Chapter 7 - Commerce and Culture
IMPORTANT: What two major processes changed the Afro-Euroasian world in the post-classical period affecting Indian Ocean Trade? Hint: The economic and political revival of... (be able to explain the developments in this paragraph)
china — reestablished an effective and unified state, which actively encouraged maritime trade
IMPORTANT TO MEMORIZE: What items provided incentives for Indian Ocean commerce and were they each from?
china → porcelain / islands of southeast asia → spices / india → cotton goods and pepper / east african coast → ivory and gold / southern arabia → incense
"Culturally as well as economically, Swahili civilization participated in the larger Indian Ocean World." - What examples can you give that support this statement? Consider... What did Swahili ruling families do to bolster their prestige?
claimed arab or persian origins
Why was trade important to this period (and others)? In other words, how did it affect the following aspects of society: ECONOMICALLY
commerce altered consumption and shaped daily life
Vocab: Maritime commerce
commerce overseas
Comparison: How was the Islamic approach to commercial life different than the Confucian approach?
confucian → suspicious of merchants islam → friendly to commercial life
IMPORTANT: Great Zimbabwe What led to the emergence of this state?
connected to the growing trade in gold to the coast as well as to the wealth embodied in its large herds of cattle
Outer Eurasia:
consists of relatively warm, well-watered areas suitable for agriculture → provided setting for great civilizations of china, india, middle east, and mediterranean
What important change or continuity was mentioned regarding the Mediterranean?
continuity: mediterranean sea had been an avenue of maritime commerce throughout the region
IMPORTANT: What does the reading mean when it says that trade occurred NOT between entire regions, but rather between an "archipelago of towns."?
did not occur between regions/countries but occurred between chain of islands
COMPARISON: How is it different?
pre-modern: most people still produced primarily for their own consumption rather than for the market and a small range of good was exchanged in marketplaces; fewer people were required to sell their own labor for wages; most trade was in luxury goods rather than necessities; modern: circuits and commerce more limited
Vocab: Aztecs
private traders largely handled the distribution of goods,economic exchange in the andean inca empire
Steppes:
products of the forest and of semi-arid northern grasslands (hides, furs, livestock, wool, and amber)
Vocab: Pochteca
professional merchants
What did Buddhist monasteries provide for merchants?
provided convenient and culturally familiar places of rest and resupply for merchants making the long and arduous trek across central asia
What other foreign religions besides Hinduism entered the region through Indian Ocean Trade?
pwa saw and islam
IMPORTANT: Khmer Kingdom of Angkor
really powerful and prosperous
The case of Srivijaya illustrates the connection between commerce and state building. HOW? What trade was opened up by Malay sailors? Hint: An all-sea route between ...
sea route between india and china though the straits of malacca
When did Silk Road trading networks prosper most? Note generally when it would prosper but also know examples of when that was true.
second-wave era when large and powerful states provided security for merchants and travelers (roman chinese empires anchored long-distance commerce at western and eastern ends of eurasia)
How did Islam influence the relationship between Swahili city states and their neighbors to the west? Did Islam spread to the interior?
sharply divided the swahili cities from their african neighbors to the west; it spread to the interior
What other technology supported this understanding? Who contributed to this technology?
shipbuilding and oceanic navigation, chinese, malays, indians, arabs, swahilis, and others
How did Buddhism change as it spread across the Silk Roads from India to Central Asia, China and beyond?
shunned/ignored the material world → buddhist monasteries found themselves involved in secular affairs — some became quite wealthy
IMPORTANT CONCEPT: INDIANIZATION What can this be compared to in Afro-Eurasia? How is it different?
similarities: spread of greek culture within the empires of alexander the great and rome differences: no imperial control accompanied indain culture influence; matter of voluntary borrowing by independent societies that foundindian traditions and practices useful and were free to adapt those ideas to their own needs; kept persisting despite influences from afar
Who was MOST affected/transformed by oceanic commerce?
southeast asia and east africa
The case of Srivijaya illustrates the connection between commerce and state building. HOW? Why did it emerge as dominant?
srivijaya's plentiful supply of gold, its access to the source of highly sought-after spices (cloves, nutmeg, and mace), taxes levied/imposed new tax on passing ships (provided resources to attract supporters, to fun an embryonic bureaucracy, and to create the military and naval forces that brought some security to the area
Where were Swahili city-states located?
stretching all along the east african coast (present-day somalia to mozambique)
IMPORTANT: What geographic regions were reached by this network? (answered throughout -note the maps too!)
stretching from southern china to eastern africa
Whose ships carried most of these products?
swahili cities' ships
"Culturally as well as economically, Swahili civilization participated in the larger Indian Ocean World." - What examples can you give that support this statement? Consider... What kind of script was their language written in?
swahili language
What did silk come to represent and be used for? Who interacted as a result?
symbol of high status and governments passed laws that restricted silk clothing to members of the elite; chinese buddhist pilgrims made their way to india for religious texts and relics
The Indian Ocean trade represented the world's largest sea-based system of communication/exchange until what?
the creation of a genuinely global oceanic system of trade after 1500
Repetitive, but important: What did these trade routes facilitate?
the emergence of empires in west africa and the spread of islam into the region
What evidence supports the claim that the connections between civilizations and cultures of the Americas were "less densely woven than in the Afro-Eurasian region"?
the llama and potato both domesticated in the andes (never reached mesoamerica), nor did the writing system of the maya diffuse to andean civilizations
IMPORTANT: What made Indian Ocean Commerce possible? Were these predictable?
the monsoons, predictably northeast during the summer months and southwest during the winter
Architectural structure to remember: BOROBUDUR What is it? Where is it? What does it represent?
the most famous building program in sailendra kingdom in java; enormous mountain-shaped structure of ten levels with three-mile walkways and elaborate carving illustrations; represents process of buddhism becoming culturally grounded in a new place
What was more important than the economic impact of the Silk Roads? What example is given to support this idea?
their role as a conduit/channel for conveying water of culture; buddhism
What was the impact of disease along the Silk Roads? Consider... How were tenant farmers and urban workers affected?
they benefited, due to short supply they could demand higher wages or better terms
Why was trade important to this period (and others)? In other words, how did it affect the following aspects of society: DIFFUSION OF RELIGIONS, TECHNOLOGY, DISEASE, PLANTS/ANIMALS
trade became a vehicle for the diffusion of religions, technology, disease, plants/animals
What provided the economic incentive for the exchange of goods?
trans-african trade
IMPORTANT: COMPARISON WITH SILK ROADS. Were transportation costs higher/lower than the Silk Roads? How did this affect what was transported and who items were transported for (compared to Silk Roads)?
transportation costs → lower than silk roads; meant that sea roads could carry more bulk goods and products destined for a mass market (textiles, pepper, timber, rice, sugar, wheat)
IMPORTANT CONCEPT - MAKE SURE YOU UNDERSTAND THESE IDEAS: TRUE OR FALSE: Nothing equivalent to the long-distance trade of the Silk, Sea, or Sand Roads of the Eastern Hemisphere arose in the Americas, EVEN THOUGH local and regional commerce flourished in many places.
true
TRUE OR FALSE: No distinct cultural traditions spread widely to integrate multiple people across vast distances in the Americas.
true
TRUE OR FALSE: The focus on luxury products in Silk Road trade meant that there was limited direct impact on most people during this period.
true
TRUE or FALSE: Muslim merchants and sailors, as well as Jews and Christians living in the Islamic world, established communicaties of traders from East Africa to the south China coast.
true
TRUE or FALSE: The development of long-distance trade had stimulated the development of a West African civilization that was linked to wider networks of exchange in the Eastern Hemisphere.
true
TRUE or FALSE: After the year 1000, the culture of the Indian Ocean network was increasingly Islamic. Explain why this is true or false!
true, expansion of islam gave rise to international maritime and islamic world simulated widespread conversion; created commericial and informational network of unparalleled proportions
Vocab: Inca Roads
used for transporting goods by pack animal or sending messages by foot
How did trade in the Aztec society compare to that of the Incan empire?
was a state-run operation and no merchant group similar to aztec pochteca emerged there
Why was trade important to this period (and others)? In other words, how did it affect the following aspects of society: POLITICALLY
wealth available from controlling and taxing trade motivated creation of states in various parts and sustained those once constructed
What political system did they each have? (democracy, republic, monarchy, oligarchy, etc.)
were monarchies with elaborate court life and varying degrees of administrative complexity and military forces at their disposal
Which regions were stimulated and enriched by this trade connection?
west african civilizations
Relay trade:
where goods were passed down the line, changing hands many times before reaching their final destination
Location to know: Straits of Malacca
where many small ports along the malay peninsula and the coast of sumatra began to compete intensely to attract the growing number of traders and travelers making their way through the straits
Location to know: Malay Peninsula
where many small ports were along
Camel caravans:
where vast array of goods were often carried; traversed the harsh and dangerous steppes, deserts, and oases of central asia
Did Swahili city-states compete with one another?
yes
Did controlling access to valuable goods often lead to war among Mesoamerican states?
yes
Did early European explorers report that active networks of exchange were in operation and had been in operation for centuries among agricultural peoples in North America?
yes
Did indirect transcontinental trade exist in the early centuries of the Common Era?
yes
Did long-distance trade influence social class in the region?
yes
Did merchants among different urban centers have anything in common?
yes
Did piracy and warfare exist in this region of the world as people competed with their rivals?
yes
Did the Mayans engage in both regional land and sea-based trade?
yes
Did urban and commercial centers develop in this region of the world?
yes
Was islam widely adopted?
yes
Was much of the trade during this period indirect?
yes
Was there early long-distance trade among the agricultural people themselves in in Sudanic West Africa?
yes
Were there trading networks in the following regions? (inter-island trade in caribbean, along pacific coast, mesoamerica)
yes
Did Buddhism pick up elements of other cultures while in transit on the Silk Roads? Can you give an example of how?
yes — sogdian city of samarkand → zoroastrian fire rituals, northwest of india → statues of buddha reveal distinctly greek influences, greco-roman → heracles was used to represent Vajrapani (one of the divine protectors of buddha)
The case of Srivijaya illustrates the connection between commerce and state building. HOW? Did this region become a major center of Buddhist observance and teaching? How do you know?
yes 一 southeast asian rulers/elites were attracted to indian belief that leaders were god-kings, srivijayan monarchs employed indians as advisers, clerks or officials and assigned sanskrit titles to their subordinates, made use of imported indian political ideas and buddhist religious concepts
Had merchants from the Roman world settled in places like India and East Africa? Had Indian and Chinese traders settled elsewhere? Note: Merchant settlements far from their place of origin are a pattern/continuity in human history!
yes, chinese traders reached india
What items were coming from East Africa (or the interior of Africa)? Where were they being sold?
-gold, ivory, quartz, leopard skins, sometimes slaves acquired from interior societies, iron, processed timber manufactured along coast -being sold in arabia, persia, india, and beyond
When did this region "flourish" according to the reading? How was it different than earlier farming societies or the pastoral societies of the interior?
1000-1500; it was thoroughly urban with centered cities (lamu, mombasa, kilwa, sofala, etc)
IMPORTANT: Great Zimbabwe When was the peak of this civilization?
1250-1350
What happened in Southeast Asia during the third-wave era?
a series of cities and states or kingdoms emerged on both the islands and mainland of southeast asia representing few civilizations in this vast region
What was the impact of disease along the Silk Roads? Consider... How did the Black Death impact the balance between pastoral and agricultural peoples?
central asian steppes suffered terribly, undermining/weakened mongol rule and permanently altering the balance between pastoral and agricultural people
Who had a monopoly on silk production?
china
Was most trade in the Americas luxury goods or basic goods? Who did trade support?
luxury goods; supported upholding position and privileges of royal and noble families
Were most of the goods transported luxury items or staple goods? How do you know?
luxury products → for elite and wealthy markets; only readily moved commodities of great value could compensate for the high costs of transportation across such long and forbidding distances
Most Indian Ocean commerce "hugged the coast" and took place over short distances in early years, but what group was an exception to this rule?
malay sailors
The case of Srivijaya illustrates the connection between commerce and state building. HOW? Who began to compete once this happened?
many small ports along the malay peninsula and the coast of sumatra
IMPORTANT: Where were the most active and dense networks of communication and exchange in the Americas?
mesoamerica and the andes
Who encompassed almost the entire route of the Silk Roads into a single state and when?
mongol empire; 13th and 14th centuries
What unique social characteristics were maintained despite influence from India and China?
most southeast asian societies traced an individual's ancestry from both the mother's and father line
Architectural structure to remember: ANGKOR WAT What is it? Where is it?
most stunning architectural expression in the temple complex in champa kingdom
The interaction described above (with Venice) is an example of how the transregional maritime commerce of the Mediterranean was linked to ...
much larger and more extensive network of seaborne trade in the indian ocean basin
What is one reason why these interactions were limited?
narrow bottleneck of panama, largely covered by dense rain forests, surely inhibited contact between south and north america
Did they engage in transatlantic voyages?
no
Was there any sustained interaction between the people of the two hemispheres before Columbus?
no
Did they establish a permanent presence there? Why or why not?
no because they did not bore long-term consequences
What is the only clear connection we know existed between the two hemispheres before Columbus? When did this happen?
occasioned by the brief viking voyages to north america around the year 1000
Who was linked by the Silk Roads?
pastoral and agricultural people
Which people were in the best position to take advantage of these new opportunities?
people of the western and central sudan
Were the Swahili city-states unified or politically independent?
politically independent
MUST KNOW KINGDOM: Mali When was the highpoint for these rulers? What economic strategies did they use?
-14th century -monopolized the import of strategic goods such as horses and metals; levied duties on salt, copper, and other merchandise -reserved large nuggets of gold for themselves while permitting the free export of gold dust
What invention allowed the camel to become the most versatile and efficient form of transportation? When?
-a new saddle; allowed camel to carry a heavier load -100 BCE
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN HUMAN HISTORY? What argument is made in the introduction about the exchange of goods throughout human history? What's notable about transregional interactions during the third-wave era of 500-1500?
-continuity: exchange of goods among communities occupying different ecological zones -change: some societies have been able to monopolize/take over the production of products (china → silk, spices → southeast asia, incense → southern arabia) -500-1500: long-distance trade became more important than ever before in linking and shaping distant societies and peoples
Why was trade important to this period (and others)? In other words, how did it affect the following aspects of society: SOCIAL STRUCTURES
-diminished economic self-sufficiency of local societies; merchants became distinct social group (viewed with suspicion by others because of their impulse to accumulate wealth without producing anything) -trade becomes means of social mobility
What was the impact of disease along the Silk Roads? Consider... What were the LONG term effects of the exchange of disease on groups?
-europeans: gave them a certain advantage when they confronted the people of western hemisphere after 1500; over time had provided them with some degree of immunity to european diseases -americas: absence of domesticated animals, less intense interaction among major centers of population, and isolation from eastern hemisphere ensure that native people had little defense against diseases of europe and africa
Where DID these things spread from and to? (maize, game played with rubber balls, sweet potato)
-from mesoamerican place of origin to the southwestern united states and then on to eastern north america and south america -in caribbean, mexico, and northern south america -from south america and passed into pacific ocean (polynesian voyagers introduced it and landed on the west of that continent and then return home with sweet potatoes which spread widely within oceania
What was the impact of disease along the Silk Roads? Consider... What regions/states were affected and how?
-greek-city state (athens): killed 25% of its army and permanently weakened the city-state -roman empire and han dynasty: smallpox and measles devastated populations of both empires → political collapse (may have strengthened appeal of christianity in europe and buddhism in china) -coastal areas of the mediterranean sea: bubonic plague outbreak → black rats carried disease via seaborne trade with india -constantinople: lost thousands of people per day during a forty-day period; prevented byzantium from reintegrating italy into its version of a renewed roman empire -christendom: weakened ability to resist muslim armies from arabia in the 7th century -mongol empire: briefly unified eurasian landmass; half of the population of europe perished from the plague
What elements of Indian culture spread as a result of commercial connections?
-indian alphabets (sanskrit & pallava) → used to write many southeast asian languages -indian artistic forms → provided models for sculpture and architecture -ramayana → became widely popular
IMPORTANT: How long did the Arabic camel remain the chief source of transport between sub-Saharan West Africa and the Meditteranean? What changed this?
-over 1,000 years -invention of automobiles changed this
What resources came out of sub-Saharan Africa? (don't need to know all the specifics, know type and an example)
-savanna grasslands → grain crops (millet and sorghum) -forest areas farther south → root and tree crops such as yams and kola nuts predominated
IMPORTANT: How did Venice accumulate wealth during this time period? Know what was coming from where, the path in which it was transported, and who it was sold to and by whom!
-ships and merchants active in the mediterranean and black seas as well as on the atlantic coast -much wealth derived from control of expensive and profitable imported goods from asia, many of which came up the red sea through the egyptian port of alexandria -merchants picked up goods and resold them throughout the mediterranea basin
IMPORTANT CONCEPT: SLAVERY Early on, slaves were mostly.... Working as... Over time, how did this change? Where did most come from?
-slaves were mostly women working as domestic servants and concubines -male slaves were put to work as state officials, porters, craftsmen, miners harvesting salf from desert deposits, and especially agricultural laborers producing for the royal granaries on large estates or plantations -came from non-islamic and stateless societies far south
IMPORTANT CONCEPT: SLAVERY Where were most of these slaves used? Did a trade in slaves across the Sahara develop? How many people were taken per year across the Sahara and where were they taken to?
-used within emerging west africian civilization -yes -5,500 slaves in the homes of the wealthy in islamic north africa
How long did camels retain their importance in the Southwest Asia?
1,500 years
During roughly what years did new states and empires emerge in this region?
500-1600
The case of Srivijaya illustrates the connection between commerce and state building. HOW? When did the Kingdom of Srivijaya emerge as dominant in this competition?
670 - 1025
When had the knowledge of silk production spread beyond China?
6th century
When did the Scandinavian Vikings raid, trade, and settle much of Europe?
800-1050
Where was it and when did it flourish?
800-1300; southeast asia
LOCATION TO KNOW: The Sahara
?????
Where did the camel have an even more significant influence?
across the sahara
What other products were in demand in the desert and in the Mediterranean and beyond?
african ivory, kola nuts, and slaves
What emerged as a result of these new commercial opportunities?
an african merchant class, villages into sizable towns, clan chiefs into kings
Vocab: Java
an agriculturally rich region closely allied with srivijaya and part of indonesia
"Culturally as well as economically, Swahili civilization participated in the larger Indian Ocean World." - What examples can you give that support this statement? Consider... Who came to visit and sometimes settled in these cities?
arab, indian, and persian merchants
How did visitors describe these places?
as cosmopolitan places where court officials, artisans, scholars, students, and local and foreign merchants all rubbed elbows
What was the impact of disease along the Silk Roads? Consider... How were some landowning nobles affected?
badly hurt as the price of their grains dropped and the demands of their dependents grew
From the time of their arrival in Africa, camels.....
camel simulated trade and contact across the sahara
What are the advantages of using this animal (over other animals)?
camels ate desert plants and thrived on lands unsuitable for agriculture; camels carried loads on their backs rather than pulling carts made of wood (scarce resource)
What role were women playing in Tang China? In other words, what were they contributing to? What was the economic status of many rural families in China?
household economy, technological innovation in the silk industry; to the state; rural families were in poverty
What stimulated a slave trade FROM East Africa? What were conditions like?
efforts to reclaim wasteland in mesopotamia to produce sugar and dates for export; thousands of africans to work on plantations and in salt mines under horrendous conditions
True or False: The East African city states were basically colonies of Arabs who had moved there.
false
What stimulated the growth of Swahili cities?
far more extensive commercial life of the western indian ocean following the rise of islam
Just as it had in Southeast Asia and East Africa, what did long-distance trade provide both incentives and resources for?
for the construction of new and larger political structures
What did these new states gain a reputation for? Where did their wealth come from?
gained a reputation for great riches; drew on wealth of trans-saharan trade, taxing the merchants who conducted it
Did gender hierarchies exist in these societies? What EVIDENCE do you have to support this? How did they compare to those of Eurasian civilizations at the same time? How did bards (like poets that helped pass on history) often view women?
gender hierarchies existed; male bards viewed powerful women as dangerous and not to be trusted, and a seductive distraction for men, but ordinary women were central to agricultural production and weaving, royal women played an important political role in many places
IMPORTANT: What effect did their growing involvement with international commerce have on the social structures of these civilizations? Is this a continuity throughout human history?
generated social complexity and hierarchy characteristic of all civilizations; it is a continuity
What did North African Arabs seek from West Africa?
gold
Camel caravans were usually involved in the trade of what items?
gold, ivory, salt, slaves
What resources came out of the Sahara? (don't need to know all the specifics, know type and an example)
great sahara → held deposits of copper and salt; oases produced sweet and nutritious dates farther south of desert → grew a variety of crops, produced own textiles and metal products, mined a considerable amount of gold
Did the Aztecs and Incas have any direct contact with one another?
had little if any direct contact
IMPORTANT: How did Ibn Battuta (a must know person) feel about the relationship between men and women in West Africa?
he was surprised and appalled at the casual intimacy of unmarried men and women
Vocab to look up: Mesoamerica
historical and cultural region in north america
Vocab: Kingdom of Srivijaya
illustrate the connection between commerce and state building; plentiful supply of gold, access to source of highly sought-after spices, and taxes levied on passing ships
COMPARISON: How was the development of trade and culture in West Africa similar to that of East Africa?
in east africa islam accompanied trade and became an important element in the urban culture of west africa
Where were cotton textiles coming from?
india
What technology made transportation across the Silk Roads easier?
innovations for camels, horses, and oxen such as yokes, saddles, and stirrups
What was the role of the East African coastal cities - in other words, who did it connect?
intermediaries between the interior producers of valued goods and the arab merchants who carried them to distant markets
How was islam introduced? What was the method by which it spread (conquest, voluntary conversion, etc.)
introduced by arab traders and was voluntary
What was an effect of the migrations to Madagascar?
introduced their language and their crops where they greatly enriched the diets of african people; finding its way to the continent was a malayo-polynesion xylophone; extinction of the elephant bird
What was a major turning point in African commercial life? What was now possible?
introduction of the camel to north africa and the sahara was major turning point; long trek across the sahara was now possible
What religion was adopted?
islam
IMPORTANT: What two major processes changed the Afro-Euroasian world in the post-classical period affecting Indian Ocean Trade? Hint: Sudden rise of.... (be able to explain the developments in this paragraph)
islam — was friendly to commercial life; creation of an arab empire brought together in a single political system an immense range of economics and cultural traditions and provided a vast arena for the nergies of muslim traders
Were traditional practices mixed with new faiths? Did this lead to conflict?
it did mix with new faiths but there was little conflict
Vocab: Quipus
knotted cords used to record numerical data
Inner Eurasia:
lands of eastern russian and central asia; lies farther north and has a harsher and drier climate not suitable for agriculture; pastoralists traded with and raided their agricultural neighbors to the south (hides, furs, livestock, wool, and amber)
COMPARISON: How is trade in the modern era similar to trade during the per-modern era (500-1500)?
linked distant people both economically and culturally, prompted the emergence of new states, and sustained elite privileges in many ancient civilizations
Who was linked by this trade system?
linked north africa and the mediterranea world with the land and peoples of interior west africa
What kinds of goods were generated in the North African coastal regions? (don't need to know all the specifics, know type and an example)
long part of roman or later arab empires → generated cloth, glassware, weapons, books and other manufactured goods