Chapter 6: Memory

Working memory

An active system that processes the information and short - term memory

Explicit memory

Memory that is consciously known, such as declarative memory

Information - processing model

Model of memory that assumes the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way the computer processes memory in a series of three stages

Memory trace

Physical change in the brain that occurs want to memory is formed

Selective attention

The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Elaborative rehearsal

A method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

D. episodic memory.

Kristy lost her dad in a tragic accident. This painful memory is located in her A. iconic memory. B. implicit memory. C. nondeclarative memory. D. episodic memory. E. semantic memory.

Encoding

The set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems

Long - term memory (LTM)

The system of memory into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently

Retrieval cue

A stimulus for remembering

Disuse

Another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear

Encoding failure

Failure to process information into memory

D. implicit memory

Activities such as walking down the stairs and tying your shoe are a part of your A. declarative memory B. explicit memory C. episodic memory D. implicit memory E. working memory

B. sensory

Douglas was shown a painting for a few moments, and then was asked to jot down as many details regarding the painting as he could remember. As he began writing, he was surprised to learn that although the remembered what the painting was, he had trouble recalling the details. Based on this information, the original information was likely stored in his ______memory. A. latent B. sensory C. explicit D. short-term E. declarative

Storage

Holding onto information for some period of time

Decay

Loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used

Eidetic imagery

The ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more

Hippocampus

Area of brain responsible for the formation of LTMs.

C. encoding

In terms of the memory process, ______refers to getting the information in. A. metacognition B. storage C. encoding D. retrieval E. consolidation

State-dependent learning

Memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to recall while in a similar state.

Proactive interference

Memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information

Retroactive interference

Memory retrieval problem that occurs when your information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information

Sensory memory

The very first stage of memory, the point at which information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems

A. Reconstruction

______ occurs when a person remembers the major portions of an event and then fills in the gaps with what he! she generally believes to be true. A. Reconstruction B. Schema use C. Relearning D. Metacognition E. Metamemory

Curve of forgetting

A graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually

Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model

A model of memory and which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections

C. chunking; displacement

According to the Atkinson-Shiffman model of memory, ______ can help prevent_________ A. chunking; elaboration B. rehearsal; retrograde amnesia C. chunking; displacement D. elaboration; rehearsal E. displacement; chunking

D. sensory memory; short-term memory

According to the Atkinson-Shiffman model, ______ can hold information for a very brief time period of a few moments whereas _______ can hold information for 30 seconds or so. A. implicit memory; metamemory B. iconic memory; sensory memory C. declarative memory; working memory D. sensory memory; short-term memory E. declarative memory; short-term memory

D. anterograde amnesia

Aidan was in a car accident that left him with a brain injury. One of the abilities he lost was to take in and recall new pieces of information such as what he ate for dinner and what he watched on television the previous day. Aidan likely suffers from ______ A. state—dependent amnesia B. infantile amnesia C. retrograde amnesia D. anterograde amnesia E. hippocampal amnesia

E. all of the above are true regarding recovered memories from the early years of like.

All of the following are true of recovered memories from the first few years of life EXCEPT A. research suggests that an underdeveloped hippocampus may prevent memories from being properly stored! retrieved. B. infantile amnesia would suggest that individuals cannot remember events that happened during the first few years. C. research suggests that areas of the cortex involved in memory are not yet fully developed thus interfering with the memory process. D. due to limited language abilities, the storage and future retrieval of memories is not very efficient or reliable. E. all of the above are true regarding recovered memories from the early years of like.

Memory

An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage

A. displacement

As Jezebel walked into the supermarket, she realized she forgot her grocery list. She tried to recall the items on the list, but once she got up to about ten items, she realized she had already forgotten the first few items. What did Jezebel experience? A. displacement B. decay C. rehearsal D. reconstruction E. retrograde amnesia

A. the serial position effect

As two—year-old Luca is learning to count to ten, his parents notice he always remembers one, two, three correctly and then nine, ten correctly. However, he often skips or mixes up the numbers in the middle. This demonstrates A. the serial position effect B. problems in metacognition. C. infantile amnesia. D. only the primacy effect E. only the recency effect.

A. recognition.

Averee just finished her sociology exam in which she was given 50 questions. Her professor also supplied 50 correct responses; all Averee had to do was pick the right answer from a field of four options. Avkeree's sociology professor tested her A. recognition. B. relearning ability. C. recall. D. metamemory. E. savings.

Chunking

Bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information can be held in STM

C. semantic memory and episodic memory.

Declarative memory includes A. episodic memory, explicit memory, and implicit memory. B. episodic memory, semantic memory, and implicit memory. C. semantic memory and episodic memory. D. explicit memory and episodic memory. E. implicit memory and explicit memory.

B. "Emily, the good news is that you don't have test anxiety. You just are not studying in a way that allows the information to get into where it needs to be. You are simply experiencing encoding failure."

Emily is convinced she has test anxiety. Every time she gets to the test, she cannot remember what she studied. She goes to her professor to try to see what she can do about it. Her professor asks her how she studies for the exams. Emily reports that she reads the chapters and rereads her notes. After talking to her professor about he study habits, her professor- who specializes in memory- will likely say, A. "Emily, it is clear that you are suffering from the decay theory of forgetting. You need to work on creating retrieval cues." B. "Emily, the good news is that you don't have test anxiety. You just are not studying in a way that allows the information to get into where it needs to be. You are simply experiencing encoding failure." C. "You probably do have test anxiety and should see a psychiatrist for medication." D. "Emily, I am not sure what to say. It sure seems like you are studying enough. Maybe just continue doing what you are doing and your grades will eventually get better." E. "Emily, there are two things I would recommend. First, I'd try massed practice. That will he1p you remember more information. Additionally, I'd try relaxation techniques to try to decrease your anxiety."

False positive

Error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory

E. working memory

Explicit memory is to declarative memory as short-term memory is to _______ A. semantic memory B. metamemory C. episodic memory D. nondeclarative memory E. working memory

Retrieval

Getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used

C. retrieval

Getting to the information when you need it is referred to ______ A. consolidation B. metacognition C. retrieval D. encoding E. storage

B. Sensory memory

Holds information brought in through our senses but only for a very brief amount of time. A. Short-term memory B. Sensory memory C. Metamemory D. Declarative memory E. Working memory

A. consolidation

In terms of the memory process, the physiological change that takes place in the brain to allow for new information to be stored is called A. consolidation B. metacognition C. retrieval D. encoding E. storage

E. Research suggests that both B and C are correct.

Julie is a participant in a research project. She is instructed to memorize a list of items. Julie reads the list, in order, over and over again. When it comes time for her to be tested on what items she remembers, what will the finding likely be? A. Julie will remember various items scattered throughout the list. B. Julie will have a better memory for items at the beginning of the list. C. Julie will have a better memory for items in the middle of the list. D. Julie will have a better memory for items at the end of the list. E. Research suggests that both B and C are correct.

C. declarative memory; nondeclarative memory

Long-term memory is broken down into ______and A. sensory memory; explicit memory B. iconic memory; echoic memory C. declarative memory; nondeclarative memory D. implicit memory; sensory memory E. working memory; short-term memory

Anterograde amnesia

Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form a new long - term memories

Retrograde amnesia

Loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

D. "Go over it at least one more time tomorrow before you are due to give your speech."

Maggie memorized the speech she wrote for her business presentation. Because she was confident that she knew it, she went to bed knowing she would remember the speech just as well the next day when she was scheduled to give it. Based on memory research what advice should Maisha, a psychology major, give Maggie? A. "Stay up for another few hours and over learn your speech. That way tomorrow, you won't even have to look at it." B. "Maggie, you are better off not sleeping tonight. That way, you won't have to worry about forgetting your lines." C. "Maggie, with all due respect, you will not be able to remember your speech because humans do not have that large a memory capacity.' D. "Go over it at least one more time tomorrow before you are due to give your speech." E. "Since forgetting won't happen for a week or so, I wouldn't worry about going over it again.'"

Digit-span test

Memory test in which a series of numbers is read to subjects in the experiment who are then asked to recall the numbers in order

Implicit memory

Memory that is not easily brought into conscious awareness, such as procedural memory

D. It is evident that she did not maintain any of the original learning in her long-term memory.

Mitzi learned the concept of classical conditioning for the first time in her psychology class. It took her about 60 minutes to thoroughly learn the process. Three weeks later, she had an exam in that class that covered classical conditioning. As she studied for that part of her exam, she realized it took her about 60 minutes to understand it once again. Which of the following is true of Mitzi based on this scenario? A. Based on the relearning technique, her savings score was 100%. B. After calculating Mitzi's savings score, it is clear that she maintained about 60% of what she learned the first time around. C. It can be ascertained that Mitzi learned about half of the material the first time around. D. It is evident that she did not maintain any of the original learning in her long-term memory. E. Unfortunately, Mitzi only retained about 10% of the knowledge the first time she learned about classical conditioning.

Semantic network model

Model of memory organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related

Levels - of - processing model

Model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed", or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

A. flashbulb memory

Nicole feels she will not soon forget the emotions she felt upon hearing of the attacks on America on September11th. She remembers very vividly what she was doing, who she was with, what was said, and what emotions she experienced. Nicole has a _______ for that tragic event. A. flashbulb memory B. repressed memory C. hippocampal memory D. metamemory E. reconstructed memory

B. decay theory

One day Oliver was sitting with his friend as they were discussing how long they have been friends. As they counted back, Oliver said, "Oh, I remember. We met in the third grade at recess time." As he and his friend reminisced, Oliver came to the conclusion that because he hadn't thought about the third grade in so many years, he could not remember who their teacher was. In fact, he could not remember anything about his teacher. What is Oliver likely experiencing? A. encoding failure B. decay theory C. anterograde amnesia D. interference failure E. consolidation failure

Maintenance rehearsal

Practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in short - term memory

Constructive processing

Referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised , or influenced by newer information

Distributed practice

Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Automatic encoding

Tendency of certain kinds of information to enter LTM with little or no effortful encoding

Serial position effect

Tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information

Primacy effect

Tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows

Recency effect

Tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information better than the information at the beginning of it

Recognition

The ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

Echoic memory

The brief memory of something a person has just heard

Consolidation

The changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed

False memory syndrome

The creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis.

Infantile amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3

Autobiographical memory

The memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Short - term memory (STM)

The memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used

Engram

The physical change that takes place in the brain when a memory is formed.

Encoding specificity

The tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) available when the memory is first formed is also available on the memory is being retrieved

Misinformation effect

The tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself

Hindsight bias

The tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event

B. proactive interference

Travis is a high school teacher. He has the same group of students for a semester and then gets a whole new group of students the next semester. He notices that when he gets the second group of students, he has difficulty learning their names because he is so used to the names of his last semester students. Travis is experiencing A. anterograde interference B. proactive interference C. retrograde amnesia D. retroactive interference E. anterograde amnesia

Declarative memory

Type of LTM containing information that is conscious and known

Procedural (nondeclarative) memory

Type of LTM including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior

Flashbulb memories

Type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it

Semantic memory

Type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education

Episodic memory

Type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events

Recall

Type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues

Iconic memory

Visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second

E. recency effect

When a person has a better memory for items at the end of a list, the _______ is demonstrated. A. metamemory effect B. primacy effect C. serial position effect D. flashbulb memory effect E. recency effect

E. repression

When a traumatic event seems to be removed or hidden from one's conscious awareness, _______ is said to have occurred. A. anterograde amnesia B. prospective forgetting C. retrograde amnesia D. proactive amnesia E. repression

A. a show up

When individuals are asked to look at a potential suspect one by one to determine whether or not that suspect was involved in the crime that the individual was the victim of, ______is being utilized. A. a show up B. an unethical strategy C. a police interrogation tactic D. a lineup E. a simultaneous identification procedure

B. maintenance rehearsal

When information is repeated over and over again, the process of _______ is being utilized. A. displacement B. maintenance rehearsal C. elaborative rehearsal D. metacognition E. chunking

A. retroactive interference

When new learning gets in the way of recalling previously learned information, _______has occurred. A. retroactive interference B. anterograde amnesia C. retroactive amnesia D. proactive amnesia E. proactive interference

A. Even when measures are put into place to reduce error, eyewitness testimony is not generally relied upon in the U.S. legal system.

Which of the following is FALSE regarding eyewitness testimony? A. Even when measures are put into place to reduce error, eyewitness testimony is not generally relied upon in the U.S. legal system. B. Although mistakes can happen, there are strategies that can be taken to minimize the errors. C. Greater accuracy can be achieved if the victim is shown one potential suspect at a time. D. When the crime involves a weapon, research suggests that misidentification is somewhat higher. E. When a victim is looking at a lineup of potential suspects, the race, build, and age of all the suspects should be similar.

D. recall.

Yvette just took a history exam which consisted of three essay questions. By giving essay questions, Yvette's professor measured her A. relearning ability. B. metamemory. C. savings. D. recall. E. recognition.

E. Long-term memory

_______ is your relatively limitless storehouse for information. A. Short-term memory B. Metamemory C. Working memory D. Sensory memory E. Long-term memory

D. Repression

_______ occur(s) when an individual cannot recall a trauma that occurred in his/her life because it is too painful to remember. A. Psychological interference B. False memories C. Infantile amnesia D. Repression E. Retrograde amnesia

B. Repression; false memories

_______ occur(s) when an individual cannot recall a trauma that occurred in his/her life because lit is too painful to remember; _______ occur(s) when a person begins to construct memories after someone, namely a therapist, suggests to a person that they may have been abused as a child. A. Retrograde amnesia; psychological recreation B. Repression; false memories C. Psychological interference; psychological recreation D. False memories; infantile amnesia E. Infantile amnesia; false memories

C. Anterograde amnesia; retrograde amnesia

_______ results when a person is no longer able to form new, long—term memories; _______ occurs when an individual experiences a loss of memory for occurrences prior to a loss of consciousness. A. Proactive interference; retroactive interference B. Proactive amnesia; retroactive amnesia C. Anterograde amnesia; retrograde amnesia D. Retrograde amnesia; anterograde amnesia E. Retroactive interference; proactive interference

C. Anterograde amnesia

_______ results when, due to some type of brain injury or insult, a person is no longer able to form new, long—term memories. A. Dissociative amnesia B. Retrograde amnesia C. Anterograde amnesia D. State—dependent amnesia E. Infantile amnesia

D. Retrograde amnesia

_______ typically occurs when an individual experiences a loss of memory for occurrences prior to a loss of consciousness. A. Anterograde interference B. Retrograde interference C. Anterograde amnesia D. Retrograde amnesia E. Proactive interference

D. Maintenance rehearsal; elaborative rehearsal

______is a memory strategy that involves an individual repeating something over and over whereas ______ is a memory strategy that involves connecting new information to something already stored in memory. A. Maintenance rehearsal; rote rehearsal B. Elaborative rehearsal; rote rehearsal C. Chunking; rote rehearsal D. Maintenance rehearsal; elaborative rehearsal E. Elaborative rehearsal; displacement

E. Episodic memory; semantic memory; explicit memory

______refers to memory of events whereas ______refers to memory of information and facts, both of which can be found in the _____ A. Semantic memory; episodic memory; declarative memory B. Episodic memory; semantic memory; implicit memory C. Semantic memory; episodic memory; nondeclarative memory D. Implicit memory; explicit memory; declarative memory E. Episodic memory; semantic memory; explicit memory

A. The serial position effect

______refers to the finding that memory is better for things at the beginning and the end of a list as compared for memory for things in the middle of the list. A. The serial position effect B. Metamemory C. The flashbulb memory effect D. Metacognition E. The memory reconstruction theory

A. Infantile amnesia

______refers to the notion that we cannot remember what occurred in the first few years of our lives. A. Infantile amnesia B. Early childhood inaccuracy theory C. Anterograde amnesia D. Retrograde amnesia E. Childhood repression

D. Epinephrine; cortiso

______seems to enhance memory whereas ______seems to get in the way, or interfere, with memory. A. Norepinephrine; noradrenalin B. Cortisol; adrenalin C. Estrogen; epinephrine D. Epinephrine; cortisol E. Cortisol; estrogen