Chapters 1 Psychology 1
homeopathy
*pseudoscience* The treatment of diseases, such as asthma, cancer, and dementia, by tiny doses of natural substances (e.g. poison ivy, arsenic) that in a healthy person would produce symptoms of disease - NOT an effective treatment for any healthy condition - serious threat to health and well-being - the
1998 medical study by Wakefield and colleagues
*pseudoscience/FALSE* suggested that the trace amounts of mercury in childhood vaccines may cause autism - as fewer children are vaccinated, society begins to lose herd immunity, and diseases that were once almost completely eliminated start making a comeback - blamed for measles outbreak
evolution and culture often work together
- Human behavior and preferences often reflect a complicated interplay between evolution and social context - Nature and nurture interact to predict broad patterns of human behavior as well as individual behavior ex: women and men have more similar preferences regarding what they look for in a partner if they live in a country where women have greater equality, opportunities, and freedoms
Psychologists use various perspectives to approach a problem and develop a fuller understanding of a phenomenon
- Nature (biology) and nurture (the environment) interact to predict behavior - psychology seeks to identify which aspects of behavior are universal to all people and which aspects of behavior vary across cultures - behavior is shaped by conscious understanding and by unconscious processes - we can gain insights by understanding both normal functioning and dysfunctions (disruptions to normal functioning) - applying psychology can change our lives in positive ways
be mindful of cultural variation
- Western world promotes and values uniqueness and individuality - Eastern cultures (China, Japan, and Korea) place more value on harmony and conformity - general cultural preferences do not always override individual preferences, so in any given culture there will always be people whose preferences differ from those of the larger group
applying psychology to college courses and career
- helps court cases: eyewitnesses can and do mistakenly "finger" innocent people as criminals - students might fail standardized tests for many reasons: bc their school districts lack funds to provide quality education (not bc of intelligence) - political campaigns to increase peoples desire - help in sports industry from the concussions, brain injuries, and psychological disorders
findings in positive psychology
- people often conduct self-analysis to improve their circumstances and lives - Studies link smartphone dependency with heightened levels of anxiety, depression, and social isolation. - risk of Alzheimer's for first-degree relatives (parents, children, sibling) of people w/ Alzh... is estimated 10-40% higher than unrelated people. For those w/ family history = 1.8-4.0x higher than those w/o - interviewers favor applicants who focus more on being pleasant, agreeable, and complimentary over applicants who focus on their abilities and experiences - providing children with consistent love, encouragement, rules, and relationships generally improves their life satisfaction - to stimulate community activism, organizers should foster neighborhood identity that unites people regardless of other social differences (ethnicity, class, etc) - outreach by local officials to city residents, together w/ education and publicity campaigns, were important parts of recycling program design in the cities with the most successful recycling efforts - mailing people their statistics of their energy consumption levels as compared to their neighbors' motivates them to use less energy
Finding Reliable Sources of Psychological-Scientific Information
- published in well-known and respected academic journals that are indexed in major academic databases (JSTOR, ProQuest) - published by establish and reputable publishing houses, such as university presses and major publishers (Knopf, Random House, W. W. Norton) - sponsored by organizations that are dedicated to scientific truth (research universities, NIMH, CDC, U.S. Census Bureau) - acknowledge earlier research on the topic to provide background information and context - detailed descriptions of the experimental methods used - suggest reasonable conclusions based on the research conducted, but also identify areas of potential weakness and suggest areas for future study
other ways to study
- testing yourself - take detailed and clear notes while listening to lectures - cornell note-taking method - manage your time - focus (do NOT multitask) - manage your technology - stay motivated (good attitude and self efficacy - organizational skills and attention to study, self-discipline) - find a study partner or join a study group - learn as you go
scientists have gained a vast understanding of love, relationships, and social connection by approaching these topics from different perspectives.
- the physical touch of a romantic partner can reduce the brain's automatic fear response - used a combination of different research methods (brain scans, video observation, animal studies) to reveal deeper truths about a single question
3 questions of critical thinking
1) What scientific evidence supports this claim? 2) Has this topic been studied empirically? 3) Am I listening to (or reading) someone's opinion, or is the information based on facts that are accepted by unbiased experts?
perspective that identify the roles of the body and brain
1) biological-neuroscience perspective: studies the biological underpinnings of how we think, act, and behave
perspective that understands current thoughts and feelings
1) cognitive perspective: studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity 2) emotional perspective: examines how the human capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behavior, and social relationships
perspectives that acknowledge both stability and change in behavior across time and situation
1) developmental perspective: examines how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age 2) personality perspective: seeks to understand aspects of behavior that are relatively stable over time and situation 3) social perspective: considers the ways in which immediate social context influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors 4) clinical perspective: focuses on the causes and treatments of psychological disorders , with the goal of improving human well-being, daily functioning, and social relationships
perspectives that explains broader patterns of behavior
1) evolutionary perspective: identifies aspects of behavior that are the result of evolutionary adaptations 2) cultural perspective: investigates how cultural context affects people's thoughts and preferences
3 components of that positive psychologists believe happiness has
1) positive emotion and pleasure 2) engagement with life 3) living a meaningful life with good relationships and a history of accomplishments
Psychology was boring in Western Europe, but it developed in two distinct and independent ways
1) scientific branch (Wilhelm Wundt - 1870s Germany, William James - 1880s America) : took root in universities amid intellectual endeavors and scientific experimentation 2) clinical branch (Sigmund Freud - turn of the 20th cent. Austria, then England): took root in medical examination rooms, where doctors used therapeutic interventions to treat people suffering from psychological disorders, such as debilitating anxiety and depression (psychotherapy, psychiatry, clinical practice)
Ethical Guidelines for Research
1. Respect for the dignity of persons 2. Responsible caring 3. Integrity in relationships 4. Responsibility to society
Which of the following people most likely has a damaged primary motor cortex?
After suffering a stroke, Kitae's left leg is paralyzed. When he tries to walk, his left leg will not move.
open science
As part of a study's publication process, the practice of sharing one's data and materials freely so others can collaborate, use, and verify the results.
Have you thought about seeking out counseling services? If your anxiety and insomnia are getting in the way of your everyday activities, you can find the right kind of psychotherapy or medication to help.
Clinical - This perspective focuses on identifying and treating thoughts and behaviors that are harmful to well-being.
Why is it important to combine different psychological perspectives?
Combining psychological perspectives helps us understand the mind and behavior more deeply - Bc each psychological perspective has its own strengths and limitations, combining these perspectives is necessary to investigate research questions as thoroughly as possible
How old are you? It can be difficult in your early twenties to manage life on your own, build a social network, and plan for your future career. It might be helpful to know that many of your peers feel the same kind of stress.
Developmental - This perspective focuses on how thoughts and behaviors change throughout the lifespan.
personality-social applied example
Emily has always been a conscientious student, but her new roommates like to party and are not as worried about completing assignments on time. Over the course of the term, Emily is finding herself feeling more relaxed about deadlines. She's still the most likely one in the apartment to turn in all of her assignments, but she doesn't feel as anxious if she has to finish something at the last minute. She is experiencing two forces on her behavior: the relative stability of personality traits over time and the influence of social norms on her behavior.
clinical applied example
Emily has recently been suffering from anxiety and insomnia and is wondering if they are related. One possibility is that Emily's anxiety causes intrusive negative thoughts at nighttime that prevent her from sleeping. However, it's also possible that Emily's insomnia stems from her irregular sleep schedule and the fact that she works on her laptop before bedtime. In this case, her insomnia is not a disorder and can be managed with proper sleep hygiene. Good sleep hygiene involves restricting the amount of time spent in bed, cutting down on the use of stimulants such as caffeine, avoiding naps, exercising daily, and limiting the amount of time spent staring at a computer screen
developmental applied example
Emily is living through a period in her life that developmental psychologists call emerging adulthood. During this period, young adults (18-25) take time to finish their schooling, gain financial independence from their parents, and establish careers and serious romantic relationships. As emily is exploring and establishing her identity, she might experiment with different possible careers and relationship partners
cultural applied example
Emily's family emigrated to the United States from China when she was 10 years old. Although Emily probably feels acculturated to America, she might still notice subtle cultural differences between Asian-American students and those of European-American descent. Research suggests that students from Western cultures like the United States find it easy to speak up in class and think through an argument while they are talking, whereas students socialized in an Eastern cultural background find it easier to work on difficult reasoning problems quietly.
cognitive emotional applied example
Emotion research shows that how we perceive a situation and our own ability to do well can shape our emotions and our performance - emily wants to work in a health-related field, but she hasn't decided which one. She is a highly competitive student-athlete and is therefore considering exploring kinesiology or sports psychology. She is fascinated by how her current thoughts can affect her performance on the soccer field. When she goes into a game feeling confident, she plays much better than she does if she doubts her abilities.
animal magnetism (18th dent, German doc Franz Mesmer)
FALSE concept/ poster for pseudoscience: the property of the animal body that makes it susceptible to the influence of celestial bodies and the reciprocal action of those around it - idea that all living things (humans, animals, vegetables) have a magnetic fluid that can be used for hypnosis and healing
timeline of psychology (establishing the field, social and cultural psychology, behaviorism, clinical psychology, cognitive psychology) + people
Middle: https://ncia.wwnorton.com/4285/r/goto/cfi/20!/4
We must not assume that anything genetic or biological is fixed and unchangeable
Neuroscientists have shown that London taxi drivers develop a larger hippocampus, the spatial memory region of the brain, as they spend more years navigating the complex street system of London - biology can change with experience
Which one of the following statements about psychology is true?
Psychology is relevant to every part of the human experience - As the scientific study of mind and behavior, psychology helps us understand all aspects of being human
biological-neurological applied example
Research suggests that mild hits to the head, even those that are not diagnosed as concussions, can have a cumulative effect on cognitive performance: - last term, emily had been doing well in her classes right up until the end of the term. A week before finals began, emily headed a ball in a soccer match to score the winning goal, but for the following week she felt disoriented and was unable to concentrate
Robin is a freshman who is taking introduction to psychology. How should she study for her upcoming midterm exam?
She should meet with a study group for an hour every other day - Spreading out study sessions into short chunks of time is an example of distributed practice, which results in increased retention of information. In addition, working with a study group can be motivating.
Which of the following people most likely has a damaged primary somatosensory cortex?
Shirley knows the pot she just grabbed was extremely hot because a blister has formed on her hand, but she is alarmed to realize that she couldn't feel any pain, or even any sensation of heat, when she was touching it.
applying critical thinking claims in real life
Systematically evaluating information to reach a clear conclusion supported by evidence. Claim: exercise can improve your memory 1) curiosity and open mind (no bias) despite having maybe experienced it herself 2) reminds herself what she is studying and has skepticism/weary mind 3) What evidence is there? only 1 study of few people 4) Most reasonable conclusion is that there isn't enough supporting research. More evidence needs to be gathered to make a clear conclusion.
Recognizing Fake News and False or Misleading Information
Table 1.1: https://ncia.wwnorton.com/4285/r/goto/cfi/18!/4 Newspapers and magazines: - article refers to a "specialist" w/o mentioning that person's name, credentials, and employer or affiliation - company spokesperson is quoted (they're biased so it's not necessarily scientific truth) - survey results are presented w/o info about the # of people surveyed Self-assessments or quizzes: - the assessment doesn't offer info about the psychological research that informed the creation of the quiz and that supports the reliability and validity of the results Self-help books: - advice from so-called "experts" w/o academic or professional credentials who do not cite valid academic research to support their advice - people w/ advanced degrees who write about topics outside of their field of expertise - drawing general conclusions form case histories Social media: - reading tweets by people or organizations with a known bias or agenda - reposting info that you cannot verify through a neutral fact-checking org. (snopes.org, politifact.com, or factcheck.com) TV news outlets and talk shows: - listening to the opinions presented. Many news programs and talk shows have a political agenda that causes them to slant the news in a direction that supports their beliefs and biases Websites: - website's sponsor is not identified, the articles' authors are not identified, or the site focuses on one person's opinions - writers' biographies do not include info that explains their expertise on the topic they are writing about. Check for org. dedicated to accurate scientific research, political agenda
What is a key benefit of taking introductory psychology in college?
Taking introductory psychology equips you with critical thinking tools that help you make informed decisions
developmental perspective
The psychological perspective that studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age - encompasses all the phases of the human life cycle: conception, birth, infancy, toddlerhood, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle age, and old age - offers valuable perspectives on why diff. age groups display diff. patterns of reasoning, language, and social behavior
Psychological science
This term refers to the scientific study of the mind, brain, and behavior - psych is an exacting science that uses rigorous scientific methods to develop insights into the human mind and human behavior
Which of the following research questions is best studied with the cognitive perspective?
Why do people remember some events but not others? - the cognitive perspective focuses in part on the mental processes responsible for memory
basal ganglia
a group of interconnected structures underneath the cortex that are necessary for planning, executing, and stopping movement. The basal ganglia transmits information from motor regions in the cerebral cortex to the thalamus, allowing the brain to communicate with the spinal cord to control the muscles
evidence
an available body of facts and information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true and valid
metacognition
an awareness and understanding of your own thought processes
parts of a reference that show if a source is valid or not
author and journal
empirical
based on astute observation and accurate measurement - best evidence is primarily empirical - results from sophisticated and cutting-edge technology (fMRI - measures brain functions by looking at changes in oxygen levels in the blood flowing through the brain) - questionnaires
Which research tool is best suited to the biological-neuroscience perspective?
brain imaging techniques - brain imagine techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), can measure activity in the brain
Does your tendency to think about your anxiety and insomnia make those problems worse? If you put less pressure on yourself regarding your grade in this course, do you think you could improve your ability to enjoy the class?
cognitive-emotional - This perspective focuses on mental processes and emotions.
Yu-ri is reading an op-ed article in which a local parents' group expresses its concern about children playing violent video games, claiming that such games are causing a rise in crime. The members of the group support their claim by mentioning a recent study on video games and aggression that was published in a leading academic journal by researchers at a prestigious university. Which of the following tools will help Yu-ri most efficiently evaluate the article's claims?
critical thinking - The three key critical thinking questions are powerful tools that will allow Yu-ri to quickly evaluate the article's claims. She could notice that the parents' group is expressing its claims in an op-ed article, investigate the evidence in the study to see whether it in fact demonstrates that violent video games lead to crime, and examine whether the study was conducted empirically.
Which of the following could be an example of empirical evidence?
data gathered by a questionnaire and published in an academic journal: - Questionnaires can be carefully developed to be empirically based research tools, and they are often used in psychological studies to collect data.
evolutionary applied example
emily might not realize that some anxiety is useful. It can initiate the fight-or-flight response that prepares her to run away or fight in a dangerous situation. Psychologists also point to the importance of "useful anxieties" that help people anticipate and prevent some painful or unpleasant event. In modern human societies, the same evolved stress responses that helped us escape from predators are activated even when we are dealing with stressful situations that are not life threatening.
Shanella is interested in studying the causes of obesity. Which psychological perspective(s) should she use?
evolutionary and cultural perspectives - Shanella can draw on both of these perspectives, combining research on human survival instincts and current cultural norms about eating to more thoroughly investigate what causes obesity.
evolutionary perspective
helps psychologists to identify aspects of behavior that result from evolutionary adaptations that have facilitated humanity's survival - evolutionary psychologists study the cultural universals that unite all humans (reading others' emotions, preference for fairness, capacity for language, seeking out and maintaining a successful relationship with a mate)
Little Albert study
highly unethical: - researchers tried to study how phobias emerge by training a baby to associate a rat with a loud and scary noise - boy developed a fear response to anything furry and white
oxytocin
hormone that plays in trust and romantic love - plays a critical role in childbirth, lactation, and bonding between mothers and their infants - increased oxytocin levels are more trusting of others and show an improved ability to accurately perceive the emotions of people to whom they feel similar - ex: as two people form a close connection, their bodily reactions synchronize and fluctuate together
dysfunctions
impaired functions that have helped us understand humans' normal functions
references
list at the end of books that include the materials originally published in respected academic journals - Authors. (Year of Publication). Title. Journal name. Volume #. (Issue #). Page #s. URL/DOI. - Mid/bottom: https://ncia.wwnorton.com/4285/r/goto/cfi/22!/4
primary motor cortex (in front of PSC)
located in the frontal lobe in front of the parietal lobe's primary somatosensory cortex, the primary motor cortex is responsible for all voluntary movement, from walking to speaking
primary somatosensory cortex (behind PMS)
located in the parietal lobe next to the frontal lobe's primary motor cortex, the primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for the sense of touch
pseudoscience
makes claims that are supposedly based on rigorous science and fact but that are not supported by reliable, verifiable, scientific evidence: - A fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence. - not all pseudoscience is the result of malice, fraud, or an intent to deceive (some may be well-intentioned but draw incorrect conclusions from it) - ex: astrology
unconscious
mental processes that we cannot directly observe or directly influence - they strongly shape our interpretations in ways that affect our behavior
popular psychology ("pop psychology")
often based on out-of-date or invalid research, unproven propositions, oversimplified, and misinterpreted data or observations - found in social media, websites, magazines, TV shows, simplistic self-help books - relatively harmless, but sometimes can have serious false/fakes/unethical consequences
Unconscious processes in Dating and Mate selection
our unconscious preferences for a long-term partner may be at odds with out states preferences
our early relationships (especially with our parents) affect our level of trust in romantic partners in adolescence and later life
people w/ positive relationships with their parents often expect to have positive/healthy relationships with their romantic partners (and vice versa) - attachment style
If you have always been a conscientious person, maybe you should look at your social setting. Do you feel that you have a group of friends who are helping you set and maintain good study and sleep habits? The norms created by others can be a powerful influence on us.
personality-social - The personality perspective focuses on the somewhat stable collection of traits that define an individual, while the social perspective focuses on how one is influenced by the behavior of others.
According to positive psychology, what are the three components of happiness?
positive emotion and pleasure, engagement with life, and living a meaningful life with good relationships and a history of accomplishment
personality perspective
psychological perspective that seeks to understand aspects of human behavior that are relatively stable over time and situation - might ask whether some people possess traits that make them more socially skilled - people differ in how adept they are in relating to other people - a combination of a stable personality and stressful life events can lead to psychological disorders
biological-neuroscience perspective
psychological perspective that seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of how we think, act, and behave - neuroscience - ask questions like: What is the genetic basis for psychological disorders? What patters of brain activity allow us to understand and produce speech? When and why does stress lead to an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and hormones such as cortisol? - still in its infancy - use new technology and dysfunctions
cognitive perspective
psychological perspective that studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity - psychologists have been able to determine what infants know, identify the best treatment approaches for depression and anxiety, and learn the many ways in which human memory is unreliable
social psychological perspective
psychological perspective that studies the ways in which immediate social contexts influence social thoughts, feelings, and behavior, independent of personality - might ask whether people are more socially skilled in some situations than in others - people tend to behave in a more socially skillful manner with people who seem similar to themselves
emotional perspective
psychological perspective used to understand how our capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behavior, and social relationships - ex: social media: study of over 5,000 Facebook users found that those who make the most status updates report the lowest levels of psychological health and well-being
clinical perspective
psychological perspective which uses psychological science to identify the causes and treatment of psychological disorders - goal is to help people improve their well-being, relationships, and daily functioning - breakups of romantic relationships are one of the strongest predictors of depression
critical thinking
purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed thinking that seeks to examine evidence, evaluate conclusions, solve problems, make decisions, and formulate reasonable and accurate conclusions
WEIRD samples
research participants from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic backgrounds - make up much of the existing knowledge base in psychology - trying to change this bc many parts of the world are psychologically and culturally dissimilar from the US.
positive psychology
scientific study of important human experiences, such as hope, faith, courage, and creativity - a fairly recent movement in psychology that emphasizes factors that make people happy, keep them healthy, and help them manage stress - 3 components: positive emotion and pleasure, engagement with life, and living a meaningful life with good relationships and a history of accomplishments
cultural perspective
seeks to identify how culture affects people's thoughts and preferences
cerebellum
shaped like a miniature brain, the cerebellum is located behind the pons and medulla in the hindbrain. This structure allows for coordination, balance, precise movements, and accurate timing. It is estimated that the cerebellum has three to four times as many neurons as the cerebral cortex!
Cyrus is running a study on whether people perform better on a task with complete strangers or with recent acquaintances. Which of these psychological perspectives is he most likely using?
social perspective - The social perspective generally focuses on how social contexts—such as working with strangers or acquaintances—influence behavior
distributed practice
spreading out your learning into shorter sessions over a longer period of time - you learn and retain much more information by doing this
growth mindset
the belief that human personality and behavior can change - better at adjusting their own behavior by setting goals and sticking to them even in the face of setbacks
human brain
the body's control center and underlies all biological processes - everything psychological is simultaneously biological
corpus callosum
the bridge of fibers that connects the two hemispheres, allowing for the rapid exchange of information between the two halves of the brain. Severing the corpus callosum, as in a split-brain procedure, prevents practically all communication between the brain's hemispheres
Zach is thinking about dropping his introductory psychology course because he claims that the whole subject is merely common sense. Which of the following tendencies is he demonstrating?
the overconfidence effect
Hazel Markus (from US) and Shinobu Kitayama (from Japan) research together to find....
the people in Western cultures tend to see themselves as independent entities, whereas those in the Eastern cultures are more likely to define themselves by their relationships with others
culture
the rules, values, customs, and beliefs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment - passes from gen to gen (childern learn from their parents, caregivers, larger society) - people tend to select lifetime romantic partners who are similar to them in economic status, age, intellectual ability, and physical attractiveness - parenting styles differ by culture
What were the two main branches of psychology during the early development of the field?
the scientific and clinical branches - Wilhelm Wundt and William James pioneered the scientific branch of psychology in the late nineteenth century. Sigmund Freud started the clinical branch at the turn of the twentieth century. Today, the branches have merged—scientific research informs clinical treatment.
neuroscience
the scientific study of how nerves and ells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord
psychology
the study of mind and behavior. - It helps you better understand yourself & others
overconfidence effect
the tendency to be overly sure of what we know, making us unreasonably confident that our own intuitions are more correct than the consistent results of 100 research studies.
confirmation bias
the tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that supports what we already are confident we know - you can counter your own confirmation bias by seeking out new analysis from media sources that do not share your political leanings
Psychology is "summative"
this means that it rests on a body of knowledge that is continuously growing - "suggests", "provides evidence to support", or "offers a counterpoint to" rather than a certain conclusion
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a ringing bell: - Performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs. These experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning.
consciousness
what you lose when you fall into a deep sleep at night and what you gain when you wake up in the morning
early psychological and medical studies relied on intuition, simple observations, and theories that attempted to explain causes and effects. Such theories sometimes led to...________________
wild and bizarre conclusions and practices that are now completely discredited (animal magnetism)
