Chapter 6; Learning

Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement

Hospital patient uses patient-controlled, doctor-timed pain relief

This is an important point: The neutral stimulus normally would have no effect on the dogs. Pavlov (and others experimenting in the same area) are generally seeking to determine if they can "tie" the stimulus to the response.

In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder (Figure 6.4). The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.

There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful.

These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Through

positive reinforcement

adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behavior

positive punishment

adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behavior

stimulus generalization

demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

fixed interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time

variable interval reinforcement schedule

behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed

law of effect

behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

secondary reinforcer

has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)

punishment

implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behavior

reinforcement

implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior

classical conditioning

learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior

latent learning

learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it

cognitive map

mental picture of the layout of the environment

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response

continuous reinforcement

rewarding a behavior every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

rewarding behavior only some of the time

shaping

rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior

fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded

radical behaviorism

staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations

observational learning

type of learning that occurs by watching others

instinct

unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans

reflex

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment

vicarious punishment

process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior

higher-order conditioning

(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus

Moderate yet steady response rate

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What does the brain effects indicate about whether gambling addiction is more related to classical or operant conditioning?

Interestingly, gamblers don't even have to win to experience the "rush" of dopamine in the brain.

Would the stimulus-response elements of classical conditioning work to teach a dog a new behavior?

Psychologist B. F. Skinner saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn't account for new behaviors such as riding a bike.

Fixed ratio

Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses).

Variable ratio

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses).

Fixed interval

Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes).

Variable interval

Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes).

This passage describes the phenomenon of taste aversion. Why might have humans and other animals evolved this ability to be conditioned this way?

Taste aversion is a type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the conditioned stimulus (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus (nausea or illness).

Can you think of a example from your own life where a neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus, and began to evoke a conditioned response?

The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the conditioned response (CR)

Why would this be considered by unethical today's standards? What aspect of research ethics did Watson violate?

Through these experiments, Little Albert was exposed to and conditioned to fear certain things. Initially he was presented with various neutral stimuli, including a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks, cotton wool, and a white rat. He was not afraid of any of these things. Then Watson, with the help of Rayner, conditioned Little Albert to associate these stimuli with an emotion—fear.

Why did John B. Watson focus on outward observable behavior, and why did he believe that would help psychology become a legitimate science?

Watson championed the idea that all behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, without regard for internal processes. Watson argued that in order for psychology to become a legitimate science, it must shift its concern away from internal mental processes because mental processes cannot be seen or measured.

Could this relate to signal detection theory discussed in Sensation and Perception?

When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar, it is called stimulus discrimination. In classical conditioning terms, the organism demonstrates the conditioned response only to the conditioned stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

learning

change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience

There are three main types of learning:

classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others.

extinction

decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus

operant conditioning

form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated

associative learning

form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)

primary reinforcer

has innate reinforcing qualities (e.g., food, water, shelter, sex)

variable ratio reinforcement schedule

number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded

acquisition

period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

model

person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning)

neutral stimulus (NS)

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

negative punishment

taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior

negative reinforcement

taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior