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"CUTTING THE CORD"•An even bigger problem for cable, however, has been the much cheaper costs of streaming services offered by Netflix, Amazon, and Hulu. •An increasing number of young people have "cut the cable cord," willing to wait and binge-watch their favorite shows on one or more streaming services, whose subscription costs are often paid by their parents, who share their streaming passwords. •In fact, in 2018 the average monthly subscription costs for Netflix, Amazon Prime, and Hulu Plus (no ads) combined was $32.90.

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"Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics." (PRSA)

REPORTING RITUALS AND THE LEGACY OF PRINT JOURNALISM•When CNBC reported that eBay and Yahoo! might merge in March 2000, CNBC's reporter Steve Frank was relying on sketchy information at best and was trying to be first with the exciting announcement. •Although the merger didn't happen, Frank's story had real-life implications: eBay's stock rose $20 a share in twenty-four hours, and Wall Street was in a tizzy in after-hours trading. •The next day, the story was deemed hardly worthy of a mention in the Wall Street Journal. •This mistake points to the extreme competition for business news—especially on cable and the Web— that has put an extra premium on being fast and first.

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JOURNALISM IN THE AGE OF TV AND THE INTERNET•Consequently, the news is now much more centered around journalists than it was in earlier decades. •The journalist, writes Hallin, "not the candidate or other 'newsmaker,' is the primary communicator." •Hallin observes that while news reporting from 1968 was more passive, "one did have a feeling that the campaign, as it appeared on television, was at its core important, that it was essentially a debate about the future of the nation. As sophisticated as it is, modern television news no longer conveys that sense of seriousness."

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JOURNALISM IN THE AGE OF TV AND THE INTERNET•Here's some information about how online journalism is changing journalism practices: •Many newspapers, such as the New York Times and the Miami Herald, are now fully integrating their online news divisions with their print divisions. The Herald and the Times both have a "Continuous News Desk" that operates 24/7, continuously updating stories.

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JOURNALISM IN THE AGE OF TV AND THE INTERNET•Online news divisions began as entirely separate divisions in most newspapers, with separate CEOs and separate headquarters. •Online journalists—younger twenty-somethings—had lower status than print reporters, weren't invited to editorial meetings, and often worked from offices on different floors or even (as with the Washington Post) in different parts of the city. •All that is rapidly changing, with the New York Times in many ways leading the way toward full integration.1

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JOURNALISM IN THE AGE OF TV AND THE INTERNET•Journalists at the Times are now expected to develop multimedia and adapt stories for online publication. •These developments speak volumes about the kinds of reporters newspapers will be hiring in the future: reporters who are versatile; who understand good reporting, good writing, and good video editing; and who can easily jump from a podcast to an interactive multimedia narrative to an in-depth investigative print story.``

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM•Defenders of American popular culture argue that because some aspects of our culture challenge authority, national boundaries, and outmoded traditions, they create an arena in which citizens can raise questions. •Supporters also argue that a universal popular culture creates a global village and fosters communication across national boundaries.

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A minister's son, an economics student at Princeton University, and a former reporter, Lee opened one of the first PR firms in the early 1900s with George Park•Lee quit the firm in 1906 to work for the Pennsylvania Railroad, which, following a rail accident, had hired him to help downplay unfavorable publicity•Lee's advice, however, was that Penn Railroad admit its mistake, vow to do better, and let newspapers in on the story•These suggestions ran counter to the then standard practice of hiring press agents to manipulate the media, yet Lee argued that an open relationship between business and the press would lead to a more favorable public image•In the end, Penn and subsequent clients, notably John D. Rockefeller, adopted Lee's successful strategies

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ADVERTISING INVADES SOCIAL MEDIA•As the Nielsen rating service says about online earned media, "Study after study has shown that consumers trust their friends and peers more than anyone else when it comes to making a purchase decision." •Social media are helping advertisers use such personal endorsements to further their own products and marketing messages—basically, letting consumers do the work for them

Magazines that have had an impact: •Rolling Stone: Fred Woodward became art director of Rolling Stone in 1987 and changed art design with his eclectic and powerful use of type as a primary design element. •Elle: Launched in 1985, Elle transformed American fashion photography from the all-American Condé Nast style to a vibrant, multicultural approach. The magazine's decision to use models of different ages, races, and shapes was considered daring.

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THE DOMINATION OF SPECIALIZATION•Magazines that have had an impact:•Spy: Like Elle, Spy, begun in the mid-1980s, had a huge impact on design and editorial innovations. Funny charts, "Separated at Birth" photo features (later made into paperback books), and splashy bits of color are now common in many magazines. Spy's hallmark snideness and irreverence also gave the mainstream media permission to be a bit more strident and cutting-edge. The magazine's approach was ultimately more appropriate in the 1980s; by the mid-1990s, moods had shifted, and the magazine folde

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Magazines that have had an impact:•Wired: Launched in 1993 as a member of the Condé Nast magazine group, Wired calls itself the "journal of record for the future." Focusing on people, companies, and ideas within the high-tech industries, Wired's splashy design has also taken magazine art direction to daring new levels. •Texas Monthly: Beginning in 1973, Texas Monthly has set the standard for regional magazines, with often groundbreaking articles on politics, the environment, industry, and education. The magazine calls itself (and it is) the "indispensable authority on the Texas scene."

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CONVENTIONAL PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES •Plain-Folks Pitch•Associates a product with simplicity•Volkswagen ("Drivers wanted"), General Electric ("We bring good things to life"), and Microsoft ("I'm a PC and Windows 7 was my idea") have each used slogans that stress how new technologies fit into the lives of ordinary people•In a way, the Facebook technique of sponsored stories fits this model, since it depends on friends' endorsements of products rather than the words or images of stars or athletes

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DISNEY AND GLOBAL EXPANSION•In the mid-1990s, Disney changed from a media company to a media conglomerate. •Through its purchase of ABC in 1995, Disney became the owner of the cable sports channels ESPN and ESPN2, and later expanded the brand with ESPNEWS, ESPN Classic, and ESPNU channels; ESPN The Magazine; ESPN Radio; and ESPN.go.com, beginning an era of sports monopolization. •In addition, it came to epitomize the synergistic possibilities of media consolidation; for example, Disney can produce an animated feature for both theatrical release and DVD distribution.

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DISNEY AND GLOBAL EXPANSION•With its ABC network, it can promote Disney movies and television shows on programs like Good Morning America. •A book version can be released through Disney's publishing arm, Disney Publishing Worldwide, and "the-making-of" versions can appear on cable's Disney Channel or ABC Family (now called Freeform). •Characters can become attractions at Disney's theme parks, which themselves have spawned Hollywood movies, such as the lucrative Pirates of the Caribbean franchise. •In New York City, Disney renovated several theaters and launched versions of classic and popular films as successful Broadway musicals.

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HEGEMONY•To argue that a particular view or value is common sense is often an effective strategy for stopping conversation and debate. •Yet common sense is socially and symbolically constructed and shifts over time. •For example, it was once common sense that the world was flat and that people who were not property-owning white males shouldn't be allowed to vote. •Common sense is particularly powerful because it contains no analytical strategies for criticizing elite or dominant points of view and therefore certifies class, race, or sexual orientation divisions or mainstream political views as natural and given.

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HEGEMONY•To understand why our society hasn't (until recently) participated in much public discussion about wealth disparity and salary gaps, it is helpful to understand the concept of hegemony. •The word hegemony has roots in ancient Greek, but in the 1920s and 1930s, Italian philosopher and activist Antonio Gramsci worked out a modern understanding of hegemony: how a ruling class in a society maintains its power—not simply by military or police force but more commonly by citizens' consent and deference to power.

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JOURNALISM IN THE AGE OF TV AND THE INTERNET•Between 1968 and 1988, the length of the average sound bite declined from forty-three to nine seconds. •According to Daniel Hallin, today's television journalists treat words more as raw materials to be edited, shifted around, combined with sounds and images, and reintegrated into a new narrative. •Besides words, accompanying visuals have also become shorter and are used more often. Instead of letting the interviewee dictate the interview's content, journalists take more control of the story (one reason the use of "experts" has increased).`

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PERFORMING PR•In addition, PR personnel (both PR technicians, who handle daily short-term activities, and PR managers, who counsel clients and manage activities over the long term) produce employee newsletters, manage client trade shows and conferences, conduct historical tours, appear on news programs, organize damage control after negative publicity, analyze complex issues and trends that may affect a client's future, manage Twitter and other social media accounts, and much more•Basic among these activities, however, are formulating a message through research, conveying the message through various channels, sustaining public support through community and consumer relations, and maintaining client interests through government relations

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PERFORMING PR•Public relations, like advertising, pays careful attention to the needs of its clients—politicians, small businesses, industries, and nonprofit organizations—and to the perspectives of its targeted audiences•Consumers and the general public, company employees, shareholders, media organizations, government agencies, and community and industry leaders•To do so, PR involves providing a multitude of services•Publicity, communication, public affairs, issues management, government relations, financial PR, community relations, industry relations, minority relations, advertising, press agentry, promotion, media relations, social networking, and propaganda

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PR ADAPTS FOR THE INTERNET AGE•A company or an organization's website has become the home base of public relations efforts•Companies and organizations can upload and maintain their media kits (including press releases, VNRs, images, executive bios, and organizational profiles), giving the traditional news media access to the information at any time•And because everyone can access these corporate websites, the barriers between the organization and the groups that PR professionals ultimately want to reach are broken down

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PR ADAPTS FOR THE INTERNET AGE•Historically, public relations practitioners have tried to earn news media coverage (as opposed to buying advertising) to communicate their clients' messages to the public•While this is still true, the Internet, with its instant accessibility, offers public relations professionals a number of new routes for communicating with the public`

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PR ADAPTS FOR THE INTERNET AGE•The web also enables PR professionals to have their clients interact with audiences on a more personal, direct basis through social media •Now people can be "friends" and "followers" of companies and organizations•Corporate executives can share their professional and personal observations and seem downright chummy through a blog •Executives, celebrities, and politicians can seem more accessible and personable through a Twitter feed•But social media's immediacy can also be a problem, especially for those who send messages into the public sphere without considering the ramifications

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PR DURING A CRISIS: TYLENOL•A1982 tragedy involving Tylenol pain-relief capsules resulted in seven people dying in the Chicago area after someone tampered with several bottles and laced them with poison•Discussions between the parent company, Johnson & Johnson, and its PR representatives focused on whether or not withdrawing all Tylenol capsules from store shelves might send a signal that corporations could be intimidated by a single deranged person•Nevertheless, Johnson & Johnson's chair, James E. Burke, and the company's PR agency, Burson-Marsteller (now Burson Cohn & Wolfe), opted for full disclosure to the media and the immediate recall of the capsules nationally, costing the company an estimated $100 million and cutting its market share in half

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PR DURING A CRISIS: TYLENOL•As part of its PR strategy to overcome the negative publicity and to restore Tylenol's market share, Burson-Marsteller tracked public opinion nightly through telephone surveys and organized satellite press conferences to debrief the news media•In addition, emergency phone lines were set up to take calls from consumers and health-care providers •When the company reintroduced Tylenol three months later, it did so with tamper-resistant bottles that were soon copied by almost every major drug manufacturer•Burson-Marsteller, which received PRSA awards for its handling of the crisis, found that the public thought Johnson & Johnson had responded admirably to the crisis and did not hold Tylenol responsible for the deaths•In less than three years, Tylenol had recaptured its former (and dominant) share of the market

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PRODUCT PLACEMENT•Product companies and ad agencies have become adept in recent years at product placement•Strategically placing ads or buying space in movies, TV shows, comic books, video games, blogs, and music videos so that products appear as part of a story's set environment

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PUBLIC RELATIONS•Public relations attempts to secure favorable media publicity (which is more difficult to control) to promote a company or a client•Public relations involves more complex messages that may evolve over time (e.g., a political campaign or a long-term strategy to dispel unfavorable reports about "fatty processed foods") and that may be transmitted to the public indirectly, often through the news media. ADVERTISING Advertising is controlled publicity that a company or an individual buys•Advertising uses simple and fixed messages (e.g., "our appliance is the most efficient and affordable") that are transmitted directly to the public through the purchase of ads

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REPORTING RITUALS AND THE LEGACY OF PRINT JOURNALISM•Here is a quote from a memo to Wall Street Journal staff titled "A Matter of Urgency" sent on May 19, 2010, from managing editor Robert Thomson: •"The scoop has never had more significance to our professional users, for whom a few minutes, or even seconds, are a crucial advantage whose value has increased exponentiall

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REPORTING RITUALS AND THE LEGACY OF PRINT JOURNALISM•The Internet and 24/7 cable news have certainly increased the pressure on journalists to constantly be reporting new stories or "scoops," whether they are of actual significance or not. •Ken Auletta, in his article "Non-Stop News" (New Yorker, January 25, 2010), notes that in a typical day NBC's White House correspondent, Chuck Todd, does eight to sixteen standup interviews for NBC or MSNBC, hosts his news show The Daily Rundown, tweets or posts on Facebook eight to ten times, and writes three to five blog posts.`

•By 2016, e-books accounted for 14 percent of the U.S. trade book market, and 33 percent of the adult fiction category. •Yet revenue and unit sales of e-books declined for the third year in 2016, suggesting a limit to reader demand for e-books and a resurgence in sales of printed books.

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CENSORSHIP AND BANNED BOOKS•Over time, the wide circulation of books gave many ordinary people the same opportunities to learn that were once available to only the privileged few. •However, as societies discovered the power associated with knowledge and the printed word, books were subjected to a variety of censors. •Imposed by various rulers and groups intent on maintaining their authority, the censorship of books often prevented people from learning about the rituals and moral standards of other cultures.

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INDEPENDENT BOOKSELLERS•As the superstores have fallen on hard times, an amazing thing has happened: independent bookstores have come back. •From 2009 to 2018, there has been an almost 40% increase in the number of independent bookstores. •A professor at the Harvard Business School says the success of independent bookstores are in the three Cs: •Community (responding to the distinct local needs of the place)•Curation (providing a thoughtfully selected inventory for customers)•Convening (making the store a place for meetings, reading groups, events, and even parties)

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cameraCONVENTIONAL PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES •Irritation Advertising•Used more in local TV and radio campaigns than in national ones•Creates product-name recognition by being annoying or obnoxious•Although both research and common sense suggest that irritating ads do not work very well, there have been exceptions•On the regional level, irritation ads are often used by appliance discount stores or local car dealers, who dress in outrageous costumes and yell at the camera

BOOKS AND THE FUTURE OF DEMOCRACY•As we enter the digital age, the book-reading habits of children and adults have become a social concern. •Books have played an important role not only in spreading the idea of democracy but also in connecting us to new ideas beyond our local experience. •The impact of our oldest mass medium—the book—remains immense. •Without the development of printing presses and books, the idea of democracy would be hard to imagine.

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contractsCONVENTIONAL PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES•Famous Person Testimonial •A product is endorsed by a well-known person•Famous endorsers include Justin Timberlake for Bud Light, Taylor Swift for Diet Coke, and Beyoncé for Pepsi•Athletes earn some of the biggest endorsement contracts

`CENSORSHIP AND BANNED BOOKS•Each year, the American Library Association (ALA) compiles a list of the most challenged books in the United States. •Unlike an enforced ban, a book challenge is a formal request to have a book removed from a public or school library's collection. •Common reasons for challenges include sexually explicit passages, offensive language, occult themes, violence, homosexual themes, promotion of a religious viewpoint, nudity, and racism. •Some of the most challenged books of the past decade include I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou, Forever by Judy Blume, the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling, and the Captain Underpants series by Dav Pilkey.

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TENSIONS BETWEEN PR AND THE PRESS•In 1932, Stanley Walker, an editor at the New York Herald Tribune , identified public relations agents as "mass-mind molders, fronts, mouthpieces, chiselers, moochers, and special assistants to the president." •Walker added that newspapers and PR firms would always remain enemies, even if PR professionals adopted a code of ethics (which they did in the 1950s) to "take them out of the red-light district of human relations." •Walker's tone captures the spirit of one of the most mutually dependent—and antagonistic—relationships in all of mass media

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Much of this antagonism, directed at public relations from the journalism profession, is historical•Journalists have long considered themselves part of a public service profession, and some regard PR as having emerged as a pseudo-profession created to distort the facts that reporters work hard to gather•Yet this antagonism belies journalism's dependence on public relations•Many editors, for instance, admit that more than half of their story ideas each day originate with PR people•The professions remain codependent: PR needs journalists for publicity, and journalism needs PR for story ideas and access

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ALTERNATIVE MODELS: PUBLIC JOURNALISM AND "FAKE" NEWS•In 2013, the Project for Excellence in Journalism released updated information about television journalism. The study found: •The average length of a TV news story remained steady from 2007 to 2012, at around 142 seconds. •Half of all local TV news stories in 2012 were less than thirty seconds long, and only a fifth were longer than one minute. •The amount of airtime devoted to sports, weather, and traffic increased to 40 percent in 2012. •Commentary and opinion were far more prevalent on cable news networks (63 percent of airtime) than straight news (37 percent). In 2012, CNN was the only cable news network to offer more reporting than commentary.

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EARLY MEDIA RESEARCH METHODS•Johnson explains: •There may indeed be more "negative messages" in the mediasphere today, as the Parents Television Council believes. But that's not the only way to evaluate whether our television shows or video games are having a positive impact. Just as important—if not more important—is the kind of thinking that you have to do to make sense of a cultural experience. . . . Today's popular culture may not be showing us the righteous path. But it is making us smarter. (p. 14)

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ALTERNATIVE MODELS: PUBLIC JOURNALISM AND "FAKE" NEWS•The Project for Excellence in Journalism (http://www.journalism.org) released a study in 2004 revealing the pressure that media outlets are facing, owing to the Internet and twenty-four-hour cable, to "tell the news" rather than "collect the news." In other words, the "added value" of context and thoughtfulness, both in print and broadcast, is diminishing.`

ALTERNATIVE MODELS: PUBLIC JOURNALISM AND "FAKE" NEWS•Here are some specific points from the study: •There is much more "news-gathering in the raw" (meaning live coverage), which leads to less fact-checking and contextualization. •Consumers and providers value speed and convenience, sometimes at the expense of accuracy. •Twenty-four-hour news operations pick five or so stories each morning and then recycle the same information throughout the day. Only 5 percent of stories on cable have new information, and two-thirds of the stories are repeated over and over.

ALTERNATIVE MODELS: PUBLIC JOURNALISM AND "FAKE" NEWS•Continuous on-air reports don't give correspondents any time to do any reporting. Perhaps fading context and thoughtfulness are leading people to turn away from news reading and viewership. •Students do not pay close attention to the news (unless you count The Daily Show with Trevor Noah). •Day-to-day cable news ratings have been flat since 2001 (1.4 million daytime, 2 million prime time).

ALTERNATIVE MODELS: PUBLIC JOURNALISM AND "FAKE" NEWS•The Big Three networks experienced a 34 percent drop in viewers between 1993 and 2004 (although solid investigative news reports like 60 Minutes continue to make substantial profits, which again points to the value of context in news). The network news decline has also been countered by a rise in Internet news readership. •Trust in the media has steadily declined.

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APPROACHES TO ORGANIZED PR"Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their publics." •To carry out this mutual communication process, the PR industry uses two approaches. •First, there are independent PR agencies whose sole job is to provide clients with PR services. •Second, most companies, which may or may not also hire independent PR firms, maintain their own in-house PR staffs to handle routine tasks, such as writing press releases, managing various media requests, staging special events, updating web and social media sites, and dealing with internal and external publics.

PRINT BOOKS MOVE ONLINE•Amazon has continued to refine its e-reader, and in 2011 it introduced the Kindle Fire, a color touchscreen tablet with web browsing, access to all the media on Amazon, and access to Amazon's Appstore. •Apps also have transformed the iPod Touch, the iPhone, and other smartphones into e-readers. •In 2010, Apple introduced the iPad, a color touchscreen tablet that quickly outsold the Kindle. •The immediate initial success of the iPad (introduced at a starting price of $499 and up) spurred other e-readers to drop their prices below $200.

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THE DOMINATION OF SPECIALIZATION•In the 1950s, businesses began to realize that teenagers were a potentially lucrative market segment, with more than $9 billion in disposable income to spend. •Rock and roll and movies were targeted at teens, and magazines began targeting them, too. In the first edition of 'Teen magazine in June 1957, the editors announced that their publication was "born into a generation that has finally come to recognize persons between the ages of 13 and 19 as a distinct cultural group." •By 2015, Seventeen maintained a circulation of two million.

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HE DOMINATION OF SPECIALIZATION•Surpassing even teen magazines, the fastest growing age-related magazine is AARP The Magazine.•AARP's magazine circulation of more than 22 million is the largest in the nation, dwarfing the next three combined. •The second largest magazine is Better Homes and Gardens (7.6 million subscribers). •The third and fourth most widely circulated are Game Informer Magazine (almost 6.9 million) and AAA Living (almost 5 million). •Other magazines with more than three million paid subscribers include Cosmopolitan, Family Circle, National Geographic, People, Sports Illustrated, Time, and Women's Day.

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Los Angeles Times staff writer Bob Baker had the following comments about AARP The Magazine, which is sent to every AARP member: •AARP is so huge that the organization shrugged off about 60,000 membership cancellations in 2003 by members who were angered by its support of a Medicare bill that added prescription drug benefits but partly privatized the system. •Baker also noted that baby boomers are not very good at renewing their membership. •Changing the name of the magazine from Modern Maturity to AARP The Magazine has helped. •AARP The Magazine has also hired editors from Utne Reader and Men's Health.

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CONVENTIONAL PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES •Snob-Appeal Approach •Attempts to persuade consumers that using a product will maintain or elevate their social status•Advertisers selling jewelry, perfume, clothing, and luxury automobiles often use snob appeal•For example, the pricey bottled water brand Fiji ran ads in Esquire and other national magazines that said, "The label says Fiji because it's not bottled in Cleveland" •Bandwagon Effect•Points out in exaggerated claims that everyone is using a particular product •Brands that refer to themselves as "America's favorite" or "the best" imply that consumers will be left behind if they ignore these products Hidden-Fear Appeal•Plays on consumers' sense of insecurity•Deodorant, mouthwash, and shampoo ads frequently invoke anxiety, pointing out that only a specific product could relieve embarrassing personal hygiene problems and restore a person to social acceptability

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CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT•Agencies say ads work best by slowly creating brand-name identities—by associating certain products over time with quality and reliability in the minds of consumers•Some economists, however, believe that much of the money spent on advertising is ultimately wasted because it simply encourages consumers to change from one brand name to another•Such switching may lead to increased profits for a particular manufacturer, but it has little positive impact on the overall economy

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CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT•Often the creative side of advertising finds itself in conflict with the research side•In the 1960s, for example, both Doyle Dane Bernbach (DDB) and Ogilvy & Mather downplayed research, instead championing the art of persuasion and what "felt right" •Both the creative and the strategic sides of the business acknowledge that they cannot predict with any certainty which ads and which campaigns will succeed

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM AND MOVIES•In the 1920s, the U.S. film industry became the leader in the worldwide film business; the images and stories of American films are well known in nearly every corner of the world. •But with major film production centers in places like India, China, Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Russia, and Nigeria, to what extent do U.S. films dominate international markets today? •Conversely, how often do international films get much attention in the United States?

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM•Although many indigenous forms of media culture—such as Brazil's telenovela, Jamaica's reggae, and Japan's anime—are extremely popular, U.S. dominance in producing and distributing mass media puts a severe burden on countries attempting to produce their own cultural products. •For example, American TV producers have generally recouped their production costs by the time their TV shows are exported. •This enables American distributors to offer these programs to other countries at bargain rates, undercutting local production companies that are trying to create original programs.

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM•Critics, however, believe that although American popular culture often contains protests against social wrongs, such protests "can be turned into consumer products and lose their bite. Protest itself becomes something to sell." •The harshest critics have also argued that American cultural imperialism both hampers the development of native cultures and negatively influences teenagers, who abandon their own rituals to adopt American tastes. •The exportation of U.S. entertainment media is sometimes viewed as "cultural dumping," because it discourages the development of original local products and value systems.

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM•On the other hand, American media are shaping the cultures and identities of other nations. •American styles in fashion and food, as well as media fare, dominate the global market—a process known as cultural imperialism. •Today, many international observers contend that the idea of consumer control or input is even more remote in countries inundated by American movies, music, television, and images of beauty. •For example, consumer product giant Unilever sells Dove soap with its "Campaign for Real Beauty" in the United States but markets Fair & Lovely products—a skin-lightening line—to poor women in India.``

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM•Perhaps the greatest concern regarding a global village is the cultural disconnection for people whose standards of living are not routinely portrayed in contemporary media. •About two-thirds of the world's population cannot afford most of the products advertised on American, Japanese, and European television. •Yet more and more of the world's populations are able to glimpse consumer abundance and middle-class values through television, magazines, and the Internet.

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CULTURAL IMPERIALISM•The influence of American popular culture has created considerable debate in international circles. •On the one hand, the notion of freedom that is associated with innovation and rebellion in American culture has been embraced internationally. •The global spread of media—and increased access to it—have made it harder for political leaders to secretly repress dissident groups, as police and state activity (such as the torture of illegally detained citizens) can now be documented digitally and easily dispatched by satellite, the Internet, and cell phones around the world.`

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EARLY MEDIA RESEARCH METHODS•Educational psychologist Jane Healy wrote Endangered Minds (1990), which posited that the rapid pace of television and other image-oriented media can impede brain growth and make children less able to concentrate and analyze information, and less able to think. •Her book quotes Jennings Bryant, a researcher at the University of Alabama: •One thing we do know is that [television] reduces what we call vigilance [the ability to remain actively focused on a task]. If they watch lots of fast-paced programs and then we give them things to do afterward such as reading or solving complex puzzles, their stick-to-itiveness is diminished; they're not as willing to stay with the task. Over time, with lots of viewing, you're going to have less vigilant children. This is especially critical with relatively young children—about three to five years seem to be particularly vulnerable. (p. 201)`

EARLY MEDIA RESEARCH METHODS•Healy also notes the following: •Studies show attention tends to wander when the material is seen either as "boring" or not readily understandable; then, when something salient happens, attention is drawn back. This conditioned pattern of sporadic, externally directed attention corresponds precisely with what teachers are reporting. In class or when doing homework, one can't just let the mind change channels or wander away when things become a bit difficult or boring. (p. 202)

EARLY MEDIA RESEARCH METHODS•Steven Johnson, author of the best-selling book Everything Bad Is Good for You (2005), discusses the impact of popular culture on young people and argues the following: •Popular culture has grown more engaging and intellectually demanding in recent years. •Young people are increasingly engaging with (or "exercising their minds" with) more and more sophisticated media content and are in turn becoming smarter, not dumber. Johnson refers to this "upward trend" as the sleeper curve, taken from Woody Allen's movie Sleeper, where in the year 2173 hot fudge is good for you. Johnson points to the cognitive advantages of increasingly complex video games, television narratives, and film narrativ

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EFFECTS OF THE PRINTING PRESS•The social and cultural transformations ushered in by the spread of printing presses and books cannot be overestimated. •As historian Elizabeth Eisenstein has noted, when people had the means and opportunity to learn for themselves by using maps, dictionaries, Bibles, and the writings of others, they could differentiate themselves as individuals; their social identities were no longer solely dependent on what their leaders told them or on the habits of their families, communities, or individuals; their social identities were no longer solely dependent on what their leaders told them or on the habits of their families, communities, or social class.

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EFFECTS OF THE PRINTING PRESS•The technology of printing presses permitted information and knowledge to spread outside local jurisdictions. •Gradually, individuals had access to ideas far beyond their isolated experiences, and this permitted them to challenge the traditional wisdom and customs of their tribes and leaders.

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ETHICS AND THE NEWS MEDIA•A National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (known as the Kerner Commission) studied racial violence and its media coverage after widespread rioting in 1967. •The commission found that •(1) news coverage doesn't create more violence•(2) coverage tends to overemphasize law-enforcement activities and minimize the underlying grievances•(3) the press refers to "Blacks" and "Black problems" but frequently does so as if Black individuals weren't part of the audience•The same problems resurfaced in the coverage of the 1992 Los Angeles riots.

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ETHICS AND THE NEWS MEDIA•Arthur Hayes, a scholar of media ethics and law, points out that we now have and need a "fifth estate": professionals, academics, and even comedians who serve as press critics and watch over whether journalists are doing their job as watchdogs over the government. •Hayes refers to Stephen Colbert's comedic skewering of President George H. Bush—as well as the press who covered his administration—at the White House Correspondents' Dinner in 2006.

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ETHICS AND THE NEWS MEDIA•Colbert told the elite assembly of politicians and journalists: •"Here's how it works. The President makes decisions. He's the decider. The press secretary announces those decisions, and you people of the press type those decisions down. Make, announce, type. Just put 'em through a spell check and go home. Get to know your family again. Make love to your wife. Write that novel you got kicking around in your head. You know, the one about the intrepid Washington reporter with the courage to stand up to the administration? You know, fiction." •Hayes writes: "Colbert scolded the White House press corps for failing to fulfill its widely acknowledged ethical principles: . . . its watchdog obligations and maintaining independence from those they cover."`

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ETHICS AND THE NEWS MEDIA•In the riots after the Rodney King verdict, when White Los Angeles police officers were acquitted for beating King, who was Black, the vast majority of those killed were African Americans and Latinos. •Yet the bulk of the coverage was given to the black-on-white beating of truck driver Reginald Denny, as videotaped by a helicopter news crew. •Although it was not often mentioned in the 1992 coverage, race-related riots have a long, ugly history in the United States, including brutal violence in East St. Louis and elsewhere in 1917; in Chicago, Charleston, Omaha, and Washington, D.C., in 1919; in Mobile, Beaumont, and Detroit in 1943; in Los Angeles in 1965; all over the country in 1967; and several times in the 1980s in Miami.

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HEALTH AND ADVERTISING•College students have been heavily targeted by alcohol ads, particularly by the beer industry •Although colleges and universities have outlawed "beer bashes" hosted and supplied directly by major brewers, both Coors and Miller still employ student representatives to help "create brand awareness" •These students notify brewers of special events that might be sponsored by and linked to a specific beer label HEALTH AND ADVERTISING•The images and slogans in alcohol ads often associate the products with power, romance, sexual prowess, or athletic skill•In reality, though, alcohol is a chemical depressant; it diminishes athletic ability and sexual performance, triggers addiction in roughly 10% of the U.S. population, and factors into many domestic abuse cases•One national study demonstrated "that young people who see more ads for alcoholic beverages tend to drink more"

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HEGEMONY •He explained that people who are without power—the disenfranchised, the poor, the disaffected, the unemployed, the exploited workers—do not routinely rise up against those in power because "the rule of one class over another does not depend on economic or physical power alone but rather on persuading the ruled to accept the system of beliefs of the ruling class and to share their social, cultural, and moral values." •Hegemony, then, is the acceptance of the dominant values in a culture by those who are subordinate to those who hold economic and political power.

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INFLUENCES OF TELEVISION AND FILM•There are two major facets in the relationship among books, television, and film: how TV can help sell books, and how books can serve as ideas for TV shows and movies. •Through TV exposure, books by or about talk-show hosts, actors, and politicians, such as Stephen Colbert, John Oliver, Barack and Michelle Obama, and Hillary Clinton, sell millions of copies—enormous numbers in a business in which selling 100,000 copies constitutes remarkable success. •In national polls conducted from the 1980s through today, nearly 30 percent of respondents said they had read a book after seeing a story about it or a promotion on television.

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NETFLIX•Netflix has changed TV culture. By releasing entire seasons of its own original programming and licensing series such as Breaking Bad, The Walking Dead, Nurse Jackie, Mad Men, and The Office, Netflix gave rise to the practice of binge-watching. •The key to Netflix's success has been providing excellent content and a superior user experience (easy access, reasonable price) that is being continuously improved. In doing so, not only did Netflix kill the video store, but it's in the process of killing regular broadcast and cable television.

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NETFLIX•Netflix itself argues that it is leading this transformation: •"People love TV content, but they don't love the linear TV experience, where channels present programs only at particular times on non-portable screens with complicated remote controls. Now Internet TV—which is on-demand, personalized, and available on any screen—is replacing the linear TV experience. Changes of this magnitude are rare. . . . The new era of Internet TV is likely to be very big and enduring also, given the flexibility and ubiquity of the Internet around the world.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINES•According to a June 2010 New York Times article, Issuu is "a Web platform where, for $19 a month, anyone can upload a PDF and instantly create an online magazine that looks like a print one." •Such innovations have allowed print magazines to transition online. •However, the online interior design magazine Lonny shows how online magazines can be much more for readers and advertisers. •The magazine's Web site directly links readers to more information about featured products (including where to buy them), making it an attractive option for advertisers.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINES•As with newspapers, magazines and their publishers are immersed in digital initiatives. Here are a few samples:•AARP The Magazine: Offers an online audio version of the magazine for blind consumers.•Lucky, Seventeen, GQ, Teen Vogue, Brides, Popular Science, and Maxim: offer mobile-specific scanning apps that enable 3-D involvement on every page.•Meredith Corporation: Offers a comparison online shopping service, making it the first publisher to cross the line between editorial content and closing sales.•Wired: Because cutting-edge technology is its main content, it's no surprise that Wired's Web site is robust, interactive, and very popular. The magazine was also one of the first to be available on the iPad. By 2015, Wired's online readership was more than 25 times the readership of its print magazine.

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINES•Magazines for touchscreen tablets capitalize on the mass customization trend. •Much like customized Google or Yahoo! home pages, magazines like Flipboard and AOL's Editions allow readers to pull content from a variety of sources—such as blogs, friends' Facebook and Twitter pages, and other magazine and news sites—and access it through a single, easy-to-use, magazine-like interface with social sharing capabilities. •These "magazines" update with the individual content providers, making it a hyperindividualized, personal experience and truly reinventing the magazine for the tablet. Yahoo! and Google are also working on their own social magazine apps. (Google tried to buy Flipboard, but its offer was refused.)

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THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN AMERICAN MAGAZINES•New platforms present further challenges for magazines as they try to maintain revenue while keeping up with new ways to deliver content. •Seventeen became the first magazine to seek followers on Snapchat in 2013. •By 2015, three million readers per day were viewing Cosmopolitan via Snapchat Discover.•In early 2016, the magazines had nearly one trillion likes/followers on social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Google+, Instagram, and Pinterest. •With 420 million page-likes, Facebook lead the way.

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THE INFLUENCE OF VISUAL DESIGN•The popularity of MTV's visual style started a trend in the 1980s to license hit songs for commercial tie-ins•By the twenty-first century, a wide range of short, polished musical performances and familiar songs were routinely used in TV ads to encourage consumers not to click the remote control•Train (Samsung)•The Shins (McDonald's)•LMFAO (Kia Motors)•Louis Armstrong (Apple iPhone)

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•The publishing of these documents has brought down much official wrath upon WikiLeaks and its editor in chief, Julian Assange. •Politicians ranging from former Vice President Joe Biden to former Republican Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich have used words like "terrorist" and "traitor" to define Assange and WikiLeaks (although how Assange, a citizen of Australia, could be a traitor to the United States hasn't ever really been explained).

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•Assange himself was arrested in early December 2010 in Great Britain based on sexual assault charges filed in Sweden by two women he allegedly met at a seminar. •As extradition is contested in the British courts, Assange and his supporters claim that the charges are politically motivated. •They also say that his greatest fear is extradition from Sweden to the United States, where he fears being sent away to the Guantanamo Bay detention facility in Cuba.

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•Here are some of the highlights from the organization's 2015 report: •Many countries are using bans on blasphemy and sacrilege to silence political opposition to the ruling party. •Violence against reporters at protests is increasing. •Although Nordic countries continue to be the friendliest to the press, Europe as a whole continues to fall in the index, indicating the possible unsustainability of the "European Model." •Security is the grounds most often given by governments for silencing media. •Control of media is increasingly being used as a weapon of war, whether through overcoverage or news blackout. •Fifteen of the twenty worst ranked countries saw their scores fall.

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•In 2013, Reporters without Borders reported the following: •Many countries involved in the "Arab Springs," such as Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia, remain at the bottom of the index because the political instability resulting from their regime changes has created a dangerous environment for journalists. •The United States ranked thirty-second, up from forty-seventh in the prior ranking. •Reporters without Borders summed up 2013 this way: •"The ranking of most countries is no longer attributable to dramatic political developments. This year's index is a better reflection of the attitudes and intentions of governments towards media freedom in the medium or long term."

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•Although WikiLeaks does not reveal the names of its sources, an investigation by the U.S. government resulted in May 2010 in the arrest of Pfc. Chelsea (previously Bradley) Manning, who was accused of leaking U.S. diplomatic cables, U.S. military video, and field intelligence reports that were published by WikiLeaks. •She was convicted of several charges in August 2013; her sentence was commuted by President Barack Obama in January 2017.

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•In June 2011, on the fortieth anniversary of the publishing of the Pentagon Papers in the press, Daniel Ellsberg, the man who leaked the papers, defended Manning. •The secrets that Ellsberg revealed about the government lying to the public about the Vietnam War were much more highly classified than the documents allegedly revealed by Manning, yet the charges against Ellsberg were ultimately dismissed by a trial judge. •Ellsberg said in a statement, "If Bradley Manning did what he's accused of, then he's a hero of mine. . . . I wish I could say that our government has improved its treatment of whistle-blowers in the years since the Pentagon Papers."

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THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•The annual reports on press freedom prepared by Reporters without Borders "lists the worst violations in repressive countries, including major culprits North Korea, Eritrea, Cuba and Turkmenistan, but also looks at democracies, where progress needs to be made too." •The United States ranked forty-fifth in the world in press freedom in 2018.`

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•Officially launched in 2007, WikiLeaks refers to itself as a media organization and the whistleblowers who share information as their journalists. Here is its manifesto from its Web site (http://wikileaks.org): •Our goal is to bring important news and information to the public. We provide an innovative, secure and anonymous way for sources to leak information to our journalists (our electronic drop box). One of our most important activities is to publish original source material alongside our news stories so readers and historians alike can see evidence of the truth. We are a young organisation that has grown very quickly, relying on a network of dedicated volunteers around the globe.

THE ORIGINS OF FREE EXPRESSION AND A FREE PRESS•WikiLeaks has made worldwide headlines many times over since 2007 with its publication of formerly secret documents from a number of governments and corporate entities around the world, including hundreds of thousands of documents from the U.S. State Department and the U.S. military. •Most recently, some Democrats have blamed Hillary Clinton's loss in the 2016 presidential election on revelations made by WikiLeaks from e-mails hacked from the account of a key Clinton campaign official.

CENSORSHIP AND BANNED BOOKS•Political censors sought to banish "dangerous" books that promoted radical ideas or challenged conventional authority. •In various parts of the world, some versions of the Bible, Karl Marx's Das Kapital (1867), The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965), and Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses (1989) have all been banned at one time or another. •In fact, one of the triumphs of the Internet is that it allows the digital passage of banned books into nations where printed versions have been outlawed.

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•For example, a 2015 episode of Modern Family was told entirely through a character's MacBook Pro and apps filmed on Apple devices, though the idea came from the show rather than from Apple. •In 2013, the Superman movie Man of Steel had the most product placements ever for a film up to that time, with two-hundred-plus marketing partners in deals worth $160 million, including those with Hardee's, Gillette, Sears, Nikon, Nokia, 7-Eleven, IHOP, and the National Guard. In 2005, watchdog organization Commercial Alert asked both the FTC and the FCC to mandate that consumers be warned about product placement on television. •Although the FTC rejected the petition, the FCC proposed product placement rules, but it had still not approved them by the summer of 2018. •In contrast, the European Union approved product placement for television in 2007 but required programs to alert viewers of such paid placements. •In Britain, for example, the letter P must appear in the corner of the screen at commercial breaks and at the beginning and end of a show to signal product placements.