(Chapter 7) Psychology - Thinking and Intelligence

Explain the Spearman's theory of general intelligence (g)

British psychologist Charles Spearman believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g, which could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman focused on the commonalities among various intellectual abilities and deemphasized what made each unique.

(Chapter 7) Thinking and Intelligence

By the Open Book Team

Explain the Standard deviations in IQ scores and what the values mean

An IQ test score is calculated based on a norm group with an average score of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. The standard deviation is a measure of spread, in this case of IQ scores. A standard deviation of 15 means 68% of the norm group has scored between 85 (100 - 15) and 115 (100 + 15).

Explain Trial and error

Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved (Restarting phone, turning off WiFi)

Heuristic

General problem-solving framework (If John is 5'5 feet, what's the size of Jupiter?)

What it means to say that language is symbolic/structured?

Different languages have different structures and symbols. In English we have vowels for example.

Check your understanding: Trial and error // Algorithm // Heuristic Determine what type of Problem-Solving Strategies is used: 1. Writing down the important numbers in a physics question 2. Turning off Bluetooth and then other stuff in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning 3. A list of steps to change a tire

1. Heuristic 2. Trial and error 3. Algorithm

Check your understanding and fill in the blanks grammar // lexicon // phoneme // morpheme // syntax // semantics _______________ is a basic sound unit of a given language _______________ refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words. _______________ refers to the words of a given language. _______________ are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning _______________ refers to the way words are organized into sentences _______________ refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon

1. phoneme 2. semantics 3. lexicon 4. morpheme 5. syntax 6. grammar

What is the concept of mental set?

A mental set is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now. Example: You pull on a door handle to open it. The door doesn't open. You pull on it a few more times before you try to push, failing to notice the "push" sign on the door.

Explain problem-solving strategy and it's action plans

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them and they include: Trial and error Algorithm Heuristic

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A prototype is the best illustration or example of a concept. It provides a standard of comparison for a concept.

Explain anchoring bias

An anchoring bias occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. Example: you and three friends wanted to rent a house and had a combined target budget of $1,600. The realtor shows you only very run-down houses for $1,600 and then shows you a very nice house for $2,000. Might you ask each person to pay more in rent to get the $2,000 home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and the nice house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. In this case, you're so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at that price point.

What is an event schema?

An event schema, also known as a cognitive script, is a set of behaviors that can feel like a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator. First, the doors open and you wait to let exiting passengers leave the elevator car. Then, you step into the elevator and turn around to face the doors, looking for the correct button to push. You never face the back of the elevator, do you? And when you're riding in a crowded elevator and you can't face the front, it feels uncomfortable, doesn't it? Interestingly, event schemata can vary widely among different cultures and countries.

Summary of all Biases

Anchoring: Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making decisions or problem-solving Confirmation: Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs Hindsight: Belief that the event just experienced was predictable Availability: Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that may be faulty

What is the meaning of prototype in psychology?

Another technique used by your brain to organize information is the identification of prototypes for the concepts you have developed. A prototype is the best example or representation of a concept. For example, what comes to your mind when you think of a dog? Most likely your early experiences with dogs will shape what you imagine. If your first pet was a Golden Retriever, there is a good chance that this would be your prototype for the category of dogs.

What is the goal of standardization and norming?

standardization is the process used in psychometric test development to create norms so that the performance of students of different ages can be represented by means of scores that are independent of age.

How can mental sets be an obstacle to problem solving?

Mental set is the tendency to solve certain problems in the same way based on how you have solved similar problems in the past. Mental set makes you blind to any alternative approaches. This tendency to use only those solutions that have worked in the past. An example could be Duncker's radiation problem.

What does the Flynn effect refers to?

New generations tend to be smarter than past ones. The Flynn effect refers to a secular increase in population intelligence quotient (IQ) observed throughout the 20th century (1-4). The changes were rapid, with measured intelligence typically increasing around three IQ points per decade.

Explain functional fixedness

Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. In class an experiment was explained: Duncker (1945) conducted foundational research on functional fixedness. He created an experiment in which participants were given a candle, a book of matches, and a box of thumbtacks. They were instructed to use those items to attach the candle to the wall so that it did not drip wax onto the table below. Participants had to use functional fixedness to solve the problem

What does hindsight bias mean?

Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did.

What was Gardner's multiple intelligence theory? (IMPORTANT)

In Gardner's theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences. Among these eight intelligences, a person typically excels in some and falters in others, includes: Linguistic intelligence: Perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages (Journalist, novelist, poet, teacher) Logical-mathematical intelligence: Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and logic (Scientist, mathematician) Musical intelligence Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple instruments or perform as a vocalist (Composer, performer) Bodily kinesthetic intelligence: High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks (Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, yoga instructor) Spatial intelligence Ability: to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in space (Choreographer, sculptor, architect, aviator, sailor) Interpersonal intelligence: Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others (Counsellor, social worker, salesperson) Intrapersonal intelligence Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behavior and reach personal goals (Key component of personal success over time Naturalist intelligence: High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it (Biologist, ecologist, environmentalist)

What is the meaning of concept in psychology?

In order to organize staggering amount of information, the mind has developed a "file cabinet" of sorts in the mind. The different files stored in the file cabinet are called concepts. Concepts are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. Concepts are, in many ways, big ideas that are generated by observing details, and categorizing and combining these details into cognitive structures.

Why is representative sampling is important in intelligence testing?

Is a type of statistical sampling that allows us to use data from a sample to make conclusions that are representative for the population from which the sample is taken. A representative sample allows researchers to abstract the collected information to a larger population. Most market research and psychological studies are unsuitable in terms of time, money, and resources to collect data on everyone.

What is the linguistic determinism hypothesis?

Language may indeed influence the way that we think, an idea known as linguistic determinism. Linguistic determinism is the concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception.

Components of language include: (IMPORTANT)

Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar. Lexicon refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language's vocabulary. Grammar refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. · Phoneme (e.g., the sounds "ah" vs. "eh") is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes. · Phonemes are combined to form morphemes, which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., "I" is both a phoneme and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax, which are part of a language's grammar, to construct language: · Semantics refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words. · Syntax refers to the way words are organized into sentences

Explain the basic idea of "range of reaction" in intelligence research

Range of Reaction is the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood.

What is the Cattell's theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence?

Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence Fluid intelligence is your ability to learn, assess, and navigate new situations. Crystallized intelligence is accumulated knowledge you can recall as needed.

Explain the Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence?

Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the triarchic theory of intelligence because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg, 1988): practical, creative, and analytical intelligence

What is schemata (schemas) and it's function?

Schema are mental structures that an individual uses to organize knowledge and guide cognitive processes and behavior. People use schemata to categorize objects and events based on common elements and characteristics and thus interpret and predict the world. Schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.

What it means to say that language is generative?

Sentences can go on forever like saying, "We live on earth in space with different plants and a sun in the center and ......".

What is the difference between Chomsky's and Skinner's points of view regarding language acquisition?

Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined.

How does the concept of intelligence varies depending on the culture?

Some cultures place a high value on working together as a collective. In these cultures, the importance of the group supersedes the importance of individual achievement. When you visit such a culture, how well you relate to the values of that culture exemplifies your cultural intelligence, sometimes referred to as cultural competence. In other words, intelligence is defined differently in varying cultures.

Explain Algorithm

Step-by-step problemsolving formula (Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer)

Explain the CHC theory of intelligence.

The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of intelligence is a psychometric taxonomy that aims to explain individual differences in cognitive ability. It proposes that intelligence is composed of three levels: general intelligence, broad cognitive ability factors, and specific intellectual abilities. · General intelligence refers to a person's overall cognitive ability and capacity to reason abstractly, learn quickly, and solve problems. · The theory suggests that general intelligence can be broken down into eight broad cognitive ability factors, which include fluid reasoning, crystallized intelligence, memory, visual processing, auditory processing, processing speed, and comprehension-knowledge. These factors are thought to reflect distinct cognitive processes and can be measured using standardized intelligence tests. · The lowest level of the CHC theory is specific intellectual abilities, which are unique skills and talents that individuals possess. These abilities are more narrow in scope and reflect specific aptitudes, such as verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, or numerical ability.

Explain availability heuristic

The availability heuristic is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision.

What is confirmation bias?

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. Example: If you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis.

What evidence (and methods) indicates that intelligence is partially genetic?

The debate around the foundations and influences on intelligence exploded in 1969, when an educational psychologist named Arthur Jensen published the article "How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Achievement" in the Harvard Educational Review. Jensen had administered IQ tests to diverse groups of students, and his results led him to the conclusion that IQ is determined by genetics. Genetics and environment affect intelligence and the challenges of certain learning disabilities.

Explain framing effects

The framing effect is a type of cognitive bias or error in thinking. "Framing" refers to whether an option is presented as a loss (negative) or a gain (positive). People are generally biased toward picking an option they view as a gain over one they view as a loss, even if both options lead to the same result.

What is a role schema?

There are several types of schemata. A role schema makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave. For example, imagine you meet someone who introduces himself as a firefighter. When this happens, your brain automatically activates the "firefighter schema" and begins making assumptions that this person is brave, selfless, and community-oriented. Despite not knowing this person, already you have unknowingly made judgments about him. Schemata also help you fill in gaps in the information you receive from the world around you.

What is the difference between top-down and bottom-up processing in language?

Top-down processing refers to the use of background knowledge in understanding the meaning of a message, happens when the reader activates his/her world knowledge to facilitate understanding the text. Bottom-up processing happens when someone tries to understand language by looking at individual meanings or grammatical characteristics of the most basic units of the text, (e.g. sounds for a listening or words for a reading), and moves from these to trying to understand the whole text. Bottom-up processing goes from language to meaning, top-down processing goes from meaning to language.

Why Binet and Simon developed the first intelligence test?

Video was presented: Binet and Simon largely created their intelligence test (IQ test) to determine which children required more individualized attention.

What it means to say that language uses displacement?

We can talk about things that are present or non present at the time.

What is the functions of Broca's and Wernicke's area?

We watched a video and we saw how different parts of the brain assert different functions. Wernicke's area and Broca's area are two areas of the brain that play a part in language. Broca's area is associated with language production, while Wernicke's area is associated with language comprehension.

What the data from feral children like Genie tells us about critical periods in language acquisition?

We watched a video in the lecture where Genie did not socialize with people, and she didn't develop communication skills. It is theorized that if language is not developed, at least to a degree, during this critical period, a child can never reach his or her full language potential. The fact that feral children lack these abilities pinpoints the role of socialization in human development.

What are problems in schemata?

While schemata allow for more efficient information processing, there can be problems with schemata, regardless of whether they are accurate. In the previous example, perhaps this particular firefighter is not brave, he just works as a firefighter to pay the bills while studying to become a children's librarian.