Chapter 6: Identity and Personality

reality principle, secondary process

The ego operates according to the ______ ______, taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle. This guidance is referred to as the ______ ______.

Sigmund Freud

What psychologist hypothesized that psychosexual development is characterized by conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body?

Erik Erikson

What psychologist proposed 8 stages of psychosocial development characterized by conflicts between needs and social demands at different phases of our lives?

Obedience

What stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development is concerned with avoiding punishment; in the Heinz dilemma, "If I steal the drug, I'll go to jail"?

Self-interest

What stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development is concerned with gaining rewards; in the Heinz dilemma, "I need to save my wife because I want to spend more of my life with her"?

Law and order

What stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development maintains social rules in the highest regard; in the Heinz dilemma, "If everyone stole things they couldn't afford, people who produce those items would not be able to continue their business"?

Conformity

What stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development places an emphasis on the "good boy, nice girl" orientation in which a person seeks the approval of others; in the Heinz dilemma, "I should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong"?

Universal human ethics

What stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development reasons that decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles; in the Heinz dilemma, "It is wrong for one person to hold another's life for ransom"?

Social contract

What stage of Kohlberg's theory of moral development views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good, with reasoning focused on individual rights; in the Heinz dilemma, "Everyone has a right to live; businesses have a right to profit from their products"?

Psychoanalytic (also accept psychodynamic)

What theory of personality views personality as resulting from unconscious urges and desires? Psychologists associated with this theory include Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney.

Self-discrepancy theory

What theory states that each of us have three selves: our actual self, ideal self, and ought self?

Ethnic

What type of identity describes a group in which members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language?

Gender

What type of identity describes a person's appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity?

A (Because we know the lawyer has an internal locus of control, we expect her to believe that she is in control of the events that happen in her life. Both choices B and C attribute success to outside factors, representing an external locus of control. While choice D perhaps represents an attribution that could correlate to low self-esteem, it is not indicative of locus of control.)

A district attorney with an internal locus of control win an important court trial. Which of the following best represents the lawyer's attribution of the events? A.) "I won because I made great arguments and had more experience than the defense." B.) "I won because the jury was on my side from the beginning and believed my arguments." C.) "I won because the defense did not adequately present their side of the case." D.) "I shouldn't have won because I don't deserve to be successful."

Intimacy vs. isolation, 20-40 years

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Can I love?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Industry vs. inferiority, 6-12 years

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Can I make it in the world of people and things?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Generativity vs. stagnation, 40-65 years

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Can I make my life count?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Trust vs. mistrust, 0-1 year

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Can I trust the world?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Initiative vs. guilt, 3-6 years

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt, 1-3 years

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Is it okay to be me?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Integrity vs. despair, 65 years - death

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Is it okay to have been me?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

Identity vs. role confusion, 12-20 years

According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what stage is characterized by the existential question "Who am I? What can I be?" What age range does this crisis encompass?

D (Old age (above 65 years) brings about the crisis of integrity vs. despair. If favorably resolved, we will see wisdom, which Erikson defined as detached concern with life itself, with assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one's life has been worthwhile, along with a readiness to face death. If not resolved favorably, there will be feelings of bitterness about one's life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and at the same time, fear over one's own impending death.)

According to Erikson, successfully completing the eighth stage of psychosocial development leads to the emergence of what quality? A.) Hope B.) Fidelity C.) Purpose D.) Wisdom

libido

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, the ______ (sex drive) is present at birth rather than lying dormant until puberty.

Genital

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, what stage begins at puberty and, if previous stages have been successfully resolved, results in a healthy heterosexual relationship?

Phallic, 3-5 years

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, what stage centers on resolution of the Oedipal conflict for male children or the analogous Electra conflict for female children? What age range does this encompass?

Anal, 1-3 years

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, what stage is a child most likely in if gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials (toilet training occurs during this stage)? What age range does this encompass?

Oral, 0-1 year

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, what stage is a child most likely in if gratification is obtained primarily through putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking? What age range does this encompass?

Latency (Freud described the timeframe as "whenever the child goes to school" to puberty)

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, what stage is a child most likely in if his/her libido is largely sublimated?

sublimating

According to Freud's theory of psychosexual development, when male children are in the phallic stage, they resolve their Oedipal conflict by de-eroticizing or ______ their libinal energy into a more socially acceptable activity, such as collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork.

pleasure principle

According to Freud, the id (base urges of survival and reproduction) functions according to the ______ ______, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension.

ought

According to the self-discrepancy theory, our ______ self is our representation of the way others think we should be.

ideal

According to the self-discrepancy theory, our ______ self is the person we would like to be.

actual

According to the self-discrepancy theory, our self-concept makes up our ______ self, the way we see ourselves as we currently are.

role-taking

As children grow, they become more able to see the identities of others as different from their own. They might experiment with other identities, such as when children play house or school, in a practice called ______-______, which helps a child begin to understand the perspectives of others.

Anal (excessive orderliness can be referred to as anal-retentiveness)

During what stage of Freud's theory of psychosexual development does fixation lead to either excessive orderliness or sloppiness in the adult?

Oral

During what stage of Freud's theory of psychosexual development does fixation lead to excessive dependency in the adult?

neurosis

Freud defined a(n) ______ as a manifestation of anxiety-producing, unconscious material that is too difficult to think about consciously, but must still find a means of expression; this is a result of fixation during childhood that causes the child to form a personality pattern based on that particular stage.

ego

Freud's model of the mind was based on three major entities. Because wish fulfillment cannot effectively reduce tension on a permanent basis, the ______ acts as the mediator between the id, superego, and the conscious mind.

id

Freud's model of the mind was based on three major entities. The ______ consists of all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce.

A (The fifth stage of psychosocial development (6-12 years) centers on the conflict between industry vs. inferiority. If this conflict is resolved favorably, the child will feel competent, be able to exercise his or her abilities and intelligence in the world, and be able to affect the world in the way that the child desires. Unfavorable resolution results in a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem.)

If a child struggles to do well in school, what problem might emerge? A.) Struggle with feelings of inferiority B.) Experience a sense of guilt C.) Develop a poor self-identity D.) Begin to mistrust the people around him

wish fulfillment (helps relieve some of the tension created by the pleasure principle, in which the aim is to achieve immediate gratification.)

If a person is hungry and food is unavailable, fantasizing or daydreaming about food can help relieve some tension. How would Freud explain this observation?

fixation

In Freudian psychoanalysis, ______ is the result of overindulgence or frustration during a psychosexual stage causing a neurotic pattern of personality based on that stage.

individualistic, collectivist

Kohlberg is not without his critics. Some argue that postconventional morality describes views that are more prevalent in ______ societies and is therefore biased against more ______ cultures, in which the group is prioritized over one's self. Similarly, Kohlberg's research was only performed using male subjects.

Heinz dilemma

Kohlberg's observations about moral reasoning were based on responses of subjects to hypothetical moral dilemmas. One often-cited example is the ______ ______. In this scenario, a man's wife is dying of a rare disease. There is a druggist in the town who invented a cure that costs him $200 to produce, yet he sells it for $2000. The man cannot afford this price so he goes to the druggist and asks him if he would lower the price, a request that the druggist refuses. Desperate to save his wife, he breaks into the druggist's office one night and steals the medication. Kohlberg presented dilemmas such as this one to volunteers and asked them to explain whether the characters in the story acted morally and why or why not.

Trust vs. mistrust, Autonomy vs. shame and doubt, Initiative vs. guilt, Industry vs. inferiority, Identity vs. role confusion, Intimacy vs. isolation, Generativity vs. stagnation, Integrity vs. despair

List Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development.

attribution

Locus of control and cognitive dissonance are integral to ______ theory. In order to preserve self-esteem, we often see our successes as a direct result of our efforts and our failures as the result of uncontrolled outside influences.

B (It is important to know that there are several factors that determine which identity will be enacted in particular situations. It is believed that our identities are organized according to a hierarchy of salience, such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment. The more noticeable, or salient, this identity is, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities. In this case, gender identity is more noticeable in mixed gender groups than in same-sex groups.)

Male and female college students in same-sex groups are less likely to list gender in their self-descriptions than students in mixed gender groups. This is best explained by: A.) Self-discrepancy theory B.) Hierarchy of salience C.) Force Field theory D.) Reciprocal determinism

self-schema

Many of the ways in which we define ourselves (self-concept) fall under the classification of a(n) ______; that is, a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities. For example, the idea of an athlete usually carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness, and dressing and acting in certain ways, although these qualities may change depending on culture, socioeconomic status, and personal beliefs.

wish fulfillment

Mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills the id's need for immediate satisfaction is termed ______ ______.

reference group

Our self-concept depends in part on our ______ ______, or the group to which we compare ourselves. Two individuals with the same qualities might see themselves differently depending on how those qualities compare to this group (e.g. physician's view of their income).

internal, external

People with a(n) ______ locus of control see their successes and failures as a result of their own characteristics and actions, while those with a(n) ______ locus of control perceive luck or outside factors as having more of an influence in their lives.

Undifferentiated (NOT to be confused with androgyny, in which individuals score high on both scales)

______ is defined as the state of scoring low on scales of both masculinity and femininity.

learned helplessness

Self-efficacy can be depressed past the point of recovery. In one study, dogs were divided into three groups: a control group in which dogs were strapped into a harness, a second group in which the dogs were similarly strapped into a harness but subject to painful electrical shocks that they could stop by pressing a lever, and a third group in which the dogs were powerless to control the administration of the shock. Dogs in the first two groups recovered from the experience quickly; the third group soon stopped trying to escape the shock and acted as if they were helpless to avoid the pain of the experience, even when offered opportunities to avoid being shocked. Only when the dogs were forcibly removed from their cages did they change their expectations about their control over the electrical shocks and took action to escape their predicament. What condition did the third group of dogs develop?

instrumental relativist

Stage two of Kohlberg's stages of moral development (self-interest) is often called the ______ ______ stage because it is based on the concepts of reciprocity and sharing: "I'll scratch your back, you scratch mine."

Oedipus complex, castration

The ______ _____ is a concept of psychoanalytic theory in which the male child envies his father's intimate relationship with his mother and fears ______ at his father's hands. He wishes to eliminate his father and possess his mother, but the child feels guilty about these wishes. To successfully resolve the conflict, he deals with his guilty feelings by identifying with his father, establishing his sexual identity, and internalizing moral values.

looking-glass self

The ______-______ ______ is a construct introduced by Charles Horton Cooley that is made up of three components: 1.) We imagine how we must appear to others. 2.) We imagine and react to what we feel their judgment of that appearance must be. 3.) We develop our self through the judgments of others.

theory of mind

The ability to sense how another's mind works - for example, understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it - is referred to as ______ ______ ______. Once this ability has developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us.

reality

The aim of the ______ principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained.

D (The main crisis of young adulthood (20-40 years) is intimacy vs. isolation. Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one's own goals. If this crisis is not favorably resolved, there will be an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one's ideals. Isolated individuals are either withdraw or capable of only superficial relationships with others.)

The crisis that arises in young adulthood is concerned with: A.) Trust vs. Mistrust B.) Industry vs. Inferiority C.) Integrity vs. Despair D.) Intimacy vs. Isolation

Preconventional

What phase in Kohlberg's theory of moral development is typical of preadolescent thinking and places an emphasis on the consequences of the moral choice?

Electra complex, penis envy

The female equivalent of the Oedipus complex is referred to as the ______ ______. Because females cannot have castration fear, they are thought to have ______ ______ in which they experience anxiety upon realization that they do not have a penis; girls going through the phallic stage are expected to exhibit less stereotypically female behavior and be less morally developed.

Lev Vygotsky

What psychologist developed a theory of cognitive development based on internalization of various aspects of culture: rule, symbols, language, etc?

False (Those with low self-esteem don't necessarily view themselves as worthless, but they will be far more critical of themselves. As a result, they take criticism from others poorly and typically believe that people will only accept them if they are successful. Research also shows that they are more likely to use drugs, to be pessimistic, and to give up when facing frustration than their counterparts with high self-esteem.)

True or False: A low self-esteem correlates to a low self-worth.

True (For example, young children will reliably mimic behaviors performed by their same-sex siblings. Imitation is a common way in which children learn from others, as seen in experiments such as Bandura's Bobo doll experiment. A child's first models are her parents, but as the child grows and forms more relationships, other role models emerge. Siblings, teachers, and the media all play an important role in modeling behavior for a developing child, but by adolescence, peers become the most important role models in a person's life.)

True or False: Children are more likely to imitate behaviors performed by someone who is like them.

False (According to Erikson, it is possible to fail at resolving the conflict central to any given stage of development, but this does not mean that mastery of each stage is required to move on to the next. Instead, Erikson viewed successful resolution of a stage, marked my answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages.)

True or False: Erik Erikson believed that failure to resolve a conflict central to any given stage of development prevented movement to the next stage and could manifest as a social disorder later in life.

True

True or False: Freud believed homosexuality, asexuality, and fetishism were results of unresolved libinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body.

True

True or False: Generally, the closer our actual self is to our ideal self (who we want to be) and our ought self (who others want us to be), the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be.

False (Kohlberg wasn't interested in the participants' appraisal of the actions as right or wrong, as he believed either answer could be justified. Instead, he was far more interested in the reasoning behind the appraisal. Based on the participants' responses, Kohlberg organized moral reasoning into six distinct stages ranging from the concrete to the abstract. He then organized these stages into three phases consisting of two stages each.)

True or False: If a participant was able to identify stealing as wrong in the Heinz dilemma, Kohlberg classified them as having reached postconventional morality.

Lawrence Kohlberg

What psychologist developed a theory of personality development based on moral reasoning?

False (Our individual identities do not always need to be compatible. Are you the same person when interacting with your friends as you are when you interact with coworkers or family? For most people the answer is no; they take on a particular identity in different social situations.)

True or False: Individual identities must be compatible to form a unified self-concept.

True (In other words, we all begin in stage one and progress to varying degrees as our thinking matures.)

True or False: Kohnberg viewed his stages as a progression in which each stage is adopted and then abandoned for the next as the individual progresses.

False (The idea of self-concept goes beyond self-schemata; it also includes our appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become: our past and future selves.)

True or False: Often our self-schema, a self-given label that carries with it a set of qualities, is synonymous with our self-concept.

False (Conventional morality corresponds to normal adult moral reasoning. Preconventional is therefore expected in children, and postconventional is expected in a smaller subset of adults with more advanced moral reasoning skills than the average population.)

True or False: Postconventional morality corresponds to normal adult moral reasoning.

True (Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships, and membership in social groups are just a few of the identities that sum to create our self-concept.)

True or False: We are defined by one all-encompassing self-concept and multiple identities.

zone of proximal development, more knowledgeable other

Vygotsky described development of language, culture, and skills. He proposed the idea of the ______ ______ ______ ______, which describes those skills that a child has not yet mastered and require help from a(n) ______ ______ ______, typically an adult, to accomplish.

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital

What are the five stages that comprise Freud's theory of psychosexual development?

psychoanalytic (psychodynamic), humanistic (phenomenological), type and trait, behaviorist

What are the four main categories for theories of personality?

Obedience, Self-interest (Preconventional morality, Preadolescence), Conformity, Law and order (Conventional morality, Adolescence to adulthood), Social contract, Universal human ethics (Postconventional morality, Adulthood - if at all)

What are the six stages of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional (morality)

What are the three phases of Kohlberg's theory of moral development?

Self-esteem

What describes a personal evaluation of ourselves or a measure of how we feel about ourselves?

Identity

What describes a set of behaviors and labels we take on when in a specific group? This may include individual components of our self-concept, such as religious affiliation, sexual orientation, and ethnic and national affiliations.

Hierarchy of salience

What is a framework for organizing our identities, such that we let a given situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment?

Locus of control

What is a self-evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives as internal or external?

Self-efficacy (belief in our ability to succeed)

What is the degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or in a given situation?

Self-concept (Who am I?)

What is the sum of the ways in which we describe ourselves: in the present, who we used to be, and who we might be in the future?

Conventional

What phase in Kohlberg's theory of moral development begins to develop in early adolescence (and progresses until adulthood) when individuals begin to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others and is based on an understanding of social rules?

Postconventional

What phase in Kohlberg's theory of moral development describes a level of reasoning that Kohlberg claimed not everyone was capable of and is based on social mores, which may conflict with laws?

overconfidence

When our self-efficacy is too high, ______ can result and lead us to take on tasks for which we are not ready - causing frustration, humiliation, or sometimes even personal injury.

learned helplessness

When our self-efficacy is too low, ______ ______ can result. This is a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed and is considered one possible model of clinical depression.

B (The second stage of psychosocial development (1-3 years) centers on the conflict between autonomy vs. shame and doubt. The favorable outcome here is feeling about to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. The unfavorable outcome is a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control.)

Which is an example of the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage according to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development? A.) An infant chewing on a teething ring. B.) A preschooler insisting on picking out her own clothes, no matter how mismatched they are. C.) A middle-schooler completing a challenging math assignment. D.) A teenager trying out new fashions and hairstyles.

Initiative vs. guilt (This stage occurs from 3-6 years of age. Favorable outcomes include a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. If guilt wins out, the child will be so overcome by the fear of punishment that the child may either unduly restrict himself, or may overcompensate by showing off.)

Which stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development could lead to fear of punishment such that a child either restricts himself or overcompensates by showing off?

Trust vs. mistrust (If resolved successfully, the child will come to trust his environment as well as himself. If mistrust wins out, the child will often be suspicious of the world, possibly throughout his life.)

Which stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development could lead to suspicion of the world if unresolved?

Generativity vs. stagnation (The conflict of middle age (40-65 years) is generativity vs. stagnation. The successful resolution of this conflict results in an individuals capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. If this crisis is not overcome, one acquires a sense of stagnation and may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered with little care for others.)

Which stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is characterized by being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society?

Identity vs. role confusion (During adolescence 12-20 years, the favorable outcome of this conflict is fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable outcomes are confusion about one's identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.)

Which stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is characterized by what he termed a "physiological revolution" when they reach adolescence?

nationality

While ethnicity is largely an identity into which we are born, ______ is based on political borders; this type of identity is the result of shared history, media, cuisine, and symbols.

Personality (While similar, this is not to be confused with identity which describes who we are rather than how we act and react to the world around us.)

______ describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits, and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations.

Transgender, gender dysphoria

______ individuals, for whom gender identity does not match biological sex, have been a heavily stigmatized group in American culture. In fact, it was not until the publication of the DSM-5 in 2013 that gender identity disorder was formally removed as a diagnosis. The DSM-5 includes the diagnosis ______ ______, which is given only to individuals for whom gender identity causes significant psychological stress.

Androgyny (NOT to be confused with undifferentiated in which individuals score low on both scales)

______ is defined as the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine.

Salience

______ is determined by a number of factors, including the amount of work we have invested into the identity, the rewards and gratification associated with the identity, and the amount of self-esteem we have associated with the identity. As this factor increases, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities.