Chapter 6 - The Creation of the Roman Empire 44 B.C.E.-284 C.E. - The Making of The West - HIST 1111

Catacombs of Rome

The Catacombs of Rome are former underground burial grounds that date from the second to the fifth century and were principally used by Christians and Jews. The catacombs are subterranean passageways that were used as place of burial for a number of centuries.

Which of these was true of government under Augustus? a. The army was disbanded. b. The office of consul was eliminated. c. The state was referred to as the empire. d. The Senate advised the consuls and other leaders.

The Senate advised the consuls and other leaders. Augustus was careful to maintain the appearance of representative government.

Julio-Claudians

The ruling family of the early principate from Augustus through Nero, descended from the aristocratic families of the Julians and the Claudians. Since Augustus claimed his system was not a monarchy, his successor could inherit his power only with the Senate's approval. Augustus therefore decided to identify an heir for the Senate to recognize as princeps after his death. This strategy succeeded and kept rule in his family, called the Julio-Claudians, until the death in 68 C.E. of Nero, Augustus's last descendant. It established the tradition that family dynasties ruled the principate. The Julio-Claudian emperors worked to prevent unrest, maintain loyalty, finance the administration and army, and govern the provinces. Augustus set the pattern for effective imperial rule: take special care of the army, communicate the emperor's image as a just ruler and generous patron, and promote Roman law and culture as universal standards. The citizens, in return for their loyalty, expected the emperors to be supportive patrons — but the difficulties of long-range communication imposed practical limits on imperial support of or intervention in the lives of the residents of the provinces.

Romanization

The spread of Roman law and culture in the provinces of the Roman Empire. Romanization, the spread of Roman law and culture in the provinces, raised the standard of living by providing roads and bridges, increasing trade, and establishing peaceful conditions for agriculture. The army's need for supplies created business for farmers and merchants. The increased prosperity that many provincials enjoyed under Roman rule made Romanization acceptable. In addition, Romanization was not a one-way street. In western regions as diverse as Gaul, Britain, and North Africa, interaction between the local people and Romans produced mixed cultural traditions, especially in religion and art. Therefore, Romanization merged Roman and local culture. The eastern provinces, however, largely retained their Greek and Near Eastern characteristics. Huge Hellenistic cities such as Alexandria (in Egypt) and Antioch (in Syria) rivaled Rome in size and splendor. The eastern provincial elites readily accepted Roman governance because Hellenistic royal traditions had prepared them to see the emperor as their patron and themselves as his clients.

Peter

A.D. 5-67 One of the 12 apostles of Jesus; Roman Catholics consider him to be the first pope, bishop of Rome

Which of these was true of government under Augustus? a. Citizens elected consuls. b. The army was disbanded. c. The state was referred to as the empire. d. The Senate was eliminated.

Citizens elected consuls. Augustus was careful to maintain the appearance of representative government.

heresy

False doctrine; specifically, the beliefs banned for Christians by councils of bishops. The bishops tried to suppress the disagreements that arose in the new religion. They used their authority to define orthodoxy (true doctrine) and heresy (false doctrine). The meetings of the bishops of different cities constituted the church's organization in this period. Today this loose organization is referred to as the early Catholic (Greek for "universal") church. Since the bishops often disagreed about doctrine and about which bishops should have greater authority than others, unity remained impossible to achieve.

Pax Romana (Roman Peace)

200 year period of peace and prosperity in Rome. The fear of civil discord gradually receded as Augustus's innovations brought peace for two hundred years, except for a struggle between generals for rule in 69 C.E. This Pax Romana ("Roman Peace") allowed agriculture and trade to flourish in the provinces, but paying for the military eventually weakened Rome. Previously, foreign wars had won Romans huge amounts of land and money, but now the distances were too great and the enemies too strong. The army was no longer an offensive weapon for expansion that brought in new taxes but instead was a defense force that had to be paid for out of existing revenues. The financial strain drained the treasury and destabilized the government. Christianity emerged as a new religion that would slowly transform the Roman world, but it also created tension because the growing presence of Christians made other Romans worry about punishment from the gods. In the third century C.E., the always-present fear that Romans would literally battle Romans for political prominence proved accurate when generals competing to rule reignited civil war that lasted fifty years and finally precipitated political change.

Gaius Octavius (Octavian)

Caesar's heir and member of 2nd triumvirate His title was Caesar Augustus. Caesar was his family and Augustus was the title given to him by the senate. In future generations, Caesar came to mean something like emperor.

Which of these was true of law and society in the Golden Age? a. Capital punishment was common in cases involving accused persons who were not elite. b. The "better people" made up a majority of the population. c. Anyone could be tortured during the course of a criminal investigation. d. Legal distinctions between elites and the rest of the population were eliminated.

Capital punishment was common in cases involving accused persons who were not elite. "Humbler people" convicted of serious crimes were regularly executed by being crucified or torn apart by wild animals before a crowd of spectators. "Better people" rarely received the death penalty.

Which of these was an important consequence of the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 70 C.E.? a. Christians rose to positions of authority within most Jewish communities. b. Rome became the new center of Mediterranean Judaism. c. Most Jews converted to Christianity. d. Christianity began to separate more clearly from Judaism.

Christianity began to separate more clearly from Judaism. The destruction of the temple in Jerusalem caused Christianity to begin to separate from Judaism and ultimately led to a crisis in Judaism.

Which of these was a teaching of Paul of Tarsus? a. Christians could and should bring about the fall of the Roman Empire. b. Jesus's message was meant only for a small group of spiritual elites. c. Only Jews could understand Jesus's specific moral message. d. Gentiles should be accepted into Christianity on an equal basis. e. Gentiles should be accepted into Christianity on an equal basis.

Gentiles should be accepted into Christianity on an equal basis. A well-educated, Hellenized Jew who was comfortable in both the Roman and Jewish worlds, Paul recognized that Christianity would not grow if it remained within Judaism and unconnected with the non-Jewish world.

Christ

Greek for "anointed one," in Hebrew Mashiach or in English Messiah; in apocalyptic thought, God's agent sent to conquer the forces of evil. Christianity offered an answer to the question about divine justice raised by the Jews' long history of oppression under the kingdoms of the ancient and Hellenistic Near East: if God was just, as Hebrew monotheism taught, how could he allow the wicked to prosper and the righteous to suffer? Nearly two hundred years before Jesus's birth, persecution by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV (r. 175-164 B.C.E.) had provoked the Jews into revolt, a struggle that generated the concept of apocalypticism (see Chapter 2). According to this doctrine, evil powers controlled the world, but God would end their rule by sending the Messiah ("anointed one," Mashiach in Hebrew, Christ in Greek) to conquer them. A final judgment would follow, punishing the wicked and rewarding the righteous for eternity. Apocalypticism especially influenced the Jews living in Judaea under Roman rule and later, inspired Christians and Muslims.

martyr

Greek for "witness," the term for someone who dies for his or her religious beliefs. The occasional persecutions in the early empire did not stop Christianity. Christians like Vibia Perpetua regarded public executions as an opportunity to become a martyr (Greek for "witness"), someone who dies for his or her religious faith. Martyrs' belief that their deaths would send them directly to paradise allowed them to face torture. Some Christians actively sought to become martyrs. Tertullian (c. 160-240 C.E.) proclaimed that "martyrs' blood is the seed of the Church." Ignatius (c. 35-107 C.E.), bishop of Antioch, begged Rome's congregation, which was becoming the most prominent Christian group, not to ask the emperor to show him mercy after his arrest: "Let me be food for the wild animals [in the arena] through which I can reach God," he pleaded. "I am God's wheat, to be ground up by the teeth of beasts so that I may be found pure bread of Christ." Stories reporting the martyrs' courage showed that the new religion gave its believers spiritual power to endure suffering.

How did Augustus solve the issue of succession to the principate? a. He urged the Senate to restore the republic after his death. b. He said his offices should be divided among his several sons. c. He adopted his stepson Tiberius. d. He adopted his stepson Tiberius. e. He asked the Senate to choose his successor.

He adopted his stepson Tiberius. Augustus adopted his stepson Tiberius, a common practice among members of the elite in Rome, and Augustus shared his consular and tribunician powers with Tiberius long before his death, thus grooming Tiberius for the principate. In his will, Augustus left most of his vast fortune to Tiberius, and the Senate formally requested Tiberius to assume the burdens of the principate. Thus, Augustus had succeeded in creating a dynasty.

How did Augustus promote marriage and childbirth? a. He reduced the amount of annual taxes required per head for those with large families. b. He provided a stipend for every family with a certain number of children. c. He freed fathers and their sons from military service. d. He granted privileges to the parents of three or more children.

He granted privileges to the parents of three or more children. Fearing the falling birthrate would destroy the social elite on whom Rome relied for public service, Augustus granted privileges to the parents of three or more children.

What was Jesus's conception of the Messiah, or savior? a. He said the Messiah would punish all nonbelievers. b. He would establish a spiritual kingdom, not an earthly one. c. Jesus said the Messiah would destroy the Roman legions and inaugurate a period of peace and prosperity for Jews. d. Jesus claimed not to believe in a Messiah.

He would establish a spiritual kingdom, not an earthly one. Jesus called on people to prepare themselves for the "treasures in heaven" rather than on earth.

Which of these played an important role in Augustus's successful creation of the Roman Empire? a. His scaling back of Rome's military expenditures b. His manipulation of political symbols c. His manipulation of political symbols d. His willingness to delegate power e. His embrace of social and cultural innovation

His manipulation of political symbols Augustus was a master of self-presentation and political propaganda.

Yeshua ben Yosef

Jesus' real name

The first Jewish revolt

Led by the Zealots who hated the Roman rule and they used violence to overthrow the government and were unsuccessful.

decurions

Municipal Senate members in the Roman Empire responsible for collecting local taxes. A tax on agriculture in the provinces (Italy was exempt) provided the principal source of revenue. The bureaucracy was inexpensive because it was small: only several hundred Roman officials governed a population of about fifty million. Most locally collected taxes stayed in the provinces to pay expenses there, especially soldiers' pay. Governors with small staffs ran the provinces, which eventually numbered about forty. This lean bureaucracy was possible especially because elite civilians in the provinces were responsible for collecting the taxes that financed Roman government. Serving as decurions (members of municipal Senates), these wealthy men were required personally to guarantee that their area's financial responsibilities were met. If there was a shortfall in tax collection or local finances, the decurions had to pay the difference from their own pockets. Wise emperors kept taxes moderate. As Tiberius put it, when refusing a request for tax increases from provincial governors, "I want you to shear my sheep, not skin them alive." The financial liability in holding civic office made that honor expensive, but the accompanying prestige made the elite willing to take the risk. Rewards for decurions included priesthoods in the imperial cult, an honor open to both men and women. The system worked because it observed tradition: the local elites were their communities' patrons and the emperor's clients. As long as there were enough rich, public-spirited provincials participating, the principate functioned by fostering the old ideal of community service by the upper class in return for respect and social status.

Neoplatonism

Plotinus's spiritual philosophy, based mainly on Plato's ideas, which was very influential for Christian intellectuals. Christian and polytheist intellectuals debated Christianity's relationship to Greek philosophy. Origen (c. 185-255 C.E.) argued that Christianity was superior to Greek philosophical doctrines as a guide to correct living. At about the same time, Plotinus (c. 205-270 C.E.) developed the philosophy that had the greatest influence on religion. His spiritual philosophy was influenced by Persian religious ideas and, above all, Plato's philosophy, for which reason it is called Neoplatonism. Plotinus's ideas deeply influenced many Christian thinkers as well as polytheists. He wrote that ultimate reality is a trinity of The One, of Mind, and of Soul. By rejecting the life of the body and relying on reason, individual souls could achieve a mystic union with The One, who in Christian thought would be God. To succeed in this spiritual quest required strenuous self-discipline in personal morality and spiritual purity as well as in philosophical contemplation.

Inscriptions from Pompeii

Political campaigning Gossip Similar to modern bathroom stall wall writings Far different than the usual surviving primary sources which are often from kings or other high ranking individuals.

debasement of coinage

Putting less silver in a coin without changing its face value; a failed financial strategy during the third-century C.E. crisis in Rome. The increased demand for pay and supplies strained imperial finances. The army had become a source of negative instead of positive cash flow to the treasury, and the economy had not expanded to make up the difference. To make matters worse, inflation had driven up prices. The principate's long period of peace promoted inflation by increasing demand for goods and services to a level that outstripped the supply. In desperation, some emperors attempted to curb inflation by debasing imperial coinage. Debasement of coinage meant putting less precious metal in each coin and adding more metal of less worth without changing the coin's face value. In this way, the emperors created more cash from the same amount of precious metal. But merchants soon raised prices to make up for the debased coinage's reduced value; this in turn produced more inflation, causing prices to rise even more. Still, the soldiers demanded that their patrons, the emperors, pay them well. This pressure drove imperial finances into collapse by the 250s C.E.

Which of these was at the heart of the imperial financial crisis of the third century C.E.? a. A series of natural disasters b. Rising military costs c. Rising military costs d. Government corruption e. Unemployment

Rising military costs

principate

Roman political system invented by Augustus as a disguised monarchy with the princeps ("first man") as emperor. In 27 B.C.E., Octavian proclaimed that he "gave back the state from [his] own power to the control of the Roman Senate and the people" and announced they should decide how to preserve it. Recognizing Octavian's power, the senators asked him to safeguard the state, granted him special civil and military powers, and bestowed on him the honorary title Augustus, meaning "divinely favored." Augustus changed Rome's political system, but he retained the name republic and maintained the appearance of representative government in what is today called the Roman Empire. Citizens elected consuls, the Senate gave advice, and the assemblies met. Augustus occasionally served as consul, but mostly he let others hold that office so they could enjoy its prestige. He concealed his monarchy by referring to himself only with the honorary title princeps, meaning "first man" (among social equals), a term of status from the republic. The Romans used the Latin word princeps to describe the position that we call emperor, and so the Roman government in the early empire after 27 B.C.E. is most accurately labeled the principate. Each new princeps was supposed to be chosen only with the Senate's approval, but in practice each ruler chose his own successor, in the way a royal family decides who will be king. To preserve the tradition that no official should hold more than one post at a time, Augustus as princeps had the Senate grant him the powers, though not the office, of a tribune. In 23 B.C.E., the Senate agreed that Augustus should also have a consul's power to command (imperium): in fact, his power would be superior to that held by the actual consuls. Holding the power of a tribune and a power even greater than a consul's meant that Augustus could rule the state without filling any formal executive political office. Augustus insisted that people obeyed him not out of fear but out of respect for his auctoritas ("authority"). Since Augustus realized that symbols affect people's perception of reality, he dressed and acted modestly, like a regular citizen, not an arrogant king. Livia, his wife, played a prominent role as his political adviser and partner in publicly upholding old-fashioned values. In fact, Augustus and the emperors who came after him were able to exercise supreme power because they controlled the army and the treasury. Later Roman emperors held the same power but continued to refer to the state as the republic; the senators and the consuls continued to exist, and the rulers continued to pretend to respect them.

Colosseum

Rome's fifty-thousand-seat amphitheater built by the Flavian dynasty for gladiatorial combats and other spectacles. In his role as "first man" protecting the people, Titus built Rome's Colosseum, outfitting the fifty-thousand-seat amphitheater with awnings to shade the crowd. The Colosseum was constructed on the site of the private fishpond in Nero's palace to demonstrate the Flavian dynasty's commitment to the people.

Which of these emperors accelerated the imperial financial crisis through his unwise policies? a. Claudius b. Septimius Severus c. Septimius Severus d. Tiberius e. Marcus Aurelius

Septimius Severus Severus drained the imperial treasury to fund his dreams of military glory and conquest.

Which of these belief systems presented itself as the "science of living" and required self-discipline from its followers? a. Christianity b. Stoicism c. The cult of Mithras d. The cult of Isis

Stoicism The Stoics emphasized self-discipline and a sense of duty, teachings that fit well with traditional Roman values.

Why was inflation a problem in the Roman Empire during the third century? a. Bad weather caused poor harvests, raising the cost of food. b. Non-Roman soldiers demanded more pay. c. The flood of cheap goods from the eastern Mediterranean harmed Roman production. d. The emperors reduced the amount of precious metal in coins. e. The emperors reduced the amount of precious metal in coins.

The emperors reduced the amount of precious metal in coins. To be able to continue paying their troops, the emperors reduced the silver content in coins in favor of less valuable metals like copper, but the result was inflation that crippled the economy further.

praetorian guard

The group of soldiers stationed in Rome under the emperor's control; first formed by Augustus. Augustus made the military the foundation of the emperor's power by turning the republic's citizen militia into a professional, full-time army and navy. He established regular lengths of service and retirement benefits, making the emperor the troops' patron to solidify their loyalty to him. To pay the added costs, Augustus imposed Rome's first inheritance tax on citizens, angering the rich. He also stationed several thousand soldiers in Rome for the first time ever. These soldiers — the praetorian guard — would later play a crucial role in selecting the next emperor when the current one died. Augustus meant them to provide security for him and prevent rebellion in the capital by serving as a visible reminder that the superiority of the princeps was backed by the threat of armed force.

Pontifex Maximus

The high priest of Rome, the head of Roman state religion; he appointed and oversaw the vestal virgins.

Augustus

The honorary name meaning "divinely favored" that the Roman Senate bestowed on Octavian; it became shorthand for "Roman imperial ruler." In 27 B.C.E., Octavian proclaimed that he "gave back the state from [his] own power to the control of the Roman Senate and the people" and announced they should decide how to preserve it. Recognizing Octavian's power, the senators asked him to safeguard the state, granted him special civil and military powers, and bestowed on him the honorary title Augustus, meaning "divinely favored."

apostolic succession

The uninterrupted passing on of apostolic preaching and authority from the Apostles directly to all bishops. Christians continued to expect Jesus to return to pass judgment on the world during their lifetimes. When that did not happen, they began transforming their religion from an apocalyptic Jewish sect expecting the immediate end of the world into one that could survive indefinitely. This transformation was painful because early Christians fiercely disagreed about what they should believe, how they should live, and who had the authority to decide these questions. Some insisted Christians should withdraw from the everyday world to escape its evil, abandoning their families and shunning sex and reproduction. Others believed they could follow Christ's challenging teachings while living ordinary lives. Many Christians worried they could not serve as soldiers without betraying their faith because the army participated in the imperial cult. This dilemma raised the further issue of whether Christians could remain loyal subjects of the emperor. Disagreement over these doctrinal questions raged in the many congregations that arose in the early empire around the Mediterranean, from Gaul to Africa to the Near East. The need to deal with such tensions, to administer the congregations, and to promote spiritual communion among believers led Christians to create an official hierarchy of men, headed by bishops. They spearheaded the drive to build the connection between congregations and Christ that promised salvation to believers. Bishops possessed authority to define Christian doctrine and administer practical affairs for congregations. The emergence of bishops became the most important institutional development in early Christianity. Bishops received their positions according to the principle later called apostolic succession, which states that the Apostles appointed the first bishops as their successors, granting these new officials the authority Jesus had originally given to the Apostles. Those designated by the Apostles in turn appointed their own successors. Bishops had authority to ordain ministers with the holy power to administer the sacraments, above all baptism and communion, which believers regarded as necessary for achieving eternal life. Bishops also controlled their congregations' memberships and finances. The money financing the early church came from members' donations.

How did the social elite support the imperial regime under Tiberius and subsequent emperors? a. They wrote laws and offered advice on imperial policy. b. They managed the collection of taxes in the provinces. c. They repudiated republican government. d. They served as minor functionaries and as servants to the emperor.

They managed the collection of taxes in the provinces. The social elite supported the regime by staying loyal and managing the collection of taxes while governing provinces.

How did the social elite support the imperial regime under Tiberius and subsequent emperors? a. They served as minor functionaries and as servants to the emperor. b. They repudiated republican government. c. They pretended that the republic's traditional offices retained their original powers. d. They pretended that the republic's traditional offices retained their original powers. e. They wrote laws and offered advice on imperial policy.

They pretended that the republic's traditional offices retained their original powers. The offices of consul, senator, and provincial governor continued, with elite Romans filling them and enjoying their prestige.

orthodoxy

True doctrine; specifically, the beliefs defined for Christians by councils of bishops. The bishops tried to suppress the disagreements that arose in the new religion. They used their authority to define orthodoxy (true doctrine) and heresy (false doctrine). The meetings of the bishops of different cities constituted the church's organization in this period. Today this loose organization is referred to as the early Catholic (Greek for "universal") church. Since the bishops often disagreed about doctrine and about which bishops should have greater authority than others, unity remained impossible to achieve.

Which author was part of Rome's Golden Age of literature? a. Thucydides b. Homer c. Marcus Aurelius d. Virgil

Virgil Virgil was Rome's greatest poet and wrote the Aeneid during the Golden Age of Roman literature.

The Pantheon

all the gods of a people or religion (when capitalized, Pantheon refers to the circular domed temple in Rome built in 27 B.C. and dedicated to all the gods.)