Chapter 7: Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps, Chapter 7: Cognition, Exam 3 - Cognitive Psych, Chapter 5, Chapter 4 Cognitive Psych, Chapter 3, Chapter 2, Chapter 1: An Introduction to Cognitive Psychology, Chapter 7 Practice Questions - Mental Imager...

name the type of memory for each (episodic, procedural, or semantic): -who your first bf/gf was -the capitol of California -what you did for your 18th birthday -the 24th president of the US -how to drive a car

-who your first bf/gf was = episodic memory -the capitol of California = semantic memory -what you did for your 18th birthday = episodic memory -the 24th president of the US = semantic memory -how to drive a car = procedural memory

Chapter 2 discussed individual differences in people's ability to judge the facial emotion that is being expressed in a series of photos. The results of this study suggest that people with schizophrenia

....are just as accurate as people in a control group

Suppose that a psychologist writes an article on children's acquisition of gender stereotypes. Which of the following article titles would be most consistent with the cognitive approach?

"Children's memory for gender-consistent information"

Which of the following titles of research projects would have the most ecological validity? a. "Planning strategies used in grocery-store shopping" b. "Recall for nonsense words after varying delay periods" c. "Children's ability to perform abstract reasoning tasks" d. "Perception of the loudness of isolated computer-generated tones"

"Planning strategies used in grocery-store shopping."

metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task your knowledge and control of your cognitive processes

Imagine that you are attending a lecture by a guest speaker who describes a theory and then says, "Let's now look at the empirical evidence." Which of the following would most likely be the speaker's next sentence?

"We conducted an experiment to test this hypothesis."

Suppose that you hear about a research project in linguistics that is exploring the topic called discourse. Which of the following would be the most likely topic for this research?

"What are students' ideas about how a story should end?"

Suppose that several psychologists want to explore interpersonal interactions during adulthood. Which of the following topics would be most consistent with the cognitive approach?

"When meeting someone for the first time, what attribute does a person perceive most quickly, gender or ethnicity?"

Differentiate between episodic, semantic and procedural memory

-episodic is the memory for events that happened to us - "episode" we say "I remember..." -Semantic is the organized knowledge of the word so we say "I know...." - Procedural memory is the knowledge on how to do something (complete a procedure) -

Encoding or retrieval? -going to class and listening to Dr. Cahill lecture -Taking exam 2

-going to class and listening to Dr. Cahill lecture - encoding -taking exam 2 = retrieval

Language acquisition device or LAD

A biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar

Proactive interference

A cause of forgetting by which newly learned information is presented. Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last.

Retroactive interference

A cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material.

Flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

Script

A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions

Information-processing model

A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, or retrieved.

Declarative memory

A division of LTM that stores explicit information; also known as fact memory. Has two subdivisions: episodic memory and semantic memory.

Procedural memory

A division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done.

Serial position effect

A form of interference related to the sequence in which information is presented. Generally, items in the middle of the sequence are less well remembered than items presented first or last.

heuristic

A general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions.

Forgetting curve

A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material, such as a list of nonsense syllables. The typical forgetting curve is steep at first, becoming flatter as time goes on.

superordinate-level categories

A level of categorization broader than the basic level that includes exemplars that can be quite dissimilar from one another.

inference

A logical interpretation based on prior knowledge and experience.

Misattribution

A memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved but are associated with the wrong time, place, or person.

Persistence

A memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind.

Mood-congruent memory

A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match (are congruent with) one's mood.

Implicit memory

A memory that was not deliberately learned or which you have no conscious awareness.

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations.

Recall

A retrieval memory in which one must reproduce previously presented information.

Recognition

A retrieval method in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented.

Semantic memory

A subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts.

Episodic memory

A subdivision of declarative memory that stores memory for personal events, or "episodes."

Priming

A technique for cuing implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory.

Elaboration rehearsal

A working-memory process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM.

Maintenance rehearsal

A working-memory process in which information is merely repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory. Maintenance rehearsal involves no active elaboration.

reading strategies

Activating prior knowledge; predicting or asking questions; visualizing; drawing influences; determining important ideas; synthesizing information; repairing understanding; confirming; using parts of a book; reflecting

How can adding more trials to you experiment affect proactive interference?

Adding more trials can cause proactive interference as with each trial the participant will become less accurate if the words are from the same semantic categories.

Eidetic imagery

An especially clear and persistent form of memory that is quite rare; sometimes known as "photographic memory."

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the variability found in the way we pronounce pronouns? a. Melissa: "Aside from the pitch of a person's voice, phoneme pronunciation is relatively uniform." b. Nico: "The variability in pronunciation is so great that we frequently have trouble comprehending a spoken sentence." c. Annabelle: "Despite the great variability in pronunciation, we perceive speech quite accurately." d. Alan: "Fortunately, coarticulation is a helpful part of our speech perception, and it compensates for the fact that people's speech shows great variability."

Annabelle: "Despite the great variability in pronunciation, we perceive speech quite accurately."

Memory

Any system-human, animal, or machine-that encodes, stores, and retrieves information.

Overregulation

Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms.

The philosopher ____ can be called the first cognitive psychologist, because he examined topics such as memory and perception and emphasized the importance of empirical evidence.

Aristotle

Event-related potentials

Brain waves in response to stimulation

Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary about phone use when someone is driving? a. Henri: "As long as someone other than the driver is talking on the phone, there's no problem." b. Edith: "As long as a driver uses a hands-free phone, there's no problem." c. Charles: "When drivers are talking on the phone, they pay less attention to objects that appear in the middle of their visual field." d. Jeanne: "When drivers are talking on the phone, the passengers can carry on a continuous conversation without affecting the driver."

Charles: "When drivers are talking on the phone, they pay less attention to objects that appear in the middle of their visual field."

What does the introductory chapter conclude about the influence of cognitive approaches on other areas of psychology?

Cognitive psychology has had an important impact on a variety of areas throughout psychology.

Heuristics

Cognitive strategies or "rules of thumb" used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks

Artificial concepts

Concepts defined by rules, such as word definitions and math formulas

Which of the following students best summarizes the information about visual cues and speech perception? a. Dawan: "Adults who have normal hearing often fail to appreciate the visual cues, even though these cues are helpful." b. Cheryl: "Surprisingly, adults can perceive speech just as accurately without visual cues as they can with visual cues." c. Ralph: "Adults cannot distinguish among the visual cues associated with the phonemes, so they do not link these cues with the auditory stimuli." d. Tiffany: "Although children pay attention to these visual cues, adults do not."

Dawan: "Adults who have normal hearing often fail to appreciate the visual cues, even though these cues are helpful."

Which of the following would be least interested in the topic of attention?

Early behaviorists

T or F: An analog code means that we construct a representation from a verbal description.

False

Representativeness bias

Faulty heuristic based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category

Anchoring bias

Faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on an unrelated quantity

Availability bias

Faulty heuristic that estimates probabilities on information that can be recalled

You have no difficulty distinguishing between the letters O and W, but it takes longer to distinguish between the letters O and Q. Which theory of object recognition does this support?

Feature-analysis theory

Absent-mindedness

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention.

Blocking

Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved. Blocking is caused by interference.

explain chunking in your own words and provide an example of how it is used. How might this help when studying for an exam or memorizing a phone number?

George Miller's magical number seven shows that we can only remember about 7 items (give or take two) so for a phone number we can chunk - a chunk acts as one unit of the 7 units. For instance, chunk area code 352 for Gainesville into one. If its a UF number next 3 digits are 392 but we can also chunk this as one - so we only have used up 2 units so far and can better recall the last 4 digits then

Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary about phoneme pronunciation, as discussed in the section on speech perception? a. George: "Humans manage to perceive the phoneme intended by the speaker, even though phoneme pronunciation is quite variable." b. Angela: "Humans tend to perceive phonemes inaccurately, but top-down processing helps to increase their accuracy." c. Jakob: "Humans have great difficulty with phoneme perception, because most speakers have sloppy phoneme pronunciation." d. Galit: "Each phoneme is pronounced in a consistent fashion, so that speech perception is remarkably accurate."

George: "Humans manage to perceive the phoneme intended by the speaker, even though phoneme pronunciation is quite variable."

Which of the following movements emphasized the human tendency to actively organize what we see?

Gestalt psychology

your verbal reports about your cognitive processes are most likely to be accurate for which of the following tasks?

Guessing which items from the list of psychology terms you would be most likely to define correctly on an examination

Based on the information in Chapter 1, how would you describe the approach of William James?

He emphasized the kinds of psychological experiences that people encounter in their everyday lives.

What an we conclude about the two major explanations for speech perception?

Humans show categorical perception for nonspeech sounds, which argues against a phonetic module approach

Prototype

Ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category

Expectancy Bias

In memory, a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations.

Functional fixedness

Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose

Measures of performance such as reaction time that have been used to investigate internal processes have been criticized for being ...

Indirect

Aptitudes

Innate potentialities

Which of the following interests is shared by researchers within the discipline of cognitive science? a. Internal representations of the world b. Individual differences c. The relationship between emotions and thought d. An emphasis on problem solving

Internal representations of the world

Brown/Peterson and Peterson Technique

Involves presenting participants with some items that they are instructed to remember. Participants then perform a distracting task. After spending some time on the distracting task, participants are then asked to recall the original items.

why might sensory memory be hard to prove?

It is hard to prove/we don't have a lot of research on it since it happens prior to consciousness and is so brief

How does the functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging technique (fMRI) compare with other imaging techniques?

It is more effective than the PET scan in measuring brain activity that occurs rapidly

What is the current status of the bottleneck theory of attention?

It is not flexible enough to explain human attention

Which of the following students provides the most complete, accurate information about the topic called "mind wandering"? a. Daphne: "When your mind wanders, your visual acuity actually improves." b. Dan: "When your mind wanders, you no longer can match an object's shape with its color." c. Evan: "Mind wandering occurs when your attention shifts from distributed attention to focused attention." d. Karolina: "Mind wandering occurs when your thoughts shift from the outside world to your inner thoughts."

Karolina: "Mind wandering occurs when your thoughts shift from the outside world to your inner thoughts.:

Schema

Knowledge luster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, etc.

Concept hierarchies

Levels of concepts in which a more general level includes more specific concepts

Which of the following women was an early researcher in memory who reported the recency effect and also became the first female president of the American Psychological Association?

Mary Whiton Calkins

Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the research about using a cell phone and paying attention while driving?

María Luisa: "If the traffic is heavy, talking on a hands-free cell phone can distract your attention."

Which of the following students provides the best summary of the research about using a cell phone and paying attention while driving? a. Hans: "As long as you talk on a hands-free cell phone, you can still pay full attention to driving." b. Gail: "As long as you are an experienced driver, talking on a hand-held cell phone or a hands-free cell phone will not distract your attention." c. María Luisa: "Talking on a hands-free cell phone can distract your attention." d. Josh: "Fortunately, drivers are not distracted when a passenger is having a conversation on a phone."

María Luisa: "Talking on a hands-free cell phone can distract your attention."

semantics

Meaning of words and sentences

Chapter 2 discusses a concept in object recognition called the "viewer-centered approach" Which of the following students provides the most accurate description of this approach? David: "This approach explains how an object appears to be three-dimensional." Javier: "This is an adjustment that the visual system makes when the viewer walks closer to an object." Melissa: "This is a modification of the recognition-by-components approach, to explain how we perceive an object from an unusual angle." Becca: "This is a theoretical approach to perception that explains how each individual assumes that her or his perception is the only accurate representation."

Melissa: "This is a modification of the recognition-by-components approach, to explain how we perceive an object form an unusual angle.""

Explicit memory

Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled.

Which term or phrase is closest in meaning to the term "cognition"?

Mental activity

Creativity

Mental process that provides novel responses for problems

Concepts

Mental representations of categories of items or ideas, based on experience.

Natural concepts

Mental representations of objects drawn from our direct experience

Whole method

Mnemonic strategy of first approaching the material to be learned as a whole, and then learning details

differentiate between mood congruence and mood dependence

Mood congruence refers to the kind of information we retrieve-positive or negative- whereas mood dependence refers to the match between our state at learning and our state at remembering

The "father of cognitive psychology" was

Neisser

Encoding

One of the three basic tasks of memory, involving the modification of information to fit the preferred format for the memory system.

Storage

One of the three basic tasks of memory, involving the retention of encoded material over time.

Impulses from the retina leave the eye via the:

Optic nerve

Chunking

Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units (or chunks)- a process that frees up space in working memory.

What is perception?

Perception uses previous knowledge to gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses.

Differentiate between the recency effect and the primacy effect. Think about which type of memory each one measures and common errors associated with them

Primacy effect - good memory for words early in the list and this is long-term memory. Common error are usually based on meaning - we organize our memory system on meaning Recency effect - good memory for the words at the end of the list and is working memory. Common errors are based on sensory errors (visual or auditory) - after rehearsing info if we make mistakes it will be sensory errors

Algorithms

Problem-solving procedures or formulas

Which of the following statements about object recognition is correct? a. Visual information is first processed in the primary visual cortex, but it is eventually stored in the retina. b. In general, we need at least one second to recognize an object. c. The primary visual cortex is responsible for identifying complex objects; in contrast, other portions of the brain identify lines and simple shapes. d. Regions of the cortex beyond the primary visual cortex are active when we identify complex objects.

Regions of the cortex beyond the primary visual cortex are active when we identify complex objects

Which of the following statements about object recognition is correct?

Regions of the cortex beyond the visual cortex are active when we identify complex objects.

retrograde or anterograde amnesia? a woman who gets into an accident and cannot remember anything that occurred before her accident

Retrograde amnesia

Which of the following students provides the best overview about the research on theories of speech perception, as discussed in Chapter 2? a. Kaitlin: "Because speech is important to human survival, people have a specialized brain structure that helps them decode speech sounds." b. Anastazia: "The research on categorical perception provides the strongest evidence that the special mechanism approach to speech perception is correct." c. Samaria: "In general, most theorists believe that the human nervous system processes speech sounds in the same way it processes nonspeech sounds." d. Jared: "The research on the McGurk effect demonstrates that the special mechanism approach to speech perception is correct."

Samaria: "In general, most theorists believe that the human nervous system processes speech sounds in the same way it processes nonspeech sounds."

Which of the following students' statements best summarizes the research on face perception? a. Eduardo: "Faces are perceived in the same fashion as other similarly complex objects." b. Sarita: "We process faces in terms of their general structure; for other objects, we are more likely to process isolated features." c. Akiko: "We perceive faces in a more serial fashion, processing one feature at a time, for other objects, features are processed simultaneously." d. Nelson: "We process faces in a bottom-up fashion; we process other objects in a top-down fashion."

Sarita: "we process faces in terms of their general structure; for other objects, we are more likely to process isolated features.

Which of the following is the best example of object recognition?

Seeing a particular visual sitmulus and identifying it as the letter M

episodic buffer

Serves as a temporary storehouse that can hold and combine information from your phonological loop, your visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory.

Which of the following is considered to be the best current explanation of the visual condition called "blindsight"?

Some information from the retina travels to regions of the cortex outside the visual cortex

How did Sperling's experiment demonstrate sensory memory? Use Whole vs. Partial report in your response

Sperling's experiment showed that there was a larger estimate in the total number of items in sensory memory during partial report (3 from suggested live; about 9 total) was used instead of whole report (total of 5 letters recalled). provides support because the tone helped you recall more so obviously you can access it - stores an exact image of what you saw a second ago

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior.

Overlearning

Strategy when the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been brought to mastery

Distributed learning

Technique where learner spaces learning sessions over time

Mnemonics

Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory.

Mental set

Tendency to respond to a new problem in the strategy used for a previous problem

Hindsight bias

Tendency, after learning about an event, to "second guess" that one could have predicted the events

Which of the following early approaches to psychology developed the idea of insight when people solve problems?

The Gestalt approach

Suppose that you are writing a paper about cognitive processes in people who are depressed. Which of the following topics would be most relevant for your paper?

The ability of depressed individuals to recall people's names.

Self-consistency bias

The commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our attitudes, opinions, and beliefs than we actually are.

Acoustic encoding

The conversion of information, especially semantic information, to sound patterns in working memory.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation.

Encoding specificity principle

The doctrine that memory is encoded and stored with specific cues related to the context in which it was formed. The more closely the retrieval cues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better it will be remembered.

A researcher wants to study how people's attention shifts when they see a visual stimulus in an unexpected portion of a screen that they are viewing; this attention shift occurs in just a fraction of a second. Which of the following techniques is this researcher most likely to use?

The event related potential technique (ERP)

Suppose that you want to see whether the human brain responds differently when a person reads a pleasant word, rather than an unpleasant word. Which of the following neuroscience techniques would provide the most useful information about processing these two kinds of words?

The event-related potential (ERP) technique

Suppose that you want to see whether the human brain responds differently when a person reads a pleasant word, rather than an unpleasant word. Which of the following neuroscience techniques would provide the most useful information about processing these two kinds of words?

The event-related potential technique

Levels-of processing theory

The explanation for the fact that information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory (more "deeply" processed) will be remembered better.

Sensory memory

The first of three memory stages, preserving brief sensory impressions of stimuli.

Computer metaphor

The idea that the brain is an information-processing organ that operates, in some ways, like a computer.

Transience

The impermanence of a long-term memory. Transience is based on the idea that long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form memories for new information (as opposed to retrograde amnesia, which involves the inability to remember information previously stored in memory).

TOT phemonenon

The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory. People often describe this frustrating experience as having the word "on the tip of their tongue."

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to remember information previously stored in memory. (Compare with anterograde amnesia)

A cognitive psychologist who analyzes a cognitive task in terms of a series of stages - like the way a computer operates - is using which of the following approaches?

The information-processing approach

Morphemes

The meaningful units in a language that make up words. Some whole words are morpemes (example: word); other morphemes include grammatical components that alter a word's meaning (examples: -ed, -ing, and un-).

Engram

The physical changes in the brain associated with a memory. It is also known as the memory trace.

Consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories over a period of time.

Suggestibility

The process of memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion.

Right now, the words in this sentence are being registered on the retina of your eye. This representation on your retina is called

The proximal stimulus

Grammar

The rules of a language, specifying how to use words, morphemes, and syntax to produce understandable sentences.

Working memory

The second of three memory stages, and the most limited in capacity. It preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.

foresight bias

The tendency, when studying for a future exam, to be overconfident about performance on that exam.

Retrieval

The third basic task of memory, involving the location and recovery of information from memory.

Long-term memory (LTM)

The third of three memory stages, with the largest capacity and longest duration; LTM stores material organized according to meaning.

How did Baddeley and Hitch's research both expand and contradict Miller's? What might be the external validity of Baddeley and Hitch's research?

Their findings both expanded and contradicted Miller's theory and caused it to be reconceptualize. We can argue yes, we have the capacity but there are several DIFFERENT AREAS for working memory - and we have 7 units/spaces available per component. Which is why we can do a visuospatial task and auditory (phonological) task at the same time.

Scenario #2: you are a participant in the same study as above. Instead of saying couch, you say the word slouch. Which effect error does this demonstrate?

This would be a recency effect because this mistake is based on sensory errors (visual or auditory) -

T or F: Shepherd and Metzler's (1971) results - which showed that it takes people more time to perform large mental rotations than small ones - provide strong evidence that our mental images are stored in terms of an analog code.

True

T or F: Suppose that you are drawing a map, from memory, of the streets and buildings in a city you know well. If you were to show a bias in your recall of the buildings, you would be likely to place buildings with similar functions near each other.

True

Which of the following statements best captures the scope of cognition?

We use cognition when we store, transform, and use knowledge.

hill-climbing heuristic

When you reach a choice point, you consistently choose the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward your goal

If you were to study top-down processing as it applies to smell, which of the following topics would be most relevant?

Whether people recognize a lemon fragrance more readily when they see a photo of a lemon than when they see a photo of a rose.

If you were to study top-down processing as it applies to smell, which of the following topics would be most relevant?

Whether people recognize a lemon fragrance more readily when they see a photo of lemon than when they see a photo of a rose

Your textbook discusses the early history of cognitive psychology. According to this discussion,

Wilhelm Wundt emphasized that introspection could provide useful information, if participants were well trained.

Which statement about the history of cognition is correct?

William James emphasized that the human mind is active, rather than passive.

____________ was interested in aspects of memory such as the tip-of-the-tongue phenomena.

William james

Natural language mediators

Words associated with new information to be remembered.

Which of the following examples would be most comparable to the word superiority effect it we were to apply this phenomenon to hearing?

You can identify a particular phoneme more readily if it is embedded in a word than if you hear that same phoneme in isolation.

Suppose that you are looking at an object on your desk. Which of the following is the best example of the term perception?

You combine your previous knowledge, together with the information registered by your eyes.

levels of processing

You will generally recall information more accurately if you process it at a deep level, rather than a shallow level.

One component of your general knowledge focuses on semantic memory. Which of the following would be an example of semantic memory?

Your knowledge that the word "bear" is similar to the word "lion"

Cognitive neuroscience research on mental rotation suggests that the motor cortex is active when people mentally rotate objects: (a) after having physically rotated objects with their hands. (b) after standard instructions to rotate the figure in their mind. (c) after watching a motor rotate objects. (d) in three dimensions, but not in two dimensions.

a

Suppose that you are driving to an unfamiliar city. To reach your destination with the smallest number of navigational errors, how should your map be oriented? (a) The map should be oriented so that the top is in the same direction that you are traveling. (b) Surprisingly, the research shows that the orientation of the map has little influence on navigation accuracy. (c) "South" should be at the top. (d) "North" should be at the top.

a

Which of the following students provides the most accurate general summary of the research on cognitive maps? (a) Francine: "When people store spatial information, they tend to represent their cognitive maps as being more regular and orderly than they really are." (b) Justin: "Unfortunately, people seem to have difficulty retaining visual information, and so our cognitive maps are highly inaccurate." (c) Ana Maria: "People are actually much more accurate in creating cognitive maps than they are recalling a story." (d) Oskar: "People's mental maps for large geographic regions are fairly accurate, but their mental maps for small geographic regions are likely to reveal many errors."

a

Which of the following is the best example of a geon?

a 3-dimensional cylinder

Which of the following is the best example of a geon?

a 3D cylinder

Some researchers believe that the human brain works like a complex, sophisticated machine. These researchers would favor

a computer metaphor

node

a concept or one unit lovated within a network

Suppose that you are sitting in a classroom, trying to follow your professor's lecture while trying to ignore a loud conversation out in the hallway. This situation most closely resembles

a dichotic listening task

Psychologists have conducted studies in which the participants must detect a stimulus in a display of many other objects. According to this research, people usually detect

a feature that is present more quickly than a feature that is absent

desirable difficulties

a learning situation that is somewhat challenging, but not too difficult need to fail some questions so you can learn the information

subordinate-level categories

a level of categorization narrower than the basic level

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

category

a physical grouping that we place objects together - ex: fruit

Suppose that a psychologist loans you an art book and says that the book includes some interesting ambiguous figure-ground pictures. You should expect to see

a picture in which a specific region is the central figure one moment, but this region becomes the background the next moment.

Suppose that a psychologist loans you an art book and says that the book includes some interesting ambiguous figure-ground pictures. You should expect to see

a picture in which a specific region is the central figure one moment, but this region becomes the background the next moments

emotion

a reaction to a specific stimulus

abstraction

a script is an abstraction, in other words, a prototype of a series of events that share an underlying similarity memory process that stores the meaning of a message, rather than the exact words

release from proactive interference

a situation in which conditions occur that eliminate or reduce the decrease in performance caused by proactive interference when the category of items is shifted (ex. from letters to numbers)

In the chaotic aftermath of a robbery, you see a tall thin man in a red shirt and a shorter man in a black jacket running from the scene of the crime. According to research on illusory conjunctions, it would not be surprising for you to later remember seeing

a tall, thin man in a black jacket

7-3. Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the current importance of mental imagery and spatial skills? a. Assaf: "Spatial ability plays a very important part in careers related to science and technology." b. Lucille: "Within the area of mental imagery, people now conduct more research on auditory imagery than on visual imagery." c. Sondra: "Elementary school teachers in the U.S. are now emphasizing spatial skills much more than in the previous decade." d. Evgeni: "Unfortunately, people cannot greatly improve their spatial skills, once they have reached early adolescence."

a. Assaf: "Spatial ability plays a very important part in careers related to science and technology."

7-49. What is one advantage of the neuropsychology approach to studying visual imagery? a. Demand characteristics are not likely to influence the results. b. The stimuli can be manipulated much more precisely. c. Ethical considerations are substantially less worrisome. d. People are much more cooperative in trying to confirm the experimental hypotheses.

a. Demand characteristics are not likely to influence the results.

7-21. Why do researchers in the area of mental imagery need to be concerned about experimenter expectancy? a. Experimenters might somehow convey their hypotheses to the participants. b. Experimenters typically expect participants to perform very well on imagery tasks. c. When experimenters expect a certain outcome in their research, the participants unconsciously produce results that contradict this expectancy. d. Experimenter expectancy typically increases the magnitude of individual differences.

a. Experimenters might somehow convey their hypotheses to the participants.

7-72. Which of the following students provides the most accurate general summary of the research on cognitive maps? a. Francine: "When people store spatial information, they tend to represent their cognitive maps as being more regular and orderly than they really are." b. Justin: "Unfortunately, people seem to have difficulty retaining visual information, and so our cognitive maps are highly inaccurate." c. Ana María: "People are actually much more accurate in creating cognitive maps than they are in recalling a story." d. Oskar: "People's mental maps for large geographic regions are fairly accurate, but their mental maps for small geographic regions are likely to reveal many errors."

a. Francine: "When people store spatial information, they tend to represent their cognitive maps as being more regular and orderly than they really are."

7-9. Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about analog codes and propositional codes for mental images? a. Qing: "An analog code emphasizes the physical resemblance between a visual stimulus and the corresponding mental image." b. Dave: "An analog code emphasizes the stimulation of the receptors, for example the receptors in the retina of the eye." c. D'Naijha: "A propositional code emphasizes the stimulation of the sensory portions of the cerebral cortex." d. Oscar: "A propositional code emphasizes the spatial relationships between the components of a mental image."

a. Qing: "An analog code emphasizes the physical resemblance between a visual stimulus and the corresponding mental image."

Behaviorists and cognitive psychologists are most likely to agree on which of the following points? a. Researchers need to have detailed definitions about how a concept will be measured. b. Researchers must emphasize the external stimuli in the environment. c. Theorists must try to explain higher mental processes in terms of mental events. d. Most thought processes can be explained in terms of people's observable responses to stimuli.

a. Researchers need to have detailed definitions about how a concept will be measured.

7-30. According to the research on mental imagery and interference, which of the following tasks would be most difficult? a. Trying to think about the sound of a particular word in French, while listening to a favorite song. b. Trying to create a mental image of a friend's face, while listening to a favorite song. c. Trying to mentally rotate a visual image, while listening to a favorite song. d. Trying to think about the sound of a particular word in French, while mentally rotating a mental image of a friend's face.

a. Trying to think about the sound of a particular word in French, while listening to a favorite song.

7-28. Which of the following everyday examples would be most similar to the research findings on visual images and interference? a. When you form a visual image of a friend's face, you have difficulty seeing a faint visual stimulus. b. When you form a visual image of a friend's face, you are faster at identifying his or her voice. c. A visual image will enhance your ability to see a faint visual stimulus, but it will reduce your ability to hear a faint auditory stimulus. d. When you form an auditory image of a doorbell ringing, you will be better at detecting a tone of a similar pitch; in contrast, you will be worse at detecting a tone that is at least an octave higher or lower.

a. When you form a visual image of a friend's face, you have difficulty seeing a faint visual stimulus.

7-5. An analog code means that a. a representation is very similar to the physical object. b. we store information in terms of abstract descriptions. c. we construct a representation from a verbal description. d. the image is permanently stored in working memory.

a. a representation is very similar to the physical object.

7-37. Researchers have conducted studies on a variety of vision-like processes that are unfamiliar to the general public. This research demonstrates that a mental image has roughly the same effect that an actual visual stimulus has, for example, in producing the masking effect. On the basis of this research, we can conclude that a. demand characteristics probably cannot explain the results. b. the propositional-coding explanation is likely to be correct. c. visual imagery is stronger than auditory or motor imagery. d. experimenter expectancy consistently influences the research on mental imagery.

a. demand characteristics probably cannot explain the results.

According to the discussion about the rise of cognitive psychology, a. enthusiasm for behaviorism decreased because it was difficult to explain complex human behavior using only the concepts from learning theory. b. Piaget's research on children's thinking was actually ignored until cognitive psychology was well established in the 1970s. c. modern linguistics favors behaviorism rather than cognitive approaches. d. behavioral approaches to human memory are still more widely accepted than cognitive approaches.

a. enthusiasm for behaviorism decreased because it was difficult to explain complex human behavior using only the concepts from learning theory.

A psychologist who favors the Gestalt approach would be most likely to criticize the fact that behaviorists a. ignore the context in which a behavior occurs. b. overemphasize introspection. c. are not sufficiently rigorous in designing their psychological research. d. pay too much attention to insight.

a. ignore the context in which a behavior occurs.

During the 1950s, many psychologists were becoming discouraged with behaviorism, and cognitive psychology began to emerge. A major reason they were disappointed with behaviorism is that a. it considered only psychological processes that are clearly observable. b. it paid too much attention to individual differences. c. it failed to develop objective methods of measuring behavior. d. it focused too much on emotional factors, and not enough on observable behaviors.

a. it considered only psychological processes that are clearly observable.

7-74. You are driving in your car, listening to a mystery story on the radio. The narrator has just described the room, and then the main character turns 180˚ to face the location that had previously been at her back. Your response time to locate objects on your mental map would be quickest for a. objects that are above or below her. b. objects that are in front of or behind her. c. objects that are to her left or right. d. all objects; the data do not show consistent differences.

a. objects that are above or below her.

7-27. The research on visual imagery and interference shows that a. people have trouble seeing a blue arrow when they are imagining a tree. b. people have trouble seeing a blue arrow while they are imagining the sound of a musical instrument. c. the studies support the propositional-code perspective of mental imagery. d. a mental image does not typically interfere with seeing a physical image.

a. people have trouble seeing a blue arrow when they are imagining a tree.

7-76. The spatial framework model emphasizes that people are typically most accurate when judging a. the above-below dimension. b. the front-back dimension. c. the right-left dimension. d. the right dimension if they are right handed, and the left dimension if they are left handed.

a. the above-below dimension.

7-20. Imagine that you read about research in which students study a map of an imaginary college campus. Then they are instructed to mentally travel between two points on this map. According to their results, the mental travel time increases as the distance increases between the two points. These results seem to support a. the analog code. b. the propositional code. c. the alignment heuristic. d. the spatial framework model.

a. the analog code.

7-32. Which of the following areas of research on imagery provides the most support for the propositional-code argument, rather than the analog-code argument? a. the research on imagery and ambiguous figures b. the research on imagery and interference c. the research on imagery and size d. the research on imagery and rotation

a. the research on imagery and ambiguous figures

7-40. Your textbook discusses the research on explanations for mental imagery. According to this discussion, a. visual imagery and visual perception activate similar regions of the cortex. b. most of the research on mental imagery can be attributed to experimenter expectancy and demand characteristics. c. neurological evidence tends to support a propositional explanation of the results. d. when we perceive real objects, we manipulate them in a way that is impossible in mental imagery.

a. visual imagery and visual perception activate similar regions of the cortex.

7-58. Suppose that you have just studied a map of a region, and you have formed a cognitive map for it. Based on what you know from Chapter 7, we could predict that a. you would estimate that two cities are far apart if there are many other cities in between. b. you would estimate that two cities are close if there are many cities in between. c. the number of intervening cities only influences distance estimates when people are very familiar with the route. d. the number of cities on the route between two cities has little effect on distance estimates.

a. you would estimate that two cities are far apart if there are many other cities in between.

typicality effect

ability to judge highly prototypical objects more rapidly

Chapter 3 discussed a study in which people in a laboratory setting were instructed to pay close attention to one message and to ignore a second message that mentioned their own name. According to your textbook,

about 1/3 of the time, people noticed their name in the irrelevant message

Define Acoustic confusions in your own words

acoustic confusions is when we are likely to confuse two sounds/letters/words because they sound similar i.e. the letter D and T

Von Restorff effect

advantage in memory that distinctive items have over less distinctive items

algorithm

always produces a solution - sometimes inefficient - exhaustive search where you try all possible answers

Imagine that you are looking at a geometric drawing. At first, one shape in this drawing seems to be in front of other shapes. The next moment, this same shape seems to be located behind a second shape. This phenomenon is called:

an ambiguous figure-ground relationship

The term "pure AI" refers to

an approach that attempts to accomplish a task as efficiently as possible

exemplar

an example or model, especially an ideal one

Suppose that you are running to catch a subway. You race past a large poster that shows various foods in uncharacteristic colors, such as an orange strawberry and a red carrot. However, you actually perceive a red strawberry and an orange carrot. In Anne Treisman's theory, this phenomenon would be called

an illusory conjunction

An important feature of cognitive science is that it emphasizes

an interdisciplinary approach

Cognitive science is

an interdisciplinary field that explores questions about the mind

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

The recognition-by-components theory argues that we recognize an object by

analyzing the arrangement of simple 3D shapes that form the object

retrograde or anterograde amnesia? a man who endures a brain injury and cannot form new memories after his injury

anterograde amnesia

external memory aid

any device, external to yourself, that facilitates your memory in some way

information-processing approach

approach to cognition, arguing that (a) our mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer, and (b) information progresses through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time

The boundaries between words in spoken language

are often missing, so that two words are not separated by an actual pause.

gender stereotypes

are the beliefs and opinions that we associate with females and males

orienting tasks

are used in experiments and are tasks such as judging rhyme or synonymity (meaning) - are the scientist's effort to gain tight control over the processing that a participant applies to a stimulus to evaluate impact that different processes have on memory

Levels-of-processing/Depth-of-processing approach

argues that deep, meaningful processing of information leads to more accurate recall than shallow sensory kinds of processing

exemplar approach

argues that we first learn information about some specific examples of a concept; then we classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles all of those specific examples

keyword method

as an aid to memory, using a familiar word or image to link two items useful for unfamiliar vocabulary and learning names

how can questioning what you are reading while studying help improve your score on the exam? think about levels of processing and the generation effect

asking why promotes deep level processing

implicit memory task

asks people to perform a cognitive task that does not directly ask for recall or recognition

implicit memory task

assesses your memory indirectly you see the material later, during the test phase, you are instructed to complete a cognitive task that does not directly ask you for either recall or recognition

functional fixedness

assign stable uses to an object and fail to think about features of the object that might be useful in helping solve a problem

In the Shepherd and Metzler study, people judged whether two figures that were in different orientations were the same or different. What did this study demonstrate? (a) It takes much longer to rotate pairs in depths (e.g. by turning a figure away from you) than to rotate pairs in the picture plane (e.g. by turning a figure clockwise) (b) The amount of rotation necessary before making "same-different" judgements influences decision speed. (c) There were no consistent relationships between the variables examined in this study. (d) The propositional-storage interpretation of imagery is correct.

b

One of the most difficult problems in conducting research on imagery is that: (a) the individual differences are so large that it's virtually impossible to find any consistent results. (b) it is difficult to examine such an inaccessible mental process. (c) people's introspections about imagery are so vivid that they prevent researchers from manipulating most variables. (d) only a relatively small proportion of people seem to use imagery on a regular basis.

b

Psychologists have studied how deaf individuals perform on mental rotation tasks when they are fluent in American Sigh Language. The research shows that these individuals: (a) make more errors than people who use spoken communication. (b) make fewer errors than other people, because they are accustomed to viewing a scene from a different perspective. (c) make fewer errors than other people, because they are not distracted by various sounds in the surrounding area. (d) make the same number of errors as other people

b

Suppose you draw a map of a familiar street in your neighborhood. You draw all the houses an equal distance from the street, even though some houses are clearly closer to the street than others. Your error is an example of: (a) the 90 degree angle heuristic (b) the alignment heuristics (c) the symmetry heuristic (d) the spatial framework model

b

Which of the following students' statements best describes the spatial framework model proposed by Franklin and Tversky? (a) Susan: "The mental maps we create do not have a built-in bias; we attach the same significance to left-right distinctions as to up-down distinctions." (b) Nadia: "The vertical dimension seems to have special significance when we try to create representations of our environment." (c) Stanley: "When we hear a story, we automatically assume the perspective of someone looking down on the scene from above, because of the up-down heuristic." (d) Igor: "People vary greatly in the way they construct mental maps when they hear a narrative; some rotate the scene to match the perspective of the main character, but most look at the scene as if they were outside the scene, looking in."

b

7-78. Chapter 7 discussed topics related to imagery and cognitive maps. Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about the situated cognition approach? a. Tom: "You always need to emphasize your current situation, if you want to construct an accurate cognitive map." b. Cynthia: "Our knowledge depends partly on information in our current environment." c. Manny: "This term is basically equivalent to another term, called a heuristic." d. Beatriz: "This term is basically equivalent to the propositional code, in connection with imagery."

b. Cynthia: "Our knowledge depends partly on information in our current environment."

Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary of the behaviorists' contributions to cognitive psychology? a. Anton: "The behaviorists refined the introspection technique through the use of careful interview techniques." b. Elena: "The most important contributions of the behaviorists were related to research methodology." c. Sarah: "Behaviorists clarified the cognitive abilities of infants and children, especially in their research on object permanence." d. Jason: "Behaviorists' contributions to cognitive psychology focused on theoretical models, rather than on empirical results."

b. Elena: "The most important contributions of the behaviorists were related to research methodology."

Which of the following students provides the best summary of the decline of behaviorism and the rising popularity of the cognitive approach? a. Sarah: "Psychologists began to realize that the behaviorists only emphasized behavior, and they admired how the cognitive approach emphasized people's emotional experiences." b. Harlan: "Many psychologists favored the cognitive approach, because the behaviorist approach could not account for complex thought processes." c. Ilia: "Most psychologists thought that the behaviorist approach was too heavily influenced by its early gestalt principles." d. Savita: "In general, psychologists realized that the cognitive approach was better than the behaviorist approach in explaining individual differences."

b. Harlan: "Many psychologists favored the cognitive approach, because the behaviorist approach could not account for complex thought processes."

7-22. Which of the following students provides the best summary of the research on imagery and distance? a. Jian: "Unfortunately, researchers have not yet found an effective method for studying how people represent distances in their mental images." b. Kristen: "We take longer to scan a large mental distance than a small mental distance." c. Anna: "In general, the research on imagery and size supports the propositional explanation of mental imagery." d. Janki: "Kosslyn's original research supported the analog explanation of mental imagery, but the more recent research does not show a consistent relationship between mental distances and decision speed."

b. Kristen: "We take longer to scan a large mental distance than a small mental distance."

Which of the following students provides the best summary about the current status of the information-processing approach? a. Alena: "The information-processing approach is now more popular than the parallel distributed processing approach, because most cognitive tasks require serial processing." b. Magda: "The information-processing approach has declined in popularity during recent years, because those models are not complex enough to explain many cognitive activities." c. Dave: "The information-processing model is still extremely popular, and it remains at the cutting edge of cognitive psychology." d. Samuel: "The most important model is one in which the information-processing approach has been blended with the gestalt approach, in order to explain higher mental processes."

b. Magda: "The information-processing approach has declined in popularity during recent years, because those models are not complex enough to explain many cognitive activities."

7-77. Which of the following students' statements best describes the spatial framework model proposed by Franklin and Tversky? a. Susan: "The mental maps we create do not have a built-in bias; we attach the same significance to left-right distinctions as to up-down distinctions." b. Nadia: "The vertical dimension seems to have special significance when we try to create representations of our environment." c. Stanley: "When we hear a story, we automatically assume the perspective of someone looking down on the scene from above, because of the up-down heuristic." d. Igor: "People vary greatly in the way they construct mental maps when they hear a narrative; some rotate the scene to match the perspective of the main character, but most look at the scene as if they were outside the scene, looking in."

b. Nadia: "The vertical dimension seems to have special significance when we try to create representations of our environment."

7-26. Which of the following students provides the most accurate statement about the research on mental imagery? a. Susan: "There is a negative correlation between the size of a mental rotation and the number of seconds required to perform that mental rotation." b. Shirin: "When people make judgments about the shapes of U.S. states, their judgments for mental images are similar to their judgments for physical stimuli." c. Dirk: "In general, the research on mental imagery supports the propositional perspective on mental imagery, rather than the analog perspective." d. Cyndi: "People make judgments about complex mental shapes in roughly the same way as they make judgments about complex physical shapes; but this similarity doesn't hold true for simple mental shapes."

b. Shirin: "When people make judgments about the shapes of U.S. states, their judgments for mental images are similar to their judgments for physical stimuli."

7-11. In the Shepard and Metzler study, people judged whether two figures that were in different orientations were the same or different. What did this study demonstrate? a. It takes much longer to rotate pairs in depth (e.g., by turning a figure away from you) than to rotate pairs in the picture plane (e.g., by turning a figure clockwise). b. The amount of rotation necessary before making "same-different" judgments influences decision speed. c. There were no consistent relationships between the variables examined in this study. d. The propositional-storage interpretation of imagery is correct.

b. The amount of rotation necessary before making "same-different" judgments influences decision speed.

Which of the following research topics would be most likely to interest a behaviorist? a. The effect of parents' marital satisfaction on children's nightmares. b. The effect of praise on children's running speed. c. Individual differences in verbal ability. d. The relationship between the true size of an object and its size as represented in a mental image.

b. The effect of praise on children's running speed.

7-16. Suppose that researchers are studying mental rotation, and they are comparing the performance of one group of people who are deaf and are fluent in American Sign Language and a second group of people who are not deaf and have had no experience with American Sign Language. Which of the following patterns of results would you be most likely to find, with respect to mental rotation? a. The individuals who are deaf would be more skilled, because auditory information would not interfere with their performance. b. The individuals who are deaf would be more skilled, because they are accustomed to seeing hand positions from a different perspective. c. The individuals who are not deaf would be more skilled, because they have extra clues from the auditory information that accompanies hand movement. d. The individuals who are not deaf would be more skilled, because they have had extra practice "translating" auditory stimulation into changes in visual images.

b. The individuals who are deaf would be more skilled, because they are accustomed to seeing hand positions from a different perspective.

7-52. Which of the following statements about cognitive mapping is correct? a. Cognitive maps consistently use analog rather than propositional encoding. b. The research on cognitive mapping is generally high in ecological validity. c. Spatial cognition is a topic within cognitive mapping that deals exclusively with table-top models. d. So far, almost all of the research on cognitive mapping has been confined to people's knowledge about the layout of college campuses.

b. The research on cognitive mapping is generally high in ecological validity.

7-47. Suppose that you are reading a book that describes how the inside of the U.S. Supreme Court looks from a lawyer's point of view. Based on the discussion of neuroscience research and visual imagery, what would you predict about your visual system's reaction to this description? a. The cones in the retina would be stimulated more than the rods (assuming that the scene took place during the daytime). b. Your visual cortex would show increased blood flow. c. Your auditory cortex would show the largest increase in blood flow, because of the auditory code required during reading. d. Because no neurological correlates have yet been discovered, no measurable response would be located.

b. Your visual cortex would show increased blood flow.

7-48. The neuropsychology evidence on the imagery question shows that a. imagery and perception involve entirely different biological processes . b. during mental imagery, some portions of the visual-processing regions of the cortex seem to be activated. c. the primary similarity between imagery and perception is that the visual receptors in the retina are stimulated in both cases. d. the neuroscience research in this area has a major problem with demand characteristics, so we cannot draw clear-cut conclusions.

b. during mental imagery, some portions of the visual-processing regions of the cortex seem to be activated.

7-10. One of the most difficult problems in conducting research on imagery is that a. the individual differences are so large that it's virtually impossible to find any consistent results. b. it is difficult to examine such an inaccessible mental process. c. people's introspections about imagery are so vivid that they prevent researchers from manipulating most variables. d. only a relatively small proportion of people seem to use imagery on a regular basis.

b. it is difficult to examine such an inaccessible mental process.

7-61. Suppose that Arthur lives in Houston, Texas, and his friend Scott lives in a much smaller city about 20 miles from Houston. Arthur seems to think that it is farther from Houston to that small town, compared to the distance from the small town to Houston. Arthur is demonstrating the a. spatial framework model. b. landmark effect. c. alignment heuristic. d.rotation heuristic

b. landmark effect.

7-17. Psychologists have studied how deaf individuals perform on mental rotation tasks when they are fluent in American Sign Language. The research shows that these individuals: a. make more errors than people who use spoken communication. b. make fewer errors than other people, because they are accustomed to viewing a scene from a different perspective. c. make fewer errors than other people, because they are not distracted by various sounds in the surrounding area. d. make the same number of errors as other people. Ans: b Page(s): 215-216 Difficulty: Moderate

b. make fewer errors than other people, because they are accustomed to viewing a scene from a different perspective.

7-41. At the end of the discussion on the nature of mental images, your textbook re-examines the analog viewpoint and the propositional viewpoint, in light of the accumulated research. According to this discussion, a. the two viewpoints are incompatible; researchers can support either perspective, but not both. b. most mental-imagery tasks seem to use an analog code, but some mental-imagery tasks seem to use a propositional code. c. the propositional viewpoint argues that people do not experience actual mental images. d. the analog viewpoint is supported by the observation that people cannot re-examine a mental image and provide a new interpretation of that image.

b. most mental-imagery tasks seem to use an analog code, but some mental-imagery tasks seem to use a propositional code.

7-53. The research on cognitive maps suggests that a. people—surprisingly—are just as accurate in reading a road map when it does not match the orientation of their mental map as when it has the same orientation. b. people create cognitive maps from several successive views, if the area is very large. c. individual differences in people's senses of direction are very small. d. there is a very high correlation between people's verbal skills and their skills in creating cognitive maps.

b. people create cognitive maps from several successive views, if the area is very large.

7-33. Your textbook described a study in which people saw an ambiguous figure, for instance, a sketch that could represent either a rabbit or a duck. When the figure was removed, the people were asked to create a mental image of the figure. The results showed that a. people could not create any mental images of the figures. b. people created the mental image but could not reinterpret the mental image. c. people created the mental image, and they also reinterpreted the mental image. d. the demand characteristics were so strong that the results of this study are questionable

b. people created the mental image but could not reinterpret the mental image.

7-59. Suppose that you are drawing a map, from memory, of the streets and buildings in a city you know well. If you were to show a bias in your recall of the buildings, you would be likely to a. place the buildings in a cluster near the center of town. b. place buildings with similar functions near each other. c. fail to recall clusters from certain geographic regions. d. first place one cluster of related buildings on the map, and then insert other important buildings on the map one at a time.

b. place buildings with similar functions near each other.

7-13. Suppose that you and a group of other students want to conduct a study on mental rotation, using photographs of human faces. You find that people take longer to rotate a mental image, as the size of the rotation increases. Which approach do your data support? a. the propositional approach b. the analog approach c. both the propositional approach and the analog approach d. neither the propositional nor the analog approach

b. the analog approach

7-6. If your mental image of your aunt's face is stored in an analog code, a. thinking about the image would produce increased blood flow throughout your frontal cortex. b. the representation would resemble the specific features and facial arrangement found on your aunt's face. c. the code would include language-like descriptions of the most important attributes of her face. d. that image would be represented in terms of both the alignment and the rotation heuristics.

b. the representation would resemble the specific features and facial arrangement found on your aunt's face.

7-71. The alignment heuristic and the rotation heuristic are different from each other because a. the alignment heuristic encourages us to line up streets at right angles with each other. b. the rotation heuristic involves turning a single figure in a clockwise or counterclockwise fashion. c. the rotation heuristic leads us to rotate rivers and other natural structures, but not human-made structures. d. the alignment heuristic applies to geometric figures, but not cognitive maps.

b. the rotation heuristic involves turning a single figure in a clockwise or counterclockwise fashion.

Rhodes research indicates that people are generally accurate in guessing the ages of unfamiliar persons, based on their faces. This research has important implications for

bartenders serving alcohol

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

based on the principle that people can mentally pair two related words together much more easily than they can pair two unrelated words

The term "phoneme" refers to

basic unit of spoken language

Chapter 1 presents some information about the history of cognition. According to this discussion

behaviorism is an approach that relies on objective, observable reactions.

A woman has an injured visual cortex, as the result of an accident. She says that she cannot see a light, which is presented on her left side. However, she accurately points to the light's location. She is demonstrating

blindsight

schema

blue print for a situation or person you counter in your life

Your textbook discussed in some detail a study by Rueckl and Oden (the "bears/beans" study) These researchers manipulated both the features of the letter within a word and the context in which the word appeared. This study demonstrated

both bottom-up and top-down processing operate

Your textbook discussed in some detail a study by Rueckl and Oden (the "bears/beans" study) that manipulated both the features of a letter within a word and the context in which the word appeared. This study demonstrated that

both bottom-up and top-down processing operate.

Based on the discussion of artificial intelligence in Chapter 1,

both computers and humans have limited capacities

Shawn claims that he multitasks very effectively, and also says that he actually performs better while multitasking than when doing a single task. You ask Shawn to test this claim. Shawn reads a newspaper article while listening to a baseball game, and then reads another article in silence. Based on research on multitasking, when you time Shawn's reading speed and test his comprehension, you are likely to find that his reading is

both slower and less accurate when listening to the game

Researchers in artificial intelligence emphasize that

both the human brain and the computer can compare symbols and make choices based on that comparision

The kind of processing that emphasizes how your sensory receptors register information from a stimulus is called

bottom-up processing.

organization

bring order to material to be learned, deep processing, easier retrieval

According to the rotation heuristic, (a) people line up two or more geographic areas so that they form a straight row with one another. (b) people tend to align angles so that the lines are perpendicular to each other. (c) people tend to remember figures as being more vertical or horizontal than they really are. (d) people tend to rotate their cognitive maps in a random pattern.

c

If you were to draw a map of the town or city in which your college is located, (a) you would make the streets intersect at sharp angles, rather than right angles. (b) you would make the streets more curved than they really are. (c) you would tend to make the streets intersect at 90 degree angles. (d) you would show a blending of your college building and the surrounding region, even if the boundary is really quite clear-cut.

c

Those who argue that we store mental imagery information in terms of propositions would claim that: (a) storage is most like vision. (b) storage is most like an abstract spatial representation (c) storage is most like language (d) representation closely resembles the physical object.

c

Those who argue that we store mental imagery information in terms of propositions would claim that: (a) storage is most like vision. (b) storage is most like an abstract spatial representation. (c) storage is most like language. (d) representation closely resembles the physical object.

c

When people look at a 3D figure and mentally rotate this figure, (a) they mentally rotate this figure much more quickly in a counter-clockwise direction, compared to a clockwise direction. (b) individual differences are not very strong on this task. (c) they make judgements more quickly when rotating the mental image only a small distance, rather than a large distance. (d) people can actually identify a figure much more quickly if it is upside down, rather than in the normal upright orientation.

c

7-44. Which of the following students provides the most accurate information about gender comparisons in cognitive skills? a. Debra: "Males are consistently better than females in both mathematics and spatial ability." b. Andy: "The only large gender differences are in verbal ability, where females typically earn higher scores." c. Eladj: "The only large gender differences are in spatial ability, where males often earn higher scores." d. Amelie: "Actually, there are no moderate or large gender differences in any area of cognitive skills.

c. Eladj: "The only large gender differences are in spatial ability, where males often earn higher scores."

7-29. Which of the following students' statements provides the best summary of the section on visual imagery and interference? a. Chaim: "Although the early research showed that mental images interfere with perceptual stimuli, the more recent research shows no such evidence." b. Alexei: "Experimenter expectancy plays such an important role that the appropriate research has not yet been conducted." c. Sarah: "Interference is greater if the mental image and the physical stimulus are in the same mode (e.g., both visual) rather than in different modes." d. Rigoberta: "The studies on this topic provide the strongest support of the propositional code that researchers have yet demonstrated."

c. Sarah: "Interference is greater if the mental image and the physical stimulus are in the same mode (e.g., both visual) rather than in different modes."

7-42. Which of the following students provides the most accurate summary of the neuroscience research on mental imagery? a. Sambridhi: "Visual imagery and visual perception activate virtually identical structures throughout the visual pathway and also in the visual cortex." b. Scott: "Visual imagery and visual perception activate identical structures in the retina, but not in the visual cortex." c. Tessa: "Visual imagery and visual perception activate some of the same structures in the cortex, but not in the retina" d. Christine: "Visual imagery and visual perception activate very different structures throughout both the visual pathway and in the visual cortex."

c. Tessa: "Visual imagery and visual perception activate some of the same structures in the cortex, but not in the retina"

Which of the following perspectives was most likely to emphasize the importance of a precise operational definition? a. William James's work on the tip-of-the-tongue effect b. Wilhelm Wundt's introspection approach c. The behaviorists' research with animals d. The gestalt approach to perception

c. The behaviorists' research with animals

7-55. Suppose that you are driving to an unfamiliar city. To reach your destination with the smallest number of navigational errors, how should your map be oriented? a. "North" should be at the top. b. "South" should be at the top. c. The map should be oriented so that the top is in the same direction that you are traveling. d. Surprisingly, the research shows that the orientation of the map has little influence on navigation accuracy.

c. The map should be oriented so that the top is in the same direction that you are traveling.

Which of the following is the best example of a schema? a. your knowledge of the last 10 winners of the "Best Picture" Academy Award b. Your tendency to read familiar words more quickly than unfamiliar words c. Your understanding that the concept "dentist's office" includes a waiting room and a receptionist, but not video games d. Your ability to reach for your car's turn signal on the left side of the steering wheel, even if you could not verbally describe where it is located

c. Your understanding that the concept "dentist's office" includes a waiting room and a receptionist, but not video games

7-7. Suppose that you have a mental image of your favorite male actor. If that image is stored in a propositional code, the representation would emphasize a. spatial relationships, including information about angles and lines. b. a correspondence between the mental imagery and perceptual imagery. c. a language-like description. d. spatial relationships for the actor's general shape, but a language-like description for the details of his face.

c. a language-like description.

7-60. Alex lives in the United States, 20 miles due south of the boundary between the U.S. and Canada. His friend Shawn lives 30 miles due south of Alex. However, Alex thinks he lives closer to Shawn, rather than to the Canadian border. This is an example of: a. the rotation heuristic. b. the alignment heuristic. c. border bias. d. a spatial framework model.

c. border bias.

7-54. According to the introductory discussion of cognitive maps, a. the term cognitive map refers to the map constructed by neuroscientists, in which each location of the cortex is paired with a related cognitive task. b. whereas the term cognitive map refers to our mental representation of an imaginary region, the term spatial cognition applies to our mental representation of an actual geographic area. c. compared to the research on the nature of mental images, the research on cognitive maps is more likely to emphasize geographical representations. d. so far, cognitive maps have been examined almost exclusively by psychologists, rather than researchers from other disciplines.

c. compared to the research on the nature of mental images, the research on cognitive maps is more likely to emphasize geographical representations.

Cognitive psychologists believe that behaviorists cannot explain human language because a. behaviorists place too much emphasis on genetic explanations. b. behaviorists cannot provide appropriate explanations because their research rarely uses operational definitions. c. language has a complex structure that cannot be explained in terms of stimuli and responses. d. language is acquired in humans through adults' careful teaching of young children.

c. language has a complex structure that cannot be explained in terms of stimuli and responses.

7-39. After the discussion of the research on mental imagery, your textbook re-examines the analog viewpoint of imagery. According to this discussion, a. the analog viewpoint is no longer appropriate, because the majority of research supports the propositional viewpoint. b. the research allows us to conclude that mental imagery operates exactly the same way that perception operates. c. mental imagery is somewhat similar to perception, and these two processes activate similar structures in the cortex. d. both the analog viewpoint and the propositional viewpoint are inconsistent with the current research, so that a new model needs to be developed.

c. mental imagery is somewhat similar to perception, and these two processes activate similar structures in the cortex.

7-56. The introductory discussion of cognitive maps in Chapter 7 points out that a. researchers in the area of artificial intelligence have developed programs that can create highly accurate cognitive maps. b. most of the errors we make on cognitive maps can be traced to defects in humans' ability to construct mental images. c. most errors in mental maps can be traced to a rational strategy. d. in general, the errors on cognitive maps are larger and less systematic than the errors people make in storing verbal information.

c. most errors in mental maps can be traced to a rational strategy.

7-66. According to the rotation heuristic, a. people line up two or more geographic areas so that they form a straight row with one another. b. people tend to align angles so that the lines are perpendicular to each other. c. people tend to remember figures as being more vertical or horizontal than they really are. d. people tend to rotate their cognitive maps in a random pattern.

c. people tend to remember figures as being more vertical or horizontal than they really are.

7-23. From the research on mental imagery for the positions of the hands on a clock, we can conclude that a. in this area, there is strong evidence for propositional codes. b. so few people can construct this kind of mental image that we need to be concerned about the limits of imagery research. c. people with high mental-imagery ability perform this task faster than people with low mental-imagery ability. d. decisions about the shapes of images require much longer when the two images are very different than when they are very similar.

c. people with high mental-imagery ability perform this task faster than people with low mental-imagery ability.

During the late 1960s, psychologists began to favor the cognitive approach, because they felt that the behaviorist approach a. emphasized unobservable cognitive processes. b. overused Wundt's technique of introspection. c. placed too much emphasis on concepts such as reinforcement and observable responses. d. devoted too much research to the organization of memory.

c. placed too much emphasis on concepts such as reinforcement and observable responses.

7-2. According to the introduction of the chapter on imagery, a. people often create mental images, but they seldom use these images in problem solving or other higher mental processes. b. students report that they use visual imagery and auditory imagery equally often. c. psychologists have conducted more research on visual imagery than any other kind of imagery. d. the first psychologists to pay attention to imagery were the radical behaviorists, in the late 1920s.

c. psychologists have conducted more research on visual imagery than any other kind of imagery.

7-63. Suppose that you are trying to draw a map showing part of the city or region you live in. Your map is likely to a. show streets intersecting at extreme angles, rather than right angles. b. show roads and rivers that are much more curved in your map than they really are. c. show curves that are more symmetrical than they really are. d. represent curves and angles as being much closer to each other than they really are.

c. show curves that are more symmetrical than they really are.

7-8. Those who argue that we store mental-imagery information in terms of propositions would claim that a. storage is most like vision. b. storage is most like an abstract spatial representation. c. storage is most like language. d. representation closely resembles the physical object.

c. storage is most like language.

7-31. Reed conducted research demonstrating that people had difficulty locating a parallelogram in their mental image of a six-sided star. This research a. supports the analog position on mental images. b. demonstrates that mental images require a four-stage processing sequence. c. supports the idea that we use verbal descriptions to store mental images. d. demonstrates that we must reject both the analog and propositional views of mental imagery.

c. supports the idea that we use verbal descriptions to store mental images.

7-4. According to the discussion of the history of research on mental imagery, a. the early behaviorists rejected research about mental imagery, but they began to conduct imagery research during the early 1950s. b. the topic of mental imagery has consistently been more popular in the United States than in Europe. c. the popularity of mental imagery increased as cognitive psychology became more influential. d. surprisingly, theorists and researchers did not mention mental imagery until about 1930.

c. the popularity of mental imagery increased as cognitive psychology became more influential.

7-38. Your textbook discusses research showing that people have better acuity for mental images that are visualized in the center of the retina, rather than in the periphery of the retina. The reason that this research is significant is that a. it offers strong support for the propositional approach to mental images. b. it demonstrates that the previous imagery research had been influenced by experimenter expectancy. c. the research is similar to the results obtained when people perceive actual visual stimuli. d. it demonstrates that individual differences in visual imagery are actually very small.

c. the research is similar to the results obtained when people perceive actual visual stimuli.

7-19. Suppose that you are reading an article about visual imagery. The researchers point out that experimenter expectancy might have influenced the results of this study. One example of this possibility would be: a. the participants tried to ruin the researchers' results by refusing to follow directions. b. the participants tried to answer as quickly as possible, so they could leave early. c. the researchers' expectations could have influenced the participants' responses. d. the researchers used a heuristic when trying to explain the results of this study..

c. the researchers' expectations could have influenced the participants' responses.

7-67. When most people draw a map of the coastline of the United States, they show Miami about due south of Boston, when Miami is actually fairly far to the west. This error is an example of a. the 90-degree heuristic. b. the alignment heuristic. c. the rotation heuristic. d. the symmetry heuristic.

c. the rotation heuristic.

7-57. A general conclusion about cognitive maps is that a. they bear little relationship to physical reality. b. they are highly accurate. c. they are fairly accurate, and the errors that they show tend to be rational. d. they are fairly accurate, but the errors that they show tend to be random.

c. they are fairly accurate, and the errors that they show tend to be rational.

7-15. When people look at a 3-dimensional figure and mentally rotate this figure, a. they mentally rotate this figure much more quickly in a counter-clockwise direction, compared to a clockwise direction. b. individual differences are not very strong on this task. c. they make judgments more quickly when rotating the mental image only a small distance, rather than a large distance. d. people can actually identify a figure much more quickly if it is upside down, rather than in the normal upright orientation.

c. they make judgments more quickly when rotating the mental image only a small distance, rather than a large distance.

7-43. According to the neuropsychology research on imagery, a. people who can quickly perform visual-imagery tasks show only a small increase in blood flow to the visual cortex. b. people with lesions in the visual cortex typically manage to construct vivid visual images. c. visual imagery and visual perception cannot be identical, because actual perception activates the receptors in the eye. d. surprisingly, both the auditory cortex and the visual cortex are activated when people are instructed to create an auditory image.

c. visual imagery and visual perception cannot be identical, because actual perception activates the receptors in the eye.

7-73. Suppose that you are listening to your professor's description of the layout of several buildings in a city. If the discussion of mental maps can be applied to your representation of this city, it is most likely that a. you will store this information in a passive fashion, without creating a cognitive map. b. your cognitive map will represent the distances as being larger than they really are. c. you will construct a cognitive map to represent the arrangement of buildings. d. your cognitive map will be highly inaccurate.

c. you will construct a cognitive map to represent the arrangement of buildings.

7-62. If you were to draw a map of the town or city in which your college is located, a. you would make the streets intersect at sharp angles, rather than right angles. b. you would make the streets more curved than they really are. c. you would tend to make the streets intersect at 90-degree angles. d. you would show a blending of your college building and the surrounding region, even if the boundary is really quite clear-cut.

c. you would tend to make the streets intersect at 90-degree angles.

7-14. The research on mental rotation has shown that a. people use very different strategies when they rotate letters of the alphabet, as opposed to abstract geometric figures. b. right-handed people and left-handed people are basically identical in their ability to recognize pictures of left and right hands. c. young people are typically faster than elderly people in the speed of their mental rotation. d. young people and elderly people differ greatly in their sense of direction.

c. young people are typically faster than elderly people in the speed of their mental rotation.

Cognitive psychology has had an important impact on a variety of areas throughout psychology.

can explain a major part of your daily experiences.

phonological loop

can process a limited number of sounds for a short period of time

individuals with prospagnosia

cannot recognize faces of even their own spouses or children

Suppose that you are watching a movie. Two men are talking, and the camera focuses on a man in a blue shirt with long sideburns. The focus shifts to the other man. Then it returns to the man in the blue shirt—but now his sideburns are about an inch shorter. If you fail to notice that he looks different, you are exhibiting

change-blindness

matrix

chart showing all possible combinations of items

The o sound in the word dog influences the position of your mouth when you pronounce the remainder of the word. This phenomenon is called

coarticulation

Chapter 1 of your textbook ends with a discussion about the five themes of this book. According to this discussion,

cognition typically emphasizes both top-down and bottom-up processing

Suppose that you meet a professor who is trying to determine what portions of the brain are involved in trying to recall a word that is on the tip of your tongue. This person is likely to use the approach of

cognitive neuroscience

chunking

combine several small units into larger meaningful units

first-letter technique

compose a word or sentence using the first letters of the words you are trying to remember ex: ROY G BIV

Suppose that several cognitive scientists are trying to program a computer so that it solves a particular problem in the same way a human does, taking into account that a human may make a few false starts before successfully solving the problem. This approach is called

computer simulation

divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

intentional learning

conscious process -

Your awareness about both the surrounding world and your cognitive processes is called

consciousness

expertise

consistent exceptional performance on representative tasks for a particular area

understanding

construct a mental representation of the problem based on the information provided n the problem and your own previous experience

Imagine that some researchers are trying to design a computer-simulation model for an arithmetic task. They would be most likely to

create a system that uses a problem-solving technique that is similar to the way humans would solve the problem

According to your textbook, the artificial intelligence (AI) approach

creates computer models that demonstrate intelligent behavior

How does mental imagery compare with perception? (a) Perception relies exclusively on bottom-up processing. (b) Perception relies exclusively on top-down processing. (c) Mental imagery relies exclusively on bottom-up processing. (d) Mental imagery relies exclusively on top-down processing.

d

Suppose that you draw a sketch of your college campus. In reality, one particular road on campus is vaguely U-shaped, but the right-hand portion of the curve is steeper than the left-hand portion. According to your drawer, however, the two portions, have the same degree of curvature. This example illustrates: (a) the 90 degree heuristic. (b) the alignment heuristic. (c) the rotation heuristic. (d) the symmetry heuristic.

d

Suppose that you have just studied a map of a region, and you have formed a cognitive map for it. Based on what you know from Ch. 7, we could predict that; (a) the number of cities on the route between two cities has little effect on distance estimates. (b) the number of intervening cities only influences distance estimates when people are very familiar with the route. (c) you would estimate that two cities are close if there are many cities in between. (d) you would estimate that two cities are far apart if there are many other cities in between.

d

Which of the following students provides the best understanding of the PET scan technique a. Prinsetta: "PET scans record fluctuations in the brain activity that are completed within a fraction of a second." b. Lisa: "Unfortunately, the PET scan can only be used for someone who has a brain lesion." c. Jeff: "A PET scan is basically a very fast version of the event-related potential." d. Jamie: "The PET scan creates an image based on a chemical that travels through the bloodstream."

d. Jamie: "The PET scan creates an image based on a chemical that travels through the bloodstream."

7-1. How does mental imagery compare with perception? a. Perception relies exclusively on bottom-up processing. b. Perception relies exclusively on top-down processing. c. Mental imagery relies exclusively on bottom-up processing. d. Mental imagery relies exclusively on top-down processing.

d. Mental imagery relies exclusively on top-down processing.

Which of the following students provides the best, most complete definition of the term "perception"? a. Andrew: "Perception refers to the process of converting external stimuli into electrical signals within the nervous system." b. Marie-France: "Perception refers to the registration of visual information on the retina." c. Marco: "Perception refers to the mental images we create without any input from the external world." d. Sarah: "Perception uses our previous knowledge to collect and interpret sensory stimuli."

d. Sarah: "Perception uses our previous knowledge to collect and interpret sensory stimuli."

Which of the following students provides the most accurate interpretation of one of the themes of the textbook? a. Daquan: "In general, our cognitive processes may operate quickly, but we make numerous errors." b. Jessica: "In general, our cognitive processes tend to be passive, unless we make a special effort." c. Sam: "We are typically more accurate in processing negative information, rather than positive information." d. Sophie: "Many cognitive processes emphasize both top-down processing and bottom-up processing."

d. Sophie: "Many cognitive processes emphasize both top-down processing and bottom-up processing

7-36. How are the terms demand characteristics and experimenter expectancy related to each other? a. When experimenters clearly prefer participants who have certain cognitive characteristics, the experimenters expect them to perform especially well. b. If the participants are especially demanding or difficult, the experimenter tends to have lower expectations about their performance. c. It is unethical for an experimenter to have certain expectations, just as it is unethical for participants to make demand characteristics. d. The experimenter's expectancy about a study's results may be one kind of demand characteristic.

d. The experimenter's expectancy about a study's results may be one kind of demand characteristic.

7-24. Paivio conducted a study on mental imagery for the faces of clocks. His study demonstrated that a. individual differences are small, with respect to response latency on clock-imagery tasks. b. high-imagery people have faster reaction times than low-imagery people. c. the larger the difference between the two angles that were being compared, the slower the decision speed. d. experimenter expectancy can explain the results of this research.

d. experimenter expectancy can explain the results of this research.

7-18. Suppose that you participate in a study in which the experimenter has strong beliefs about how the study should turn out, and these biases influence how you perform. This would be an example of a. a propositional code. b. the landmark effect. c. a heuristic. d. experimenter expectancy. Ans: d Page(s): 215-216 Difficulty: Moderate

d. experimenter expectancy.

7-51. Chapter 7 discussed one study about auditory imagery for pitch and one study about auditory imagery for timbre. According to these two studies, a. imagery for pitch is not related to the pitch of the stimuli, and imagery for timbre is not related to the timbre of the stimuli. b. imagery for pitch is related to the pitch of the stimuli, but imagery for timbre is not related to the timbre of the stimuli c. imagery for pitch is not related to the pitch of the stimuli, but imagery for timbre is related to the timbre of the stimuli. d. imagery for pitch is related to the pitch of the stimuli, and imagery for timbre is related to the timbre of the stimuli.

d. imagery for pitch is related to the pitch of the stimuli, and imagery for timbre is related to the timbre of the stimuli.

7-50. According to the research on auditory imagery and pitch, a. people may claim that they have auditory imagery for pitch, but the research shows no evidence of this. b. people do have auditory imagery for pitch, but the research shows no evidence that that this imagery is related to the actual pitch of auditory stimuli. c. professional musicians have auditory imagery for pitch, and it is related to the actual pitch of auditory stimuli; non-musicians don't demonstrate this relationship. d. people take longer to mentally "travel" the distance between two sounds that differ greatly in pitch, compared to "traveling" the distance between two similar sounds.

d. people take longer to mentally "travel" the distance between two sounds that differ greatly in pitch, compared to "traveling" the distance between two similar sounds.

7-68. Suppose you draw a map of Italy, and you show the "boot" located in a north-south direction, rather than slanted at an angle. This would be an example of the a. regularization heuristic. b. alignment heuristic. c. symmetry heuristic. d. rotation heuristic.

d. rotation heuristic.

7-34. The research on mental imagery and ambiguous figures suggests that a. once again, the analog code is strongly supported. b. people have such limited visual imagery for ambiguous figures that neither the analog code nor the propositional code is supported. c. demand characteristics on this task are so strong that no firm conclusions can be reached. d. some imagery tasks use a propositional code, but others use an analog code.

d. some imagery tasks use a propositional code, but others use an analog code.

7-45. In your textbook, Chapter 7 discusses meta-analyses that focus on gender comparisons in cognitive abilities. Which of the following is the area in which gender differences are typically the largest? a. verbal abilities b. mathematics abilities c. spatial abilities such as locating hidden figures in a drawing d. spatial abilities such as mental rotation

d. spatial abilities such as mental rotation

7-75. According to the spatial framework model described by Franklin and Tversky, a. people can make decisions equally quickly about all directions. b. people turn their head in the specified direction, so that the major relevant variable is the amount that their head is turned. c. people base their responses on propositional codings of all three relevant dimensions. d. the above/below direction has special prominence in our mental maps.

d. the above/below direction has special prominence in our mental maps.

7-69. Suppose that on your college campus Building A is east of Building B, but they aren't exactly in a straight row; one is 15 feet north of the other. The students' cognitive maps show them in a straight row, however. A likely explanation for this effect is a. the rotation heuristic. b. the meta-analysis technique. c. the 90-degree-angle heuristic. d. the alignment heuristic.

d. the alignment heuristic.

7-70. Suppose you draw a map of a familiar street in your neighborhood. You draw all the houses an equal distance from the street, even though some houses are clearly closer to the street than others. Your error is an example of a. the 90-degree angle heuristic. b. the spatial framework model. c. the symmetry heuristic. d. the alignment heuristic.

d. the alignment heuristic.

7-25. According to the research on mental imagery and shape, people take longer to make a judgment when two mental images have similar shapes than when they have different shapes. This finding tends to support a. experimenter expectancy. b. the introspection approach. c. bottom-up processing. d. the analog-code approach.

d. the analog-code approach.

7-35. Suppose that you read in a cognitive psychology journal that an experiment's results could be explained by demand characteristics. An example of these demand characteristics might be that a. the researcher did not give clear instructions to the participants. b. the dependent variable was not sufficiently sensitive. c. the manipulation of the independent variable was too subtle, due to limited range. d. the participants may have guessed the experimenter's hypothesis.

d. the participants may have guessed the experimenter's hypothesis.

7-46. The individual differences feature in Chapter 7 examines gender comparisons in mental-rotation skills. According to this discussion, a. gender differences tend to be smaller for mental-rotation problems than for other mental imagery tasks. b. none of the research has reported significant gender differences in mental rotation. c. all of the research has reported significant gender differences in mental rotation. d. the research sometimes shows that the gender differences in mental rotation disappear when the instructions are changed.

d. the research sometimes shows that the gender differences in mental rotation disappear when the instructions are changed.

7-64. Suppose that you draw a sketch of your college campus. In reality, one particular road on campus is vaguely U-shaped, but the right-hand portion of the curve is steeper than the left-hand portion. According to your drawing, however, the two portions have the same degree of curvature. This example illustrates a. the 90-degree-angle heuristic. b. the alignment heuristic. c. the rotation heuristic. d. the symmetry heuristic.

d. the symmetry heuristic.

7-65. You are trying to draw a map of a local park. You represent the northern edge of the park as being a smooth, regular curve—even though one side is actually more irregular than the other side. Your inaccurate cognitive map is an example of a. the alignment heuristic. b. the rotation heuristic. c. the landmark heuristic. d. the symmetry heuristic.

d. the symmetry heuristic.

7-12. Suppose that you are taking a course in geometry. You are trying to determine whether two geometric shapes are identical, so you mentally rotate one of the figures in a clockwise fashion. You are likely to find that a. you will not be very accurate in this task, because mental imagery is very poor for geometric figures. b. you will take more time than if you had to rotate the figure in a 3-dimensional plane (e.g., away from you). c. you will rotate the figure more quickly than if you had to rotate it in a counterclockwise fashion. d. you will take longer to rotate it 120˚ than 40˚.

d. you will take longer to rotate it 120˚ than 40˚.

John is reading his Cognitive Psychology textbook. He notices that his stomach is grumbling, but he thinks, "I will finish this section of the chapter and then go to lunch." John's thought illustrates the cognitive process of _____.

decision making

discuss the criticism regarding the levels of processing appraoch

deep processing isn't always effective/better for memory - only effective if the retrieval conditions also emphasize these deeper more meaningful features - why shallow processing can actually be more effective at times when the task emphasizes superficial information

Change blindness and inattentional blindness are similar because both of these phenomena

demonstrate the importance of top-down processing

An operational definition is most likely to

describe precisely how the researchers will measure a particular concept.

An operational definition is most likely to

describe precisely how the researchers will meausre a particular concept

Semantic memory

describes your organized knowledge about the world, including your knowledge about words and other factual information

Suppose that you are sitting in a cafeteria, trying to focus on a comment from a student on your left, while a student on your right is talking to a friend. THis resembles the lab setup known as

dichotic listening

explicit memory task

directly instructs participants to remember information

Interest in studying human cognitive processes developed because of ...

dissatisfaction with behaviorist approaches interest in information processing chomsky's ideas about language

According to Anne Treisman's feature-integration theory

distributed attention uses parallel search through the visual field

Imagine that you are listening to a friend complain about an assignment, but you are simultaneously trying to read the newspaper. This is an example of

divided attention

Multitasking is a form of

divided attention

Imagine that you are listening to a friend complaining about a course assignment, but you are simultaneously trying to read the newspaper. This is an example of

divided attention.

What is the duration of short-term memory?

duration is very brief - less than a minute (about 15-30 seconds)

Which of the following favors a special mechanism approach to speech perception?

early research on categorical perception of speech sounds

The letters Q and O differ only in the presence or absence of a single feature. Based on research on visual search, you would find ti

easier to detect a Q in an array of Os than to detect an O in an array of Qs

Suppose that a group of researchers would like to explore how we perceive objects in the real world, rather than just in a lab. This approach emphasizes

ecological validity

Suppose that your professor tells you that you must locate a journal article about cognitive psychology that presents empirical evidence. You should look for an article that

emphasizes evidence collected in experiments.

bottom-up processing

emphasizes the importance of sensory stimuli in object recognition

According to the discussion about the rise of cognitive psychology,

enthusiasm for behaviorism decreased because it was difficult to explain complex human behavior using only the terms and concepts from learning theory.

state dependent memory

ex: if you are drinking coffee while studying, you should drink it while taking the exam so you are in the same state

differentiate between implicit and explicit memory. provide examples for both

explicit memory - researcher will directly ask you toremember some information so you are aware that your memory is being tested and it requires you to intentionally retrieve some information that you previously learned. implicit memory - assesses memory indirectly, you see the material and then later during the testing phase you are instructed to complete a cognitive task that does not directly ask you for either recall or recognition.

The face-inversion effect indicates that

faces are processed holistically rather than through their isolated parts

Imagine that you need to meet someone at the airport. You would notice him more quickly if he had told you "Look for the only person wearing a hat" than if he told you, "Look for the only person not wearing a hat." This situation is most similar to

feature present/feature absent effect

Neuroscience research has been conducted on the response of individual neurons to lines that have different orientations. the results of this research are most compatible with the ______ approach to object recognition

feature-analysis

You have no difficulty distinguishing between the letters O and W, but it takes longer to distinguish between the letters O and Q. Which theory of object recognition does this support?

feature-analysis models

family resemblance

features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member

Bottom-up processing

focuses on the contribution of the stimulus to a process such as object recognition.

bottom-up processing

focuses on the contribution of the stimulus to object recognition

Episodic memory

focuses on your memories for events

Coarticulation is the tendency

for phoneme pronunciation to vary slightly, depending on the surrounding phonemes.

The information-processing approach

grew out of the early research in computer science and the communication sciences.

According to your textbook, the influence of cognitive psychology

has been significant both within psychology, and also outside in areas such as political science.

According to the introductory chapter in your textbook, the influence of cognitive psychology

has extended to other disciplines, such as neurology.

One of the characteristics of the human brain that is especially important in the connectionist approach is that the brain

has networks that link together many neuron-like units

The template model of object recognition would have the most difficulty explaining

how people recognize letters of the alphabet if you turned the letters upside-down

Prior to 1995, cognitive psychologists tended to focus strongly on understanding

how the "average" person performs on cognitive tasks

Suppose that you attend a lecture on the bottom-up processes involved in speech perception. The lecturer is likely to emphasize

how the listener's auditory system registers and transmits information about the speech sounds

Suppose that you are reading a journal article that supports the "special mechanism approach" to speech perception. Which of the following statements would you be most likely to see? a. Humans have an inborn ability that helps them perceive speech sounds. b. Humans can perceive speech sounds especially well when the sounds are accompanied by music. c. Speech perception operates in the same way as visual perception. d. We can remember spoken sentences better than printed sentences

humans have an inborn ability that helps them perceive speech sounds

Relate phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad to your daily activities.

i use my visuospatial sketchpad while driving to research where as i use my phonological loop in class while listening to the professor and writing my notes.

Suppose that you look at a television screen for less than a second and then close your eyes. THe image that is briefly preserved after the stimulus has disappeared is held in

iconic memory

stereotype threat

if you belong to a group that is hampered by a negative stereotype - and you think about your membership in that group - your performance may suffer

mulitmodal approach

if you want to improve ones memory - can't focus on just the cognitive side, need to focus on mental health, mnemonics, physical health can't just use mind tricks to improve memory

Suppose that Silvia has had a stroke that damaged part of the left hemisphere of her brain, and a neurologist says that she has 'unilateral spatial neglect' You would expect that she

ignores objects that appear in her right visual field

Chapter 2 discussed two related topics, called change blindness and inattentional blindness. According to this discussion

in reality, these cognitive errors can be traced to strategy that makes sense in the real world?

Suppose that a close friend is telling you about a very emotional experience she has just had. You are paying such close attention to her that you fail to notice that some strangers have just entered the room. This incident is an example of

inattentional blindness

Clinical psychologists have conducted research on the Stroop effect. This research shows that

individuals who have a phobia have trouble reporting the color of words related to their phobia

Information processing models assume that

information from your senses about stimuli in the outside world can be compared to inputting information on a computer keyboard

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Control Processes

intentional strategies - such as rehearsal - that people may use to improve their memory

prospective memory

involves planning and problem solvings

chunk

is a memory unit that consists of several components that are strongly associated with one another

script

is a simple, well-structured sequence of events in a specified order

sensory memory

is a storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy

An important characteristic of the connectionist approach to cognition is that

it can perform many operations at the same time

In object recognition, an important problem with the feature-analysis approach is that

it cannot explain how we perceive an object from different viewpoints

During the 1950s, many psychologist were becoming discouraged with behaviorism and cognitive psychology began to emerge. A major reason they were disappointed with behaviorism is that

it considered only psychological processes that are clearly observable.

What is the function of saccadic eye movement?

it focuses the area of greatest visual accuity over the material to be seen

why is the self-reference effect so powerful

it has many factors responsible to it - "self" produces an especially rich set of cues, it encourages people to consider how their personal traits are connected with one another, and you rehearse material more frequently if it is associated with yourself. it is powerful because it encourages especially deep processing

An important characteristic of the connectionist approach is that

it is flexible enough to explain many cognitive skills

How can counting backwards prevent rehearsal? What affect does this have on short term memory?

it prevents rehearsal since your audio would already be over loading counting backwards

The bottleneck theory is inadequate in accounting for attention because

it underestimates the flexibility of our attention

Suppose that researchers show you one blue X surrounded by 25 red Xs. According to the discussion of visual search, you would locate that blue X

just as quickly as if there were only three other red Xs ....

metamemory

knowledge of memory strategies

Cognitive psychologists believe that behaviorists cannot explain human language because

language has a complex structure that cannot be explained in terms of stimuli and responses.

spaced learning

learning over several small incremental periods

massed learning

learning that does not occur regularly but occurs all at one time

elaboration

linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding

According to the research on word boundaries in speech

listeners are typically accurate in detecting word boundaries, even when there is no actual gap

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain damage deficit especially severe for events that occurred during the years just before the damage

anterograde amnesia

loss of the ability to form memories for events that have occurred after brain damage

Compared to a good reader, a poor reader is likely to

make more regressions to earlier material

narrative technique

make up stories that link a series of words together

How can manipulating a specific part of a serial-position curve prove a dissociation between working memory and long term memory?

manipulating a specific part could show a dissociation between working memory and long term memory because the primacy effects are based on long term memory and the recency effects are based on working memory. if we speed up presentation of words this would reduce the primacy effects on the curve - delaying the words would affect the recency part. order of report can also affect it. can say "recall the words at the beginning of the list" causing the recency part of the curve to go down

distinctiveness

means that a stimulus is different from other memory traces

According to the discussion of cognitive neuroscience, the PET-scan technique

measures blood flow in the brain

The single-cell recording technique might be used if a researcher wanted to

measures the nerve impulses from one neuron in the brain of a monkey.

proto-typicality

members of a category differ in prototypicality - amount of shared characteristics with the prototype

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

semantic memory

memory for knowledge about the world

episodic memory

memory for one's personal past experiences

William James made his most important contributions to cognitive psychology in his work on

memory in everyday life

memory strategy

mental activities that can help you improve your encoding and retrieval

According to the information-processing approach

mental processes can be interpreted as a flow of information, and these processes can be understood by comparison with the operations of a computer.

metacomprehension

monitor how well we are understanding and will remember information later our thoughts about comprehension

retrospective memory

more likely to focus on remembering information and ideas

Chinese readers make saccadic eye movements when they are reading a book written in chinese script. Compared to English readers, the chinese readers

move their eyes only two-three characters in a saccade, because each chinese character contains more info

You need saccadic eye movements when you are reading this sentence in order to

move your eye so that the next words are registered in the fovea

You need saccadic eye movements when you are reading this sentence in order to

move your eye so that the next words are registered in the fovea.

The identification of a complex arrangement of sensory stimuli is known as

object recognition

The identification of a complex arrangement of visual stimuli is known as

object recognition

According to the discussion of object recognition

object recognition must involve both top-down and bottom-up processes.

There is evidence that the visual system is designed to serve two different functions. These functions are _____ and _____.

object recognition...guiding movement

According to the discussion in Chapter 1, behaviorism places the most emphasis on

observable activities.

The primary visual cortex is located in the _____ lobe of the brain

occipital lobe

spreading activation

occurs when a node is activated and then continues down the network

dissociation

occurs when a variable has large effects on Test A, but little or no effects on Test B; also occurs when a variable has one kind of effect if measured by Test A, and the opposite effect if measured by Test B similar to the concept of a statistical interaction

false alarm

occurs when people "remember" an item that was not originally presented

According to the first chapter in your textbook, research in cognitive neuroscience

often obtains brian images while people are working on a cognitive task

explicit memory task

on an explicit memory task, a researcher directly asks you to remember some information; you realize that your memory is being tested, and the test requires you to intentionally retrieve some information that you previously learned

Suppose that you are searching a list of college I.D. numbers to determine what grade you received in an exam. The system in your brain that is most involved in this search is the

orienting attention network

differentiate between levels-of-processing approach and encoding specificity principle

original description of levels-of-processing approach emphasized encoding or how items are placed into memory - did not mention details about retrieval or how items were recovered in memory. The encoding specificity principle states that most people recall more material if the retrieval conditions match the encoding conditions - so encoding specificity can override level of processing

memory integration

our background knowledge encourages us to take in new information in a schema-consistent fashion

self-knowledge

our beliefs about who we are and the way in which we formulate and organize this information

According to the discussion of the themes of the textbook,

our cognitive processes are interrelated with one another

According to the themes of your textbook,

our cognitive processes are quite accurate; our errors can often be traced to strategies that are useful in other situations

concept

our mental representation of the category - ex: fruit we know frutis usually are sweet, tend to eat it raw, have seeds

Suppose that you look up from this exam, and you immediately perceive a scene that includes students, desks, and classroom walls. In order to perceive it quickly, you are probably using

parallel processing

central executive

part of the working-memory model, integrates information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer, and long-term memory also plays a major role in focusing attention, selecting strategies, transforming information, and coordinating behavior

recognition task

participants must judge whether they saw a particular item at an earlier time

recall task

participants must reproduce the items they learned earlier

Chapter 2 discusses a study by Burton and his colleagues on people's ability to identify a face that is shown in a video security system. According to the results of this study

people are especially likely to be confident that they correctly identified a person's face if they are familiar with this person

acoustic confusions

people are likely to confuse similar-sounding stimuli

An illusory conjunction occurs when

people are not able to use focused attention

The Stroop effect is related to selective attention because

people are required to pay selective attention to the color of the stimulus, rather than the name of the stimulus

In the introspection technique

people describe what they are thinking as they perform a task.

proactive interference

people have trouble learning new material because previously learned material keeps interfering with their new learning

constructive model of memory (constructive approach)

people integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas

On a selective-attention task,

people notice little about the message that they are supposed to ignore.

On a dichotic listening task

people notice little about the message they are supposed to ignore

Research on context and speech perception has demonstrated that

people often do not notice a missing sound when it occurs within the context of a sentence

The term "change blindness" refers to the observation that

people often fail to see that an object in a scene has changed

If you favor the general mechanism approach to speech perception, you would argue that

people process speech sound the same way they process other kinds of sounds

When researchers use the introspection technique,

people report their sensations as accurately as possible

semantic priming effect

people respond faster to an item if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning

positivity effect

people tend to rate unpleasant past events more positively with the passage of time

The research on speech perception demonstrates that

people use visual cues from the speakers mouth in order to perceive an ambiguous sound

In contrast to Hermann Ebbinghaus, William James was more likely to focus on

people's everyday experiences.

According to the introductory discussion about perceptual processes,

perception requires both information from the stimulus and knowledge about previous perceptual experiences

Suppose that you are listening to a lecture, and another student's chair squeaks loudly during the middle of a word, so that the middle of that word cannot be heard. Nonetheless, you do not detect any interruption in the word. This example is closest to which of the following cognitive phenomena?

phonemic restoration

According to the discussion of phenomic restoration

phonemic restoration makes use of top-down processing

The theorists who argue for a special mechanism approach to speech perception emphasize that humans have a special-purpose portion of the brain that makes speech perception easier. They call this special mechanism a

phonetic module

subvocalization

phonological loop is active during subvocalization when you silently pronounce the words that you are reading

give an example of the pollyanna principle

pleasant events in your life you process more efficiently - accurately then less positive

According to the research on saccadic eye movements

poor readers tend to make more regression movements than good readers do

Scenario #1: you are a participant in an experiment testing short-term memory and recall. The word that you are asked to recall is couch, but you say sofa instead. Which effect error does this demonstrate?

primacy effect - because it uses elaborative encoding and if we make mistakes it is usually based on meaning - sofa and couch refer to the same thing

The neuroscience research on the executive attention network shows that this system

primarily activates the prefrontal part of the cortex

An important difference between the classical AI approach and the connectionist approach is that the classical AI approach

proceeds one step at a time

distinctiveness

process it at a deep level - becomes distinctive - so you can recall it later

retrieval

process of locating information in storage and accessing the information

network models

proposals of semantic memory - a netlike organization of concepts of memory, with many interconnections (like cobwebs) the meaning of a concept depends on the concepts to which it is connected

Working-memory approach

proposed by Baddeley; our immediate memory is a multipart system that temporarily holds and manipulates information while we perform cognitive tasks

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

proposed that memory involves a sequence of separate steps; in each step, information is transferred from one storage area to another

pragmatic view of memory (pragmatic approach)

proposes that people pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals

In contrast to a PET scan, the fMRI technique

provides more precise information when measuring a series of events in the brain

The feature-analysis approach to object recognition argues that

recognition involves detecting specific characteristics of the stimulus

The feature-analysis model of object recognition argues that

recognition involves detecting specific characteristics of the stimulus.

Imagine that you attend a lecture give by a guest lecturer. He emphasizes that people can recognize complex shapes and other visual images - such as animals and machinery - in terms of arrangements of basic 3D shapes. This lecturer probably would be a strong supporter of which of the following approaches?

recognition-by-components theory

Suppose that you are looking at a simple geometric design. If you were to perceive it holistically you would

recognize it in terms of its overall structure and shape

initial state

recognizing that you have a problem to solve

mood

refers to a more general, long-lasting experience

problem isomorphs

refers to a set of problems that have the same underlying structures and solutions, but different specific details

serial-position effect

refers to the U-shaped relationship between a word's position in a list and its probability of recall tend to remember the first and last words in the list more than the middle ones

generation effect

refers to the fact that memory is better when we generate associations ourselves than when we simply read or see them

Long-term memory

refers to the high-capacity storage system that contains your memories for experiences and information that you have accumulated throughout your lifetime - can last for a few minutes to many decades

mood dependent meory

refers to the match between our state at learning and state at remembering - different from mood congruence which refers to the kind of information we retrieve during a mood - positive or negative

short-term memory

refers to the memory system that is responsible for holding onto a small amount of information that has been recently taken in from the environment

Retrival

refers to the processes that allow you to locate information that is stored in long-term memory, and to have access to that information

procedural memory

refers to your knowledge about how to do something

rehearsal

repeating the items silently

Imagine that your friend Pete has an intense fear of spiders. If he tries the emotional Stroop test, he would be most likely to

report the ink color more slowly if the words were related to spiders

Elaboration

requires rich processing in terms of meaning and interconnected concepts

means-ends heuristic

requires you to identify the "ends" (or final result) that you want and then figure out the "means" or methods that you will use to reach those ends reducing the difference

The primary contribution of Hermann Ebbinghaus to current cognitive psychology was

research about factors that might influence human memory.

A man is being tested in a cognitive psychology lab. If he has blindsight, he will

say he cannot see an object, even though he often points in te correct direction

Visuospatial sketchpad

second component of Baddeley's model of working memory - processes both visual and spatial information allows you to look at a complex scene and gather visual information about objects and landmarks

insight problem

seems impossible until sudden solution appears

How can manipulating the semantics in an experiment affect the results? Discuss release from proactive interference in your response

semantics are the meaning of the words - when holding similar information, the early information affects the new information causing proactive interference. have to recall words from a similar category would cause results to decrease. If we switch categories from fruits to occupations we have a release from PI and results accuracy increases.

Differentiate between sensory memory and short-term memory

sensory memory is very brief memory system that holds literal information for a FRACTION OF A SECOND to allow cognitive processing while short-term memory is a memory system responsible for holding onto a small amount of info that has been recently taken up from the environment

hierarchy

series of classes from general to specific organizes information in our brain so its easier when we study things

Suppose that Susan is taking the Stroop test, and the first item shows the word "red," printed in blue ink. According to your textbook, one reason that she will have trouble reporting the ink color (blue) for this item is that

she has had more experience in reading words than in identifying ink colors

Suppose that a woman is taking the Stroop test, and the first item shows the word "red," printed in blue ink. According to your textbook, one reason that she will have trouble reporting the ink color (blue) for this item is that

she has had more experience in reading words than in identifying ink colors.

Suppose that a friend at your college says that she can multitask very effectively, even when two tasks are challenging. Based on the information in Chapter 3, you would conclude that

she may believe that she can multitask effectively, but research does not support this belief

Suppose that Jessica has a phobic disorder, a fear of snakes. A clinical psychologist gives her the appropriate version of an emotional Stroop task. Jessica would be likely to:

show an attentional bias, so that she pays less attention to the color of the ink, when the word is related to snakes.

A research team is studying which parts of the brain are active when a participant looks at a photograph of a person, and tries to judge how intelligent that person is. This kind of study is an example of

social cognitive neuroscience

surface features

specific elements that make up a problem

The feature-analysis theories

state that we differentiate among stimuli in terms of a limited number of specific characteristics

pollyanna principle

states that pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately than less pleasant items

meta-analysis

statistical method for synthesizing numerous studies on a single topic - computes a statistical index that tells us whether a particular variable has a statistically significant effect when combining all the studies

hippocampus

structure underneath the cortex that is important in many learning and memory tasks

Suppose that some students are participating in a dichotic listening task. Which of the following kinds of students would be most likely to notice their names in the irrelevant message?

students with low working-memory capacity

Research on people with brain lesions

studies people who cannot perform specific cognitive tasks after they have had a stroke, tumor, or accident

What does George Miller's "Magical Number Seven" suggest?

suggests that people can only remember about seven items at a time (give or take two). Can't really hold more than that but can add more information to it

testing effect

taking a test is actually an excellent way to boost your long-term recall for academic material

According to the discussion of template matching in visual recognition,

template models work well for pattern recognition in some computers, but not for most complex object recognition tasks in humans.

Self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Suppose that you are watching a television talk show. The picture on your TV set is clear, but the sound is somewhat muffled. If the visual information helps you interpret some of the words that the talk-show host is saying, you are demonstrating

the McGurk effect

Total-time hypothesis

the amount you learn depends on the total time you devote to learning

Gestalt psychology emphasizes

the basic human tendency to organize our perceptions.

Some cognitive neuroscientists study brain lesions to learn more about brain function. However, a major problem with this technique is that

the brain damage may extend into several areas of the brain

Some cognitive neuroscientists study brain lesions to learn more about brain functions. However, an important problem with this technique is that

the brain damage may extend into several areas of the brain.

Working Memory

the brief, immediate memory for the limited amount of material that you are currently processing; part of working memory also actively coordinates your ongoing mental activities - lets you keep a few items active and accessible

schema therapy

the clinician and the client may work together in order to explore the client's core beliefs and create appropriate new, more helpful strategies

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage encode it better

With practice and reinforcement, a rat learns to navigate a maze. A behaviorist would operationalize the rat's "learning" as

the decrease in the rate of errors, over time

You are now reading a sentence on an examination. The actual stimulus (the words on the piece of paper) is called

the distal stimulus

graded structure

the fact that category members vary in how well they represent a category

problem representation

the first step in solving a problem; it involves interpreting or defining the problem

The perspective called the "parallel distributed processing approach" includes the word "parallel" in its name because:

the human brain can process several items simultaneously

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

Encoding-specificity principle

the idea that recall is better if the context during retrieval is similar to the context during encoding -when the two contexts do not match, more likely to forget these item

There is a great deal of controversy in neuroscience over

the idea that the processing of faces is localized to a specific brain region

fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

Heather notes that it is always easier to understand her sister's speech when they converse on Skype compared to on the telephone. Her sister believe that the sound quality on Skype may be better than on her smart phone. However, Heather thinks about her Cognitive Psychology class and reasons that the phenomenon may be an illustration of

the importance of visual cues in speech processing

basic-level categories

the level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and predictive information; the basic level usually resides at an intermediate level in a category hierarchy

thinking

the mental manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world

When a study has high ecological validity,

the methods and results apply to real world applications or settings

In making a saccadic eye movement in reading a sentence in English, you are most likely to move to

the middle of a long word

Suppose that you are searching for a set of square-shaped, red earrings on a display that has four kinds of earrings: square blue, square red, round blue, and round red. If Treisman's research on attention applies to this task ...

the number of other square earrings and the number of other red earrings influence the time taken to find the square red earrings.

Suppose that you are searching for a set of square-shaped, red earrings on a jewelry counter that has four kinds of earrings: square blue, square red, round blue, and round red. If Treisman's research on attention applies to this task,

the number of other square earrings and the number of other red earrings would influence the time taken to find the square red earrings

Imagine that you are searching your room for a textbook. Which portion of the cortex would be most active during this search?

the occipital lobe

Imagine that you are searching your room for a specific textbook. Which portion of the cortex would be most active during this search?

the parietal lobe

Right now, you are moving your eyes as you read this question. The letter that you can see at any given moment - in between eye movements - would be called

the perceptual span

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. represent it in your memory

Suppose that your hear another student turning a page of this exam. The representation of that noise by the receptors in your auditory system is called

the proximal stimulus

Chris just telephoned Roberta and listed eight items that they need for the afternoon picnic. Roberta didn't have a pencil, so she couldn't write them down. However, she remembers the last three items very well because of

the recency effect

If a study has high ecological validity, then the most likely conclusion is that

the results could be applied in real-world situations

According to the general mechanism approach, speech perception can be explained by

the same kind of learning mechanisms that humans use in acquiring other cognitive skills

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

According to the research on the recognition-by-components theory

the theory needs to include a mechanism for recognizing objects seen from an unusual point of view or else it would be inadequate

structural features

the underlying principle that governs the solution

Saccadic movements are

the very rapid eye movements from one location to another

When neuroscientists use PET scans

they assess the regions of the brain in which blood flow increases while a person is performing a task

Why are cognitive psychologists less interested in the information-processing approach than they were in earlier years?

they now realize that the complexity of human thinking requires more sophisticated models

obstacle

things in the middle that get in the way of problem solving

The discussion of the template model of object recognition pointed out that

this model would have difficulty explaining how we can recognize handwritten letters

According to the discussion of phoneme perception

this task is challenging because of the variability in speakers' pronunciation of phonemes

Imagine that you have been on a strict diet for several weeks. No matter how hard you try, you can't avoid thinking about chocolate chip cookies and lemon meringue pie. You are having difficulty with

thought suppression

Imagine that you have been on a strict diet for several weeks. No matter how hard you try, you can't avoid thinking about chocolate chip cookies and lemon meringue pie. You are having difficulty with ...

thought suppression

Chapter 2 discussed individual differences in the ability to recognize another person's facial expressions. This research showed that individuals with schizophrenia are more likely than people in a control group

to respond slowly

The research on individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder shows that they are more likely than other individuals

to think frequently about a topic they have been told to ignore.

Suppose that you walk past the home of your friend. Standing in front of the house is someone who somewhat resembles your friend, so you shout, "Hi, John!" TO your embarrassment, it is not John but his younger brother - substantially shorter and with darker hair. This error can be traced to

top-down processing

You recognize the letter n more quickly in the word pattern than when it appears by itself. This is an example of

top-down processing

Your friend Sophie said that she would call you at 8:00 p.m. When the phone rings at 8:00 p.m., you answer and say "Oh, hi, Sophie." Then you realize that the caller is a different friend with a similar voice, but somewhat higher pitched. Your initial error can be explained by

top-down processing

According to Chapter 1 in your textbook, the computer-simulation method

tries to create a program that performs a cognitive task in the same way that humans would perform it

exhaustive search

try all possible answers

incidental learning

unconscious phenomena - acquisition of knowledge without awareness of having learned it

how would you use the self-reference effect in studying for an exam

use it by relating terms and key concepts i need to know to myself or to different situations i have been in

According to Chapter 1's introduction to the chapters in your textbook, perceptual processes

use previous knowledge in order to interpret the stimuli that are registered by our senses

problem solving

used when you want to reach a certain goal, but the solution is not immediately obvious and obstacles block your path

According to your textbook's introduction to chapter 3, attention

uses both top-down and bottom-up processing

Attention

uses both top-down and bottom-up processing

analogy approach

using a solution to an earlier problem to help solve a new problem

mental set

using the same solution from previous problems, even though the problem could be solved by a different, easier method

The information-processing approach

was facilitated by the early research in computer science

Nisbett and Wilson examined people's consciousness about their higher mental processes. According to their research

we are often unable to introspect accurately about our thought processes

When you subvocalize, which component of Baddeley's model are you using?

we are using the phonological loop although pronouncing the word silently

According to the word superiority effect,

we can recognize a letter faster and more accurately when it is part of a word, rather than standing alone.

According to the word superiority effect,

we can recognize a letter faster and more accurately when it is part of a word, rather than when this letter appears by itself.

The discussion about face recognition points out that we perceive a face in terms of a "gestalt." You can therefore conclude that

we perceive faces in terms of theri overall structure

Many researchers argue that face perception is "special"; we process faces in a different way than we process other visual stimuli. According to this perspective

we recognize faces in terms of their entire shape, rather than in terms of their isolated features

Many researchers argue that face perception is "special"; we process faces in a different way than we process other visual stimuli. According to this perspective,

we recognize faces in terms of their entire shape, rather than in terms of their isolated features

According to the gestalt psychology approach to visual perception,

we tend to see well-organized patterns, rather than random-looking stimuli

According to gestalt psychologists ....

we tend to see well-organized patterns, rather than random-looking stimuli.

Your textbook states that phonemic restoration is a kind of illusion. This statement is true because

we think that we hear a speech sound, even if it is not present in the distal stimulus

The "general mechanism approach" to speech perception argues that

we use similar processes for both speech perception and other auditory perception tasks

survival processing

when items are processed as they relate to survival, they are more likely to be recalled

Research on dichotic listening shows that

when people pay attention to one task, they typically notice little about other tasks.

Research by Anne Treisman has demonstrated that

when people use focused attention, they typically perceive a figure whose shape is linked with its appropriate color.

Studies of speech perception show that

when the first phoneme of a word is being spoken, the mouth prepares to pronounce the next phoneme in the word

The phrase "ironic effects of mental control" means that

when we try to avoid a particular thought, it may be even more likely to enter consciousness

boundary extension

when your memory stores a scene

You can identify a letter more accurately when it appears in a word than when it does not. This phenomenon is called the

word superiority effect

verbatim memory

word-for-word recall usually people have poor verbatim memory

What caused the transition from the term "short-term" to working memory? How might a classical researcher define short-term/working memory?

working memory is a much better term as short term memory doesn't tell us its purpose or why it is separate from long-term. Working memory is more than just a platform for our conscious level thought, it allows us to hold information for a short time AND work with that information and decide whether to store it or get rid of it - it is an active process (store house)

What factors affect working memory's capacity

working memory is broken down into 4 areas - central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and the phonological loop. Each of these affect its capacity, but separately.

You are reading your textbook, and your eyes are moving over the page, but later you realize that you can't remember anything about the information on the page. In this phenomenon,

you are actually daydreaming

Which of the following visual activities would be most likely to employ the orienting attention network?

you are searching for an empty seat in a crowded classroom

Suppose that you are looking for a dark-colored car in a row of parked cars. Among them, 11 are light colored and one is dark colored. The dark-colored car seems to pop out. In this example,

you are using bottom up processing?

Suppose that you are looking for a dark-colored car in a row of parked cars. Eleven of them are light colored, and one is dark colored. The dark-colored car seems to "pop out". In this example ...

you are using bottom-up processing

Suppose that you are looking at a jewelry counter containing dozens of red ruby pendants and one green emerald pendant. According to Anne Treisman's theory, if the emerald seems to jump out at you perceptually

you automatically processed some features, such as the color of the jewels, during distributed attention

protype approach

you decide whether an item belongs to a category by comparing that item with a prototype

goal state

you have reached that problem, and have solved it

mood congruence

you recall material more accurately if it is congruent with your current mood - ex: you get in fight with your So and so all the bad things come up at the same time

noninsight problem

you solve the problem gradually, by using your memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies

self-instruction

you use your phonological loop during self-instruction when you silently remind yourself about something you need to do in the future or how to sue some complicated equipment

Self-reference effect

you will remember more information if you try to relate that information to yourself

distributed-practice effect

you will remember more material if you spread your learning trials over time

According to your textbook, consciousness refers to

your awareness of the outside world and of your perceptions, images, and feelings

According to your textbook, consciousness refers to

your awareness of the outside world and of your perceptions, images, and feelings.

When you try the Stroop task, you need to say the name of the colors and inhibit your automatic tendency to read the words. This kind of search typically activates

your executive attention network

Metacognition refers to

your thoughts about your cognitive processes