Chapter 5

expectancy theory

a motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes -assumes that people are rational decision makers who choose where to direct their effort based on the probability of outcomes occurring and the positive or negative valences (expected satisfaction) of those outcomes

job enrichment

the practice of giving employees more responsibility for scheduling, coordinating, and planning their own work -For example, employees have more enriched jobs when they are responsible for a variety of tasks and have enough autonomy to plan their work and choose when to perform each task. -Job enrichment potentially increases job satisfaction and work motivation, and reduces absenteeism and turnover. -Productivity is also higher when task identity and job feedback are improved. -Product and service quality tend to improve because job enrichment increases the jobholder's felt responsibility and sense of ownership over the product or service.

continuous reinforcement

providing positive reinforcement after every occurrence of the desired behavior -Most effect schedule of reinforcement

What factors into having stronger or weaker needs?

-Individuals self concept -Social norms, -Past experience -For example, people who define themselves as very sociable typically experience a stronger need for social interaction if alone for a while, whereas people who view themselves as less sociable would experience a less intense need to be with others over that time

Describe the need for achievement:

-People with a high need for achievement (nAch) choose moderately challenging tasks, desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success, and prefer working alone rather than in teams. -Except as a source of feedback, money is a weak motivator for people with high nAch, whereas it can be a strong motivator for those with low nAch.35 -Successful entrepreneurs tend to have high nAch, possibly because they establish challenging goals for themselves and thrive on competition.36

What are some of the characteristics of feedback?

-Specific and relevant -timely -Credible -Sufficiently frequent

experienced responsibility

a sense of being personally accountable for the work outcomes. -Affected by autonomy

self reinforcement

reinforcement that occurs when an employee has control over a reinforcer but doesn't "take" it until completing a self-set goal -Part of self regulation

What are the three factors that impact the expectancy theory calculations?

-Effort to performance -Performance to outcome -Outcome to valences -If any of these components weakne, motivation weakens

task variability

One information processing demand is how predictable the job duties are from one day to the next -Employees in jobs with high task variability have nonroutine work patterns; they perform different types of tasks from one day to the next and don't know which tasks are required until that time.

knowledge of results

an awareness of the work outcomes based on information from the job itself.

job

is a set of tasks performed by one person.

An equality principle

operates when we believe that everyone in the group should receive the same outcomes, such as when everyone gets subsidized meals in the company cafeteria.

task identity

the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole or an identifiable piece of work -Ex. assembling an entire broadband modem rather than just soldering in the circuitry.

task interdependence

the extent to which team members must share materials, information, or expertise in order to perform their jobs -job characteristics model identifies feedback from the job itself as a source of motivation. Feedback from clients, co-workers, and other social sources is also important, particularly for rapid learning and when the feedback is favorable.

True or false? The best solution here is for leaders to know their employees well enough to minimize the risk of inequity feelings. Open communication is also key, enabling employees to let decision makers know when they believe decisions are unfair. A second problem is that equity theory accounts for only some of our feelings of fairness or justice in the workplace. Experts now say that procedural justice is at least as important as distributive justice.

true

negative reinforcement

occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. -It is usually the removal of punishment. -For example, managers apply negative reinforcement when they stop criticizing employees whose substandard performance has improved.

skill variety

the extent to which employees must use different skills and talents to perform tasks within their jobs -For example, sales clerks who normally only serve customers might be assigned the additional duties of stocking inventory and changing storefront displays.

How does goal setting improve employee performance?

-(1) by amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort and -(2) by giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance. Goal setting is more complex than simply telling someone to "do your best." \It requires several specific characteristics.59 One popular acronym—SMARTER—captures these characteristics fairly well:60 Effective goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant to the employee's job, set within a time frame, exciting to create employee commitment, and reviewed both during and after the goal has been accomplished.

Describe ways to increase p to o expectancies:

-The most obvious ways to improve P-to-O expectancies are to measure employee performance accurately and distribute more valued rewards to those with higher job performance. -P-to-O expectancies are perceptions, so employees also need to believe that higher performance will result in higher rewards. -Furthermore, they need to know how that connection occurs, so leaders should use examples, anecdotes, and public ceremonies to illustrate when behavior has been rewarded.

P-to-O expectancy.

This is the perceived probability that a specific behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome. -In extreme cases, employees may believe that accomplishing a particular task (performance) will definitely result in a particular outcome (a probability of 1.0), or they may believe that successful performance will have no effect on this outcome (a probability of 0.0). -More often, the P-to-O expectancy falls somewhere between these two extremes.

The need principle

is applied when we believe that those with the greatest need should receive more outcomes than others with less need. This occurs, for instance, when employees get paid time off to recover from illness.

multisource (360 degree) feedback

is information about an employee's performance collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers. -tends to provide more complete and accurate information than feedback from a supervisor alone.73 However, the process can be expensive and time-consuming, and the feedback tends to be ambiguous, conflicting, and inflated rather than accurate because coworkers try to minimize interpersonal conflict.

natural grouping approach

occurs in the video journalist job because it naturally groups tasks together to complete an entire product (i.e., a news story). -By forming natural work units, jobholders have stronger feelings of responsibility for an identifiable body of work. -They feel a sense of ownership and, therefore, tend to increase job quality. -Forming natural work units increases task identity and task significance because employees perform a complete product or service and can more readily see how their work affects others.

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources -refers to fairness of the procedures used to decide the distribution of resources.88 In other words, people evaluate fairness of the distribution of resources (distributive justice) as well as fairness of the conditions determining that distribution and its possible alteration (procedural justice).

motivation

refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. -Motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence), toward a particular goal (direction). -Motivation is one of the four essential drivers of individual behavior and performance

job enlargement

the practice of adding more tasks to an existing job -This might involve combining two or more complete jobs into one or just adding one or two more tasks to an existing job. -Either way, skill variety increases because there are more tasks to perform.

scientific management

the practice of systematically partitioning work into its smallest elements and standardizing tasks to achieve maximum efficiency -Scientific management consists of a toolkit of activities. Some of these interventions—employee selection, training, goal setting, and work incentives—are common today but were rare until Taylor popularized them. However, scientific management is mainly associated with high levels of job specialization and standardization of tasks to achieve maximum efficiency. -most effective companies have detailed procedures and work practices developed by engineers, enforced by supervisors, and executed by employees.

True or false? By emphasizing motivation through growth and personal development rather than deficiencies, Maslow is considered a pioneer in positive organizational behavior

true

outcome valences

A valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward an outcome.41 -It ranges from negative to positive. (The actual range doesn't matter; it may be from −1 to +1 or from −100 to +100.) -Outcomes have a positive valence when they are consistent with our values and satisfy our needs; they have a negative valence when they oppose our values and inhibit need fulfillment.

autonomy

Jobs with high levels of autonomy provide freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures to be used to complete the work. In autonomous jobs, employees make their own decisions rather than rely on detailed instructions from supervisors or procedure manuals. Autonomy is considered the core motivational element of job design. -also an important mechanism to reduce stress in some situations.

need for affiliation (nAff)

a learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation

need for achievement (nAch)

a learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success

Describe the acronym smarter:

captures these characteristics fairly well:60 Effective goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant to the employee's job, set within a time frame, exciting to create employee commitment, and reviewed both during and after the goal has been accomplished.

Variable ratio schedule

in which employee behavior is reinforced after a variable number of times. -Salespeople experience variable ratio reinforcement because they make a successful sale (the reinforcer) after a varying number of client calls. -The variable ratio schedule makes behavior highly resistant to extinction because the reinforcer is never expected at a particular time or after a fixed number of accomplishments.

punishment

occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior occurring. -Most of us would consider being demoted or criticized by our coworkers as forms of punishment

postive reinforcement

occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior. -Receiving praise from coworkers is an example of positive reinforcement because the praise usually maintains or increases your likelihood of helping them in future.

extinction consequences

occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it. -For instance, research suggests that performance tends to decline when managers stop congratulating employees for their good work.

Describe he ABC Model of OB Mod:

-OB Mod attempts to change behavior (B) by managing its antecedents (A) and consequences (C).48 Consequences are events following a particular behavior that influence its future occurrence. Consequences include receiving words of thanks from coworkers after assisting them, receiving preferred work schedules after being with the company longer than the average employee, and finding useful information on your smartphone after checking for new messages. Consequences also include no outcome at all, such as when no one says anything to you about how well you have been serving customers. -Antecedents are events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences. An antecedent could be a sound from your smartphone signaling that a text message has arrived. Or it could be your supervisor's request to complete a specific task by tomorrow. Notice that antecedents do not cause behavior. The sound from your smartphone doesn't cause you to open the text message. Rather, the sound (antecedent) is a cue signaling that if you look at

What are the drivers of employee engagement?

Goal setting, employee involvement, organizational justice, organizational comprehension (knowing what's going on in the company), employee development opportunities, sufficient resources, and an appealing company vision are some of the more commonly mentioned influences

Schedules of reinforcement

OB Mod considers the frequency and timing of these reinforcers -Consists of continuous reinforcement -Consists of variable ratio schedule

How to reduce inequity tension:

-One action is to reduce our inputs so the outcome/input ratio is similar to that of the higher-paid coworker. Some employees do this by working more slowly, offering fewer suggestions, and engaging in less organizational citizenship behavior. -A second action is to increase our outcomes. Some people who think they are underpaid ask for a pay raise. Others make unauthorized use of company resources. -A third behavioral response is to increase the comparison other's inputs. We might subtly ask the better-paid coworker to do a larger share of the work, for instance. -A fourth action is to reduce the comparison other's outcomes. This might occur by ensuring that the coworker gets less desirable jobs or working conditions. Another action, although uncommon, is to ask the company to reduce the coworker's pay so it is the same as yours. -A fifth action is perceptual rather than behavioral. It involves changing our beliefs about the situation. For example, we might believe that the coworker really is doing more (e.g., working longer hours) for that higher pay. Alternatively, we might change our perceptions of the value of some outcomes. We might initially believe it is unfair that a coworker gets more work-related travel than we do, but later we conclude that this travel is more inconvenient than desirable. A sixth action to reduce the inequity tension is to change the comparison other. -Finally, if the inequity tension is strong enough and can't be reduced through other actions, we might leave the field. This occurs by moving to another department, joining another company, or keeping away from the work site where the overpaid coworker is located.

What is a limitation with the expectancy theory?

-One limitation with expectancy theory, however, is that it mainly explains extrinsic motivation; the model's features do not fit easily with intrinsic motivation. -Another concern is that the theory ignores emotions as a source of motivation. The valence element of expectancy theory captures some of this emotional process, but only peripherally.45 -A third issue is that expectancy theory outlines how expectancies (probability of outcomes) affect motivation, but it doesn't explain how employees develop these expectancies.

Describe ways to increase outcome valences:

-One size does not fit all when motivating and rewarding people. The valence of a reward varies from one person to the next because they have different needs. -One solution is to individualize rewards by allowing employees to choose the rewards of greatest value to them. When this isn't possible, companies should ensure that everyone values the reward (i.e., positive valence). -Finally, we need to watch out for countervalent outcomes. For example, if a company offers individual performance bonuses, it should beware of team norms that discourage employees from working above a minimum standard. These norms and associated peer pressure are countervalent outcomes to the bonus.

Describe learning behavior consequences:

-People learn the consequences of behavior by observing or hearing about what happened to other people, not just by directly experiencing the consequences.55 -Hearing that a coworker was fired for being rude to a client increases your belief that rude behavior will result in being fired. In the language of expectancy theory, learning behavior consequences changes a person's perceived P-to-O probability. -Furthermore, people logically anticipate consequences in related situations. For instance, the story about the fired employee might also strengthen your P-to-O expectancy that being rude toward coworkers and suppliers (not just clients) will get you fired.

Describe need for affiliation:

-People with a high need for affiliation (nAff) seek approval from others, want to conform to others' wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation. -High-nAff employees generally work well in jobs where the main task is cultivating long-term relations. -However, they tend to be less effective at allocating scarce resources and making other decisions that potentially generate conflict. -Leaders and others in decision-making positions require a relatively low need for affiliation so their choices and actions are not biased by a personal need for approval.

Describe need for power:

-People with a high need for power (nPow) want to exercise control over others, are highly involved in team decisions, rely on persuasion, and are concerned about maintaining their leadership position. -Individuals who enjoy their power for its own sake, use it to advance personal interests, and wear their power as a status symbol have personalized power. -Others mainly have a high need for socialized power because they desire power as a means to help others.38 -McClelland argues that effective leaders should have a high need for socialized rather than personalized power. They must have a high degree of altruism and social responsibility and be concerned about the consequences of their own actions on others.

Identify problems with goal setting:

-Putting goal setting into practice can be challenging, however.76 It tends to focus employees on a narrow subset of measurable performance indicators while ignoring aspects of job performance that are difficult to measure. There is also evidence that very difficult goals motivate some people to engage in unethical behavior to achieve those goals. Difficult goals are also stressful, which can undermine overall job performance. -Yet another problem is that goal setting tends to interfere with the learning process in new, complex jobs. Therefore, setting performance goals is effective in established jobs but should be avoided where an intense learning process is occurring. A final issue is that when goal achievement is tied to financial rewards, many employees are motivated to set easy goals (while making the boss think they are difficult) so that they have a higher probability of receiving the bonus or pay increase. As a former Ford Motor Company CEO once quipped: "At Ford, we hire very smart people. They quickly learn how to make relatively easy goals look difficult!

What are some problems with job specialization?

-Some jobs—such as scanning grocery items—can be so specialized that they soon become tedious, trivial, and socially isolating. Specialized jobs with very short cycle times often produce higher levels of employee turnover and absenteeism. Companies sometimes have to pay higher wages to attract job applicants to this dissatisfying, narrowly defined work. -Job incumbents of specialized jobs potentially produce higher-quality results because, as we mentioned earlier, they master their work faster than do employees in jobs with many and varied tasks. This higher proficiency explains why specialist lawyers tend to provide better quality service than do generalist lawyers.100 But many jobs (such as supermarket cashiers) are specialized to the point that they are highly repetitive and tedious. In these repetitive jobs, the positive effect of higher proficiency is easily offset by the negative effect of lower attentiveness and motivation caused by the tedious work patterns. -also undermines work quality. By performing a small part of the overall work, employees have difficulty striving for better quality or even noticing flaws with that overall output.

What are recommendations regarding the four drive theory?

-The first is that the best workplaces help employees fulfill all four drives. Employees continually seek fulfillment of their innate drives, so successful companies provide sufficient rewards, learning opportunities, social interaction, and so forth for all employees. -The second recommendation is that fulfillment of the four drives must be kept in balance; that is, organizations should avoid too much or too little opportunity to fulfill each drive. The reason for this advice is that the four drives counterbalance each other. The drive to bond, which motivates mutual support and cohesion, counterbalances the drive to acquire, which motivates competitiveness. Therefore, an organization that fuels the drive to acquire without the drive to bond may eventually suffer from organizational politics and dysfunctional conflict

What are some benefits of job rotation?

-This job rotation adds some skill variety into the workday, and many companies have found that it improves employee motivation and satisfaction to some extent. -A second benefit of job rotation is that it minimizes health risks from repetitive strain and heavy lifting because employees use different muscles and physical positions in the various jobs. -A third benefit is that job rotation supports multiskilling; employees learn several jobs, which makes it easier for the company to fill temporary vacancies.

Describe inequity and employee motivation?

-When people believe they are under- or over rewarded, they experience negative emotions (called inequity tension).84 As we have pointed out throughout this chapter, emotions are the engines of motivation. In the case of inequity, people are motivated to reduce the emotional tension. -Most people have a strong emotional response when they believe a situation is unfair, and this emotion nags at them until they take steps to correct the perceived inequity.

What are some of the consequences of procedural justice

-being treated unfairly threatens our self-esteem and social status, particularly when others see that we have been unjustly treated. -Employees retaliate to restore their self-esteem and reinstate their status and power in the relationship with the perpetrator of the injustice. -Employees also engage in these counterproductive behaviors to educate the decision maker, thereby trying to minimize the likelihood of future injustice

What are ways to improve procedural justice?

-by giving employees "voice" in the process; encourage them to present their facts and perspectives on the issue. Voice also provides a "value-expressive" function; employees tend to feel better after having an opportunity to speak their mind -procedural justice is also higher when the decision maker is perceived as unbiased, relies on complete and accurate information, applies existing policies consistently, and has listened to all sides of the dispute. If employees still feel unfairness in the allocation of resources, these feelings may dissipate if the company has an appeal process in which the decision is reviewed by a higher level of management. -Finally, people usually feel less injustice when they are given a full explanation of the decision and they are treated with respect throughout the complaint process. If employees believe a decision is unfair, refusing to explain how the decision was made could fuel their feelings of inequity

How do the drives influence motivation and behavior?

-four drives determine which emotions are tagged to incoming stimuli -theory states that a person's "mental skill set" develops behavioral intentions that are acceptable to society, consistent with their own moral compass, and have a high probability of achieving the goal of fulfilling those felt needs

What are the three learned needs?

-Achievement -Affiliation -Power

Describe behavior modeling:

-Along with observing others, people learn by imitating and practicing their behaviors.56 -Direct sensory experience helps us acquire tacit knowledge and skills, such as the subtle person- machine interaction while driving a vehicle. -Behavior modeling also increases self-efficacy because people gain more self-confidence after observing others and performing the task successfully themselves. -Self-efficacy particularly improves when observers are similar to the model in age, experience, gender, and related features.

Describe self regulation:

-An important feature of social cognitive theory is that human beings set goals and engage in other forms of intentional, purposive action. They establish their own short- and long-term objectives, choose their own standards of achievement, work out a plan of action, consider backup alternatives, and have the forethought to anticipate the consequences of their goal-directed behavior. -Furthermore, people self-regulate by engaging in self-reinforcement; they reward and punish themselves for exceeding or falling short of their self-set goals.57 -For example, you might have a goal of completing the rest of this chapter, after which you reward yourself by having a snack. Raiding the refrigerator is a form of self-induced positive reinforcement for completing this reading assignment. -OB Mod and social cognitive theory explain how people learn probabilities of successful performance (E-to-P expectancies) as well as probabilities of various outcomes from that performance (P-to-O expectancies). As such, these theories explain motivation through their relationship with expectancy theory of motivation, described earlier. Elements of these theories also help us understand other motivation processes. For instance, self-regulation is the cornerstone of motivation through goal setting and feedback, which we discuss next.

What are the types of organizational justice?

-Distributive -procedural

Describe watts to increase e to p expectancies:

-E-to-P expectancies are influenced by the individual's belief that he or she can successfully complete the task. -Some companies increase this can-do attitude by assuring employees that they have the necessary skills and knowledge, clear role perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of performance. -An important part of this process involves matching employee abilities to job requirements and clearly communicating the tasks required for the job. -Similarly, E-to-P expectancies are learned, so behavior modeling and supportive feedback typically strengthen the individual's belief that he or she is able to perform the task.

What are the three psychological states that are affected by 5 core characteristics ?

-Experienced meaningfulness -Experienced responsibility -Knowledge of results

What are some job design practices that motivate?

-Job rotation -Job enlargement -Job enrichment

What are the 2 job enriching strategies?

-Natural groupoung approach -Establishing client relationships

Describe the four drives from the four drive theory:

Drive to acquire. This is the drive to seek out, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences. It produces the need for achievement, competence, status, and self-esteem.16 The drive to acquire also motivates competition. Drive to bond. This drive produces the need for belonging and affiliation. It explains why our self-concept is partly defined by associations with social groups (see Chapter 3). The drive to bond motivates people to cooperate and, consequently, is essential for organizations and societies. Drive to comprehend. People are inherently curious and need to make sense of their environment and themselves.17 They are motivated to discover answers to unknown as well as conflicting ideas. Drive to defend. This is the drive to protect ourselves physically, psychologically, and socially. Probably the first drive to develop, it creates a fight-or-flight response when we are confronted with threats to our physical safety, our possessions, our self-concept, our values, and the well-being of others.

Which of the consequences in the OB Mod work best?

Positive reinforcement is preferred because it leverages the power of positive organizational behavior; focusing on the positive rather than negative aspects of life will improve organizational success and individual well-being (see Chapter 3). In contrast, punishment and negative reinforcement generate negative emotions and attitudes toward the punisher (e.g., supervisor) and organization. However, punishment (dismissal, suspension, demotion, etc.) may be necessary for extreme behaviors, such as deliberately hurting a coworker or stealing inventory. Indeed, research suggests that, under some conditions, punishment maintains a sense of fairness among those who are affected by or aware of the employee's indiscretion.5

How frequency is sufficient feedback?

The answer depends on at least two things. One consideration is the employee's knowledge and experience with the task. Employees working on new tasks should receive more frequent feedback because they require more behavior guidance and reinforcement. Employees who perform familiar tasks can receive less frequent feedback. The second factor is how long it takes to complete the task (i.e., its cycle time). Less frequent feedback usually occurs in jobs with a long cycle time (e.g., executives and scientists) because indicators of goal progress and accomplishment in these jobs are less frequent than in jobs with a short cycle time (e.g., grocery store cashiers).

Describe preferred feedback:

The preferred feedback source depends on the purpose of the information. Feedback from nonsocial sources, such as computer printouts or feedback directly from the job, is better when employees need to learn about goal progress and accomplishment. This is because information from nonsocial sources is considered more accurate than information from social sources. Negative feedback from nonsocial sources is also less damaging to self-esteem. In contrast, social sources tend to delay negative information, leave some of it out, and distort the bad news in a positive way.74 Employees should receive some positive feedback from social sources. It feels better to have coworkers say that you are performing the job well than to discover this from data on an impersonal computer screen.

E-to-P expectancy.

This is the individual's perception that his or her effort will result in a particular level of performance. -In some situations, employees may believe that they can unquestionably accomplish the task (a probability of 1.0). -In other situations, they expect that even their highest level of effort will not result in the desired performance level (a probability of 0.0). In most cases, the E-to-P expectancy falls somewhere between these two extremes

Does extrinsic motivation undermine intrinsic motivation?

Which hypothesis is correct? So far, the research evidence is mixed.32 Extrinsic motivators may reduce existing intrinsic motivation to some extent and under some conditions, but the effect is often minimal. Extrinsic rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation when they are unexpected, such as a surprise bonus; when they have low value relative to the intrinsic motivator; and when they are not contingent on specific behavior (such as receiving a fixed salary). But when employees are engaged in intrinsically motivating work, employers should be careful about the potential unintended effect of undermining that motivation with performance bonuses and other sources of extrinsic motivation

need for power (nPow)

a learned need in which people want to control their environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized power)

four drive theory

a motivation theory based on the innate drives to acquire, bond, learn, and defend that incorporates both emotions and rationality -These include the drive to: acquire, bond, comprehend, and defend -All drives are hardwired in our brains (innate) and exist in all human beings (universal). -They are also independent of one another; there is no hierarchy of drives. -The drive to defend is reactive, the rest are proactive

Maslow's needs hierarchy theory

a motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes gratified -Maslow condensed and organized the dozens of previously studied drives (which he called primary needs) into five basic categories, organized in a hierarchy from lowest to highest: physiological (need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.), safety (need for security and stability), belongingness/love (need for interaction with and affection from others), esteem (need for self-esteem and social esteem/status), and self-actualization (need for self-fulfillment, realization of one's potential). -As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the strongest motivator and remains so even if never satisfied. The exception to this need fulfillment process is self-actualization. People have an ongoing need for self-actualization; it is never really fulfilled. Thus, while the bottom four groups are deficiency needs because they become activated when unfulfilled, self-actualization is known as a growth need because it continues to develop even when temporarily satiated. -Maslow popularized the concept of self-actualization, suggesting that people are naturally motivated to reach their potential.28 This positive view of motivation contrasted with previous motivation theories, which focused on need deficiencies such as hunger.

organizational behavior modification (OB Mod)

a theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior;

social cognitive theory

a theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modeling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior -three most relevant to employee motivation are learning behavior consequences, behavior modeling, and self-regulation.

employee engagement

an individual's emotional and cognitive (logical) motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposive effort toward work-related goals. -It is an emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with the work. Employee engagement is associated with self-efficacy—the belief that you have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job done -Employee engagement also includes a high level of absorption in the work—the experience of focusing intensely on the task with limited awareness of events beyond that work. -Actively disengaged employees tend to be disruptive at work, not just disconnected from work. -Goal setting, employee involvement, organizational 8justice, organizational comprehension (knowing what's going on in the company), employee development opportunities, sufficient resources, and an appealing company vision are some of the more commonly mentioned influences

drives

define as hardwired characteristics of the brain that attempt to keep us in balance by correcting deficiencies. -Aka primary needs -Recent neuroscience (brain) research has highlighted the central role of emotions in this process. -Specifically, drives produce emotions that energize us to act on our environment.9 -research has consistently identified several, such as the drive for social interaction, for competence, to comprehend our surroundings, and to defend ourselves against physiological and psychological harm -Innate and universal (everyone has them and exist from birth) -Cognition (logical thinking) also plays an important role in motivation, but emotions are the real sources of energy in human behavior

What are the motivational forces or prime mover of employee behavior?

drives

needs

goal-directed forces that people experience. -They are the motivational forces of emotions channeled toward particular goals to correct deficiencies or imbalances. -As one leading neuroscientist explains: "drives express themselves directly in background emotions and we eventually become aware of their existence by means of background feelings."13 -In other words, needs are the emotions we eventually become consciously aware of.

The equity principle

infers that people should be paid in proportion to their contribution. -The equity principle is the most common distributive justice rule in organizational settings, so let's look at it in more detail.

establishing client relationships

involves putting employees in direct contact with their clients rather than using another job group or the supervisor as the liaison between the employee and the customer. -Establishing client relationships increases task significance because employees see a line-of-sight connection between their work and consequences for customers. -By being directly responsible for specific clients, employees also have more information and can make better decisions affecting those clients

job characteristics

model a job design model that relates the motivational properties of jobs to specific personal and organizational consequences of those properties -identifies five core job dimensions that produce three psychological states. -Employees who experience these psychological states tend to have higher levels of internal work motivation (motivation from the work itself), job satisfaction (particularly satisfaction with the work itself), and work effectiveness.

extrinsic motivation

occurs when people are motivated to receive something that is beyond their personal control for instrumental reasons. In other words, they direct their effort toward a reward controlled by others that indirectly fulfills a need. -exist throughout organizations, such as pay incentives, recognition awards, and frequent reminders from the boss about work deadlines. These are extrinsic motivators because the outcomes (bonus, award, happy boss) are controlled by others and are not need fulfillment in themselves

distributive justice

perceived fairness in the individual's ratio of outcomes to contributions relative to a comparison of other's ratio of outcomes to contributions

Strengths based coaching

positive organizational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee's strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses -Aka appreciative coaching -more motivating than traditional performance reviews because employees seek out feedback about their strengths, whereas they either become defensive about negative feedback or allow that information to weaken their self-efficacy. -recognizes that poor performance on some tasks is due more to motivation than ability. People can learn new skills throughout their working lives, but their weaker performance on some tasks is often due to lower motivation associated with their personality, interests, and preferences. These individual differences become quite stable fairly early in a person's career

nonsocial sources of feedback

provide feedback without someone communicating that information. -Corporate intranets allow many executives to receive feedback instantaneously on their computer, usually in the form of graphic output on an executive dashboard. -Employees at contact centers view electronic displays showing how many callers are waiting and the average time they have been waiting.

growth need strength

refers to an individual's need for personal growth and development, such as work that offers challenges, cognitive stimulation, learning, and independent thought and action.105 However, research findings have been mixed, suggesting that employees might be motivated by job design no Page 128matter how they feel about their job context or how high or low they score on growth needs.

task analyzability

refers to how much the job can be performed using known procedures and rules. Jobs with high task analyzability have a ready-made "cookbook" to guide people in those jobs through most decisions and actions, whereas jobs with low task analyzability require employee creativity and judgment to determine the best course of action.

Intrinsic motivation

refers to motivation controlled by the individual and experienced from the activity itself.29 Intrinsic motivation occurs when people seek fulfillment from doing the activity itself, not as a means to some other outcome. -People experience self-actualization by applying their skills and knowledge, observing how their talents achieve meaningful results, and experiencing personal growth through learning. -Behavior is intrinsically motivated when it is anchored in the innate drives for competence and autonomy.30 People feel competent when applying their skills and observing positive, meaningful outcomes from those talents. People feel autonomous when their motivation is self-initiated rather than controlled from an external source

experienced meaningfulness

the belief that one's work is worthwhile or important. -Affected by skill variety, task identity, adn task significance

task significance

the degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the organization and/or larger society -For example, some companies ask customers to speak to employees about the importance of the products or services to them.

job feedback

the degree to which employees can tell how well they are doing from direct sensory information from the job itself. Airline pilots can tell how well they land their aircraft, and road crews can see how well they have prepared the roadbed and laid the asphalt.

job design

the process of assigning tasks to a job, including the interdependency of those tasks with other jobs

goal setting

the process of motivating employees and clarifying their role perceptions by establishing performance objectives -improves employee performance in two ways: (1) by amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort and (2) by giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance. -SMARTER -Effective goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant to the employee's job, set within a time frame, exciting to create employee commitment, and reviewed both during and after the goal has been accomplished.

job specialization

the result of a division of labor, in which work is subdivided into separate jobs assigned to different people -The simple answer is that job specialization potentially improves work efficiency. One reason for this higher efficiency is that employees have less variety of tasks to juggle (such as checking out customers versus stocking shelves), so there is less time lost changing over to a different type of activity. Even when people can change tasks quickly, their mental attention lingers on the previous type of work, which slows down performance on the new task.95 -A second reason for increased work efficiency is that employees can become proficient more quickly in specialized jobs. There are fewer physical and mental skills to learn and therefore less time required to train and develop people for high performance. Third, shorter work cycles give employees more frequent practice with the task, so jobs are mastered more quickly. Fourth, specialization tends to increase work efficiency by allowing employees with specific aptitudes or skills to be matched more precisely to the jobs for which they are best suite

equity theory

theory explaining how people develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources -the outcome/input ratio is the value of the outcomes you receive divided by the value of the inputs you provide in the exchange relationship. Inputs include such things as skill, effort, reputation, performance, experience, and hours worked. -Outcomes are what employees receive from the organization such as pay, promotions, recognition, interesting jobs, and opportunities to improve one's skills and knowledge. -Equity theory states that we compare our outcome/input ratio with that of a comparison other.82 The comparison other might be another person or group of people in other jobs (e.g., comparing your pay with your boss's pay) or another organization. Some research suggests that employees frequently collect information on several referents to form a "generalized" comparison other.83 For the most part, however, the comparison other varies from one person to the next and is not easily identifiable.

contingencies of reinforcement

there are four types that are identified by mod -Positive reinforcement -Punishment -Extinction -Negative reinforcement

True or false? Feedback—information that lets us know whether we have achieved the goal or are properly directing our effort toward it—is a critical partner with goal setting. Feedback contributes to motivation and performance by clarifying role perceptions, improving employee skills and knowledge, and strengthening self-efficacy

true

true or false? Feedback can originate from nonsocial or social sources.

true