil war ended up helping the Communists. After the Soviet government nationalized all foreign-owned factories without compensation and refused to pay foreign debts, Western governments began to support White armies. Although these efforts did little to help the Whites' cause, they did permit the Communists to appeal to the patriotic nationalism of ethnic Russians.

How did political unrest from World War I manifest itself in Germany by 1917?

Coalition demand for peace → A coalition of Socialists and Catholics arose in the Reichstag and demanded a compromise "peace without annexations or reparations."

Which of the following characterizes the "spirit of Locarno" after 1925?

Commitment to settle disputes peacefully through negotiations → At Locarno, diplomats agreed to settle border disputes through peaceful negotiations rather than resort to war, creating a precedent.

What resulted from the Petrograd Soviet's Army Order No. 1, issued during World War I?

Complete breakdown of army discipline → The order stripped officers of their authority in favor of committees of common soldiers, which led to widespread chaos in the Russian army.

What did President Woodrow Wilson believe would help to avert future wars?

Creating a League of Nations

What artistic approach of the early twentieth century concentrated on a complex geometry of zigzagging lines and sharply angled overlapping planes?

Cubism → Cubism, begun by Pablo Picasso, focused on geometry, angles, and basic shapes.

Which event weakened Russia prior to World War I?

Defeat by Japan in war → The 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War revealed the military weakness of Russia and the growing military strength of Japan.

Salvador Dali and the surrealists often found their artistic inspiration where?

Dreams → Surrealists painted fantasy scenes that often came from dreams or dreamlike thoughts.

Which of the following was a consequence of World War I?

Expansion of women's suffrage → Women played an active role in industry and after the war agitated for an equally active role in voting.

Which of the following countries experienced a mutiny of soldiers after suffering serious losses in World War I?

France → After the enormous losses of the Second Battle of the Aisne, nearly half the French infantry divisions mutinied.

When Germany refused to make its second reparations payment in 1922, what was the immediate result?

France and Belgium occupied the Ruhr district.

What principle did the Bauhaus school of design promote?

Functionalism → The Bauhaus school focused on making all kinds of products that were functional.

What do scholars now believe about the impact of World War I on traditional views of gender?

Gender roles remained remarkably resilient. → Although the past scholarship has emphasized the new role for women, scholars more recently have been pointing out the resilience of traditional roles and the conservative backlash in the postwar years.

Which factor strained German-British relations before the First World War?

German naval buildup → The British saw Germany's naval buildup as a deliberate attempt to challenge their dominance of the world's oceans.

What argument did right-wing Germans make in stating that the Versailles treaty should be repudiated?

Germany had not been defeated. → Right-wing leaders like Adolf Hitler believed that liberals, Marxists, and Jews had betrayed Germany and surrendered in order to seize power.

What caused the United States to no longer remain neutral in World War I?

Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 → Germany wanted to stop American ships from supplying the British. After two years in which it refrained from using submarines to sink these ships in the Atlantic, it resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917. Soon after, the United States declared war.

In the Russian civil war of the summer of 1918, what united the forces of the Whites?

Hatred of Bolsheviks → The Whites came from many different social groups but were united in their mutual hatred of Lenin and the Bolsheviks.

What does Henri de Groux's The Assault tell us about the impact of World War I?

Haunting memories of the war and battle would shape the future. → The haunting image of the soldier moving forward in smoke represented the devastating psychological impact of the war. The image has nothing in common with the more glorified or romanticized images of war painted in earlier times.

How did the experience of the First World War affect Christianity?

Having lost faith in reason and progress, many Christian theologians stressed the sinful nature of humans and the mystery of God's forgiveness. → The suffering brought about by the First World War led many theologians to emphasize humanity's sinful nature.

Why did Lenin sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

He wanted nothing to do with the war but hoped to carry out his revolution. → Lenin thought that Russia had lost the war with Germany and that the only realistic goal was peace at any price. Germany demanded that the Soviet government give up all its western territories, and a third of old Russia's population was surrendered in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In return, Lenin got Russia out of the war so he could focus on implementing his revolution.

Why was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand important to the Austro-Hungarian Empire?

He was the heir to the Austrian-Hungarian crown. → Franz Ferdinand was the nephew of the emperor and heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne.

Why did Alexander Kerensky, head of Russia's provisional government in 1917 to 1918, refuse to confiscate large landholdings and redistribute the land to the peasants?

He was worried that it would lead to complete disintegration of the army. → The army was largely made up of peasants led by officers who were large landowners; if the latter had lost their land, they would have left the war.

Which of Albert Einstein's accomplishments further undermined Newtonian physics?

His theory of special relativity

What happened after Hitler tried to seize power from a Munich beer hall in 1923?

Hitler was sentenced to prison. → The Munich putsch, or coup, was poorly organized and easily crushed. Hitler was sentenced to prison, where he wrote his book Mein Kampf.

What was the chief feature of the western front in World War I?

Inconclusive battles fought through ceaseless trench warfare → Early in the war, the two stalled armies dug in behind trenches, with staggering losses of men and without much territorial gain.

What land reform did Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin bring to Russia in the early twentieth century?

Individual land ownership → Stolypin wanted to replace the communal system of peasant land use with one that encouraged the development of a politically conservative class of capitalist farmers.

Which of the following statements characterizes the twentieth-century philosophy of existentialism?

Individuals must search for moral values in an anxious and uncertain world that lacks a fixed, fundamental meaning for humanity. → Existentialists believed that human beings simply exist and need to find their own reasons for morality.

Which group rose up against Great Britain in the Easter Rebellion of 1916?

Irish nationalists → In 1916 Irish nationalists rebelled in Dublin, unsuccessfully demanding independence.

Read the following excerpt from the Petrograd Garrison, outlining its resolutions and demands in 1917: "The country is on the verge of ruin. The army demands peace, the peasants land, and the workers bread and work. The Coalition Government is against the people. It became the tool of the enemies of the people. The time for words is past. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets must take the power into its own hands in order to give to the people peace, land, bread." How does the Petrograd Garrison justify the seizure of power by the Petrograd Soviet?

It argues that the provisional coalition government no longer represents the people. → The Petrograd Garrison suggests that the provisional (coalition) government is now working against the people because it is not addressing the demands for peace, land, bread, or work.

Which of the following characterized the 1916 Easter Rebellion in Ireland?

It centered on Irish nationalists agitating for self-rule.

Which of the following contributed to the successes of the Red Bolshevik army over the Whites during the Russian civil war?

It controlled Petrograd, while the Whites were scattered at the edges of the Russian state. → Because the Reds controlled Petrograd, they had access to more resources and were more united than the Whites.

How did Austria-Hungary respond to the loss of Ottoman control of the Balkans in the 1910s?

It feared a similar breakup within its own Balkan lands. → Both the Ottoman and the Austro-Hungarian Empires contained various ethnic groups in the Balkans who were agitating for independence. When the first and second Balkan wars resulted in the Ottomans losing their Balkan lands, Austria's leaders feared that its own holdings would be lost next.

What was the League of Nations "mandate" system?

It governed the victor's acquisition of territory stripped from Germany and the Ottoman Empire after World War I. → Through the mandate system, territory stripped from Germany and the Ottoman Empire was split among the Allies, leaving colonial peoples in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa bitterly disappointed and demonstrating that the age of Western and Eastern imperialism lived on.

Which of the following generally characterizes the 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact?

It renounced war as a part of national policy.

What step did Britain take to strengthen its global position after 1900?

It sought improved relations with the United States. → To counterbalance the alliances in Europe, Britain sought alliances with the United States and Japan.

How did the American entry into the war affect the fighting on the French-German border in 1917?

It tipped the scales in favor of Allied victory. → At the Battle of the Marne, 140,000 American soldiers saw battle and helped stop German armies from reaching Paris.

Which of the following statements describes the character and status of Hitler's National Socialist Party in the 1920s?

It was small and supported by only a few fanatics and extremists. → During most of the 1920s, the National Socialist Party was supported only by a few fanatical anti-Semites, ultranationalists, and disgruntled former servicemen.

What did Britain promise in the Balfour Declaration, issued during World War I?

Jewish homeland → The Balfour Declaration was a British promise to give the Jews of Europe a homeland in Palestine.

Why did labor unions gain more power during World War I?

Labor shortages gave workers more leverage. → The need for huge numbers of soldiers in the field created a tremendous demand for workers. This situation brought about momentous changes. One such change was greater power and prestige for labor unions. Unions cooperated with war governments in return for real participation in important decisions.

Which of the following statements identifies a reason why society became more egalitarian during World War I?

Labor shortages resulted in relatively high wages for workers. → War promoted social equality, blurring class distinctions and lessening the gap between rich and poor. Greater equality was reflected in full employment, rationing according to physical needs, and a sharing of hardships. Society became more uniform and more egalitarian, despite some war profiteering.

Which of the following statements describes the role of women in World War I?

Large numbers of women worked in industry and offices and as doctors and nurses at the front. → To replace men fighting at the front, women took over their jobs in industry and worked as doctors and nurses.

What factor led the Russian Marxists to split into Bolshevik and Menshevik factions?

Lenin's desire for a small, disciplined party → Lenin wanted a small party, but many members of the Social Democratic Labor Party wanted a larger party. As a result, the two groups divided into factions.

Japan's imperialist ambitions were realized when it entered World War I in order gain territory where?

Manchuria

Which of the following was included in the Treaty of Versailles?

Placement of blame for the war on Germany and its allies → In the treaty, the Allies declared that Germany (with Austria) was responsible for the war and therefore had to pay reparations equal to all civilian damages caused by the war.

What was the decisive tipping point in World War I?

Massive American intervention late in the war → The American intervention brought 2 million fresh troops and supplies to the British and French, giving them an advantage the Germans could not match.

What force was destroying both the Ottoman and the Austro-Hungarian Empires in the early twentieth century?

Nationalism → Both the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires were multiethnic, multireligious, and multilinguistic empires, and each was seriously threatened by nationalist movements.

Of the Great Powers that had participated in negotiating the Versailles treaty, which stood as France's ally in late 1919?

No one → France lost all of her allies after the Versailles treaty was not ratified.

What did Russia give up in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

One-third of its population

Which empire experienced serious territorial losses after 1878?

Ottoman → The Ottoman Empire lost territory to expanded Greece and Serbia and to newly formed Albania and Bulgaria.

What characterized combat on the eastern front in the first two years of World War I?

Quick Russian advances followed by several Russian defeats → On the eastern front, Russia immediately moved into eastern Germany but suffered appalling losses against the Germans at the Battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and September 1914. With the help of German forces, the Austrians reversed the Russian advances of 1914 and forced the Russians to retreat deep into their own territory in the 1915 eastern campaign.

Which synthetic material was invented by Germany's War Raw Materials Board in order to produce war supplies during World War I?

Rubber → Because Germany was cut off from rubber imports, which were controlled by the British and French, it had to invent synthetic rubber.

According to the map of 1914, which two ethnic groups were most likely to have nationalist aspirations?

Serbs and Romanians → The map shows these two ethnic groups in outline, with major parts of their territory controlled by Austria-Hungary.

What problem did Russian soldiers face in World War I?

Shortage of munitions and weapons → Russian soldiers were underarmed and told to find weapons on the battlefield if possible.

What role did Britain play in ending the Ottoman Empire's control of the Arabs?

Supporting T. E. Lawrence, who led the Arabs in a revolt against the Ottomans → Lawrence helped the Arabs organize and fight a guerilla war against the Ottomans.

What did U.S. president Woodrow Wilson hope to achieve by creating the League of Nations?

Sure and lasting peace → Wilson promoted the idea of forming the League of Nations, a permanent international organization designed to protect member states from aggression and avert future wars.

Who declared a provisional government in Russia in March 1917?

The Duma

What does new evidence from the Soviet archives reveal about the nature of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917?

The revolution had more widespread popular support than previously believed. → Western scholars had long believed that Lenin and a small group of radicals managed to stage a second revolution to install an atheist Communist government.

Which of the following was a result of the first and second Balkan wars?

The Ottoman Empire suffered major territorial losses.

Why did the U.S. Senate refuse to ratify the Versailles treaty?

The Senate wanted to return to isolationism. → The Senate did not want to participate in the League of Nations or ratify a treaty that involved the United States in European politics.

Which of the following allowed Lenin and the Reds to win the Russian civil war?

The Whites failed to create a unified agenda.

Which two factions contended for power when Tsar Nicholas abdicated in 1917?

The bourgeoisie and the proletariat → The bourgeoisie was a varied class that included the elite, educated upper and middle classes, the military officer corps, and landowners. The proletariat included the small group of urban working class and the rank-and-file soldiers and sailors.

Why was Russia's provisional government about to collapse by the summer of 1917?

The bourgeoisie and the proletariat were growing further apart. → The bourgeoisie and the proletariat were demanding that their respective liberal and socialist parties move further to the right or left.

What was the March Revolution in Russia in 1917?

The declaration of a provisional democratic government → On March 12, 1917, the Duma declared a provisional government that was to rule under a new constitution drafted by a future Constituent Assembly.

What does the map of European alliances in 1914 tell us about the political divisions in Europe?

The uncommitted states in the Balkans lay vulnerable to attack if great powers sought to expand their control of territory. → The map shows the uncommitted states sandwiched between the Triple Alliance to the northwest and the Russian Empire to the northeast.

How did the colonial subjects of France and Britain react to World War I?

They provided supplies and soldiers to the French and British. → Colonial subjects provided critical supplies and fought alongside the imperial powers of France and Britain. They also helped local British and French commanders seize Germany's colonies around the globe. More than a million Africans and Asians served in the various armies of the warring powers, with more than double that number serving as porters to carry equipment.

What did atheistic existentialists and post-1917 Christian theologians have in common?

They shared loneliness and despair. → Both tried to answer the terror and anxiety produced by the war.

Why did France insist on receiving postwar reparation payments from Germany?

To fund the cost of reconstruction and pay war debts → Most of the western front had been on French soil, which had been scarred by the fighting. France wanted money from Germany to rebuild and also wanted Germany to suffer.

Why did Italy enter the war on the Allied side?

To gain territory from the Austrians

How did Adolf Hitler use the new media of radio and film?

To manipulate the citizens of Germany → Hitler used radio broadcasts and films of Nazi rallies and speeches as propaganda pieces to manipulate Germans to support his policies.

hy did the British government create the Ministry of Munitions in 1915?

To organize private industry for war production → After a serious shortage of shells in June 1915, the British government created this ministry to guarantee the supply of war material. The Ministry controlled profits, allocated labor, fixed wages, and settled labor disputes.

What was the intent of the system of alliances formed by Otto von Bismarck?

To restrain Russia and Austria-Hungary and isolate France → Bismarck's alliance system was designed to protect Germany from France and Russia; Austria-Hungary was an ally of Germany, but weak and likely to collapse.

Who led the actual Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917?

Trotsky → Trotsky was Lenin's supporter and was most effective as a militant fighter. On November 6-7, 1917, militant Trotsky followers joined with trusted Bolshevik soldiers to seize government buildings and arrest provisional government members. At the Congress of Soviets, a Bolshevik majority then declared that all power had passed to the soviets and named Lenin head of the new government.

How did World War I change the status of labor unions in belligerent nations?

Unions were allowed to participate in political decisions. → Governments were concerned about unions, but used them by allowing them to participate in various decisions. One result was increased power and prestige for labor unions.

What was renounced by the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928?

War → As part of the reaction to the horrors of the First World War, fifteen countries signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact to renounce war as a solution to international disputes.

What led to the collapse of Bismarck's alliance system in the 1890s?

William II refused to renew Bismarck's nonaggression pact with Russia. → When William II came to power, he fired Bismarck and refused to renew the nonaggression agreement with Russia. As a result, France moved closer to Russia, and the nations of Europe aligned themselves into two rival blocs, leaving the alliance system collapsed.

During World War I, which group played a major role in meeting the need for workers to free men for combat?

Women → To replace men fighting at the front, women took over their jobs in industry and worked as doctors and nurses.

Why did men fear that the war was having a negative impact on the role of women in society?

Women were losing their femininity. → Men worried that work outside of the home, especially in war-related industry, would move women closer to men and they would lose their feminine qualities.

What event began the actual revolution in Russia in March 1917?

Women's bread march → In 1917, women marched in protest of food shortages and high prices in Petrograd. That march started riots that spread throughout the city. The tsar ordered troops to restore order, but discipline broke down, and the soldiers joined the revolutionary crowd. The Duma declared a provisional government on March 12, 1917. Three days later, Nicholas abdicated.

The major impact of World War I on economic thought was the

promotion of government planning and involvement in the economy. → Because governments had to pay for the war, they instituted rationing and price and wage controls.