Chemistry
ideal gas constant [or molar gas constant; or universal gas constant; prompt on R]
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imines [accept Schiff bases until "Wolff" and grudgingly prompt afterwards]
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indoles [or equivalents like indole derivatives]
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isoprenes (accept methylbutadiene or 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene before it's mentioned)
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isotope effects
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keto-esters [prompt on esters or ketones or carbonyls]
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ketone
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ketone(s)
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sulfuric acid [or H2SO4 before mentioned; do not accept “sulfurous acidâ€]
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supercritical fluid
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superfluid (accept equivalents)
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surface tension
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surfactant
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terpenoids (accept terpenes, accept isoprenoids before mention of isoprene, after which prompt on it)
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thiols (accept mercaptans before "mercury" is mentioned; accept sulfhydryls until "hydrosulfide")
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thiols (also accept mercaptans before it's mentioned)
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thiols (or mercaptans)
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van der Waals Equation of State
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van der Waals gas law or equation of state
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van't Hoff equation
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van't Hoff factor
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vanadium
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xenon
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ylides
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zeolites
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alkanes or paraffins
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alkene
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amine (accept amino group)
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amino acids
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ammonia [or NH3 before mentioned]
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buffer
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carboxylic acids
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cobalt
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codeine
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crystal defects [prompt on crystals until "lattice"]
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cyclohexane
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cyclohexane [accept cyclohexanone before “complete†in first sentence]
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cyclopentadiene (accept early C5H6)
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cyclopropane
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deuterium
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epoxides
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hydrazine
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hydrochloric acid [or HCl; or muriatic acid]
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hydrogen bonds
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hydrogen bonds [accept word forms like hydrogen bonding; or H-bonds; prompt on hydrogen or H]
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sublimation (accept word forms)
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the entropy (prompt on S)
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This law, first postulated in 1833, was used to prove that ozone has the formula O3 (oh-three). Currently it is used in isotope separation by taking advantage of the fact that different isotopes have different molecular weights, and therefore different densities. FTP, name this this law which states that the rate of effusion or diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density.
Dulong and Petit's law or Dulong-Petit law
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Grignard reagents [prompt on alkyl magnesium halides or aryl magnesium halides]
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Hartree-Fock procedure (accept Self-Consistent Field procedure until "self-consistent" is mentioned)
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Helium
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Helmholtz energy
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John Dalton
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Titration (accept Indicator before "process")
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hydrogen bonds [or H-bonds]
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nitrogen fixation (prompt on Haber process or Haber-Bosch process)
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nonpolar (do not accept "polar")
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phosphorescence (do not accept or prompt on "fluorescence" or "phosflourescence")
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photorespiration
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pinacol [accept pinacol coupling until "Prins"]
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polyethylene (accept polyethene or ethylene resin)
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 second law of thermodynamics
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In plasmas, the ambipolar version of this phenomenon is inversely proportional to the collision frequency, while the classical form is directly proportional, and is a random-walk process. A semi-empirical formula can be used to describe the Bohn version, while classical cases are governed by Fick's laws and Graham's law. FTP, what is this process in which gases mix due to the random motions of their molecules?
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In the Noyori [3+2] reaction, a compound containing two atoms of this element and nine carbonyl groups is used to generate cyclopentadienones. In some bacteria, a specific type of chelating agent known as a siderophore complexes with ions of this element, and its levels in the blood can be assayed by measuring FR5RI. Mohr's salt contains a central atom of this element, and seven atoms of it are found in every molecule of Prussian blue. Pauson and Kealy found this element coordinated to two cyclopentadiene molecules in the first example of a metallocene, and catalase contains four atoms of it coordinated to a certain tetrapyrrole. FTP, name this metal, which is found coordinated to porphyrin in myoglobin and hemoglobin.
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Reactions that proceed from two competing mechanisms may not follow this principle. Related to the Maxwell Distribution Law by a factor of the exponential of Avogadro's Number, the assumption that the collision rate and steric factor will remain constant produces this equation's namesake pre-exponential factor. This in turn determines the units of the rate constant. FTP, name this kinetic equation relating the temperature and activation energy of a reaction, named for a Swedish chemist.
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The Beckmann differential thermometer is based on this principle, whose namesake was memorialized in a speech by van't Hoff in 1902. A mixture of ethanol and water will positively deviate from it, while a mixture of trichloromethane and ethoxyethane will result in a negative deviation. It serves as one of the theoretical bases for fractional distillation, and solutions that obey it are said to be ideal. FTP, name this law which can be stated as P equals X times P-sub-zero, indicating that the vapor pressure of a solution is lowered by the addition of solutes to a solvent.
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The STRIDE algorithm for secondary protein structure uses this function to model hydrogen bond geometry and it is also used in the lattice of atoms in a bubble raft. For situations requiring a more accurate model, the Stockmayer equation or Moller-Plesset perturbation theory is used in its place, but it is often used for noble gas modeling due to its simplicity. The equation for it includes epsilon, representing the depth of the potential well, and sigma, the value for which it is equal to zero. FTP, identify this potential which contains a 12th power repulsive term and a sixth power attractive term, and which models both the attractive van der Waals forces and the repulsive Pauli forces between neutral atoms and molecules.
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The most common methods for their preparation are treatment of halohydrins with aqueous base, and oxidation of alkenes with peroxycarboxylic acids. The simplest member is used as a chemical sterilant, and its reaction with Grignard reagents is a convenient way to lengthen a carbon chain by two atoms. Their high strain makes them highly reactive, and they undergo ring-opening reactions with a variety of nucleophiles. Containing an oxygen atom in a three-member ring, FTP, name these cyclic ethers.
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Their binding capabilities are used in affinity chromatography, when one is attached to a gel and the resulting compound is used to target a particular solute. Attachments to the central atom can be unidentate or bidentate, but the multiple bonds found in polydentate forms create an aromatic structure called a chelate. FTP, identify this term for an atom or molecule that serves as the electron-pair donor to a usually metallic central element.
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These can be synthesized by ozonolysis of an alkene with a vinylic hydrogen or by treating an ester with sodium aluminum hydride. Blue copper sulfate is reduced to a red-colored copper oxide when these compounds are present in the Benedict Test. Treatment with Tollens' reagent converts them into carboxylic acids. Classically deriving from the dehydrogenation of alcohols, FTP, name these organic compounds which end in a terminal carbonyl group.
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They can be formed by reacting ketones with hydrazoic acid in the Schmidt reaction, or from the Willgerodt Rearrangement by reacting an aryl alkyl ketone with an ammonium polysulfide. Cyclic ones are formed in the Beckmann rearrangement, and their hydrolysis is made more difficult due to contributions from a secondary resonance form. The Hoffman rearrangement converts a primary one of these into a primary amine with one fewer carbon atoms, and they are formed by reacting a carboxylic acid with an amine, as in protein synthesis. For 10 points, name these compounds with a carbonyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom.
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This class of materials can be used to trap micrometeorites in outer space before they are burnt up by the earth's atmosphere, and transparent tiles formed from it can take the place of compressed gases or low-density liquids in Cherenkov detectors. Five times more effective as insulators than polystyrene, liquid carbon dioxide was used instead of alcohol during the production process after a factory accident in 1984. FTP, identify these materials discovered in the 1930s when chemist Samuel Kristler attempted to dry wet silica gels without shrinking them.
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This statement does not apply to relaxation-controlled swelling processes and polymers which deviate from it also deviate from Fujita's free-volume theory. The Fokker-Planck equation reduces to this in homogenous systems. The man who discovered this relation later formulated a principle used in physiology to measure cardiac output. The Stokes-Einstein relation can be used to determine one parameter and if concentration does not change with time, one reduces to a Laplace equation. This statement actually encompasses two different relations, one which applies in steady-state conditions and another which applies in cases where concentration gradient changes over time. To determine exchange rates of gases across membranes, it is often paired with Graham's Law. FTP, identify these laws of diffusion named for a German.
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This substance is key to the Clemmensen reduction and the transformation of nitro to amino groups. It handily removes boiler scale and helps recover zinc from galvinized iron. It also kills bacteria, fungi, and viruses in both its non-flammable gaseous form and as a colorless, acrid liquid. Though insoluble in hydrocarbons, it reacts with all metals except mercury and the noble metals. In the presence of an oxidizing agent, it evolves a respiratory irritant, and with metals, it produces hydrogen gas. With a molecular weight of 36.46 grams per mole, FTP, name this monoprotic strong acid with chemical formula HCl.
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This substance was used in a tracer in a 1950 paper whose authors included JA Bassham and his graduate advisor. One source of it is the Clinton pile where ammonium nitrate is irradiated and the product is shipped through barium carbonate. The existence of this substance was demonstrated by Ruben and Kamen, while Libby helped develop a notable application. It is produced in the atmosphere when cosmic ray neutrons collide with nitrogen. The resulting heavy product is then incorporated into organic compounds thanks to photosynthesis. It has a half-life of 5,730. For 10 points, name this isotope of carbon used in radiometric dating that has two more neutron than carbon-12.
for 10 points - the law that states the entropy of a system approaches zero as its temperature approaches zero.
This theorem states that, as the thermodynamic temperature of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium approaches zero, the changes in both the Helmholtz function and the internal energy in an isothermal process tend to zero. Eugene Simon reformulated this lemma from the restrictive form just given, which is known as the new heat theorem, into a statement whose clear consequence is that it is impossible to reduce the temperature of a system to absolute zero by a finite number of thermodynamic cycles. Also called Nernst's heat theorem, name
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Tilden measured it for elemental metals, and the labs of Atake, Hohen, and Olsen have all made recent measurements for fullerenes. A 1907 paper by Drude disagrees with the ion rule devised by Neumann and Kopp, and described the phenomenon in terms of three quantum oscillators. Joseph Black noted that it was roughly proportional to mass, although the effect of phonons is more pronounced around the Debye temperature, making the theory that the atoms of all simple bodies share the same value of this quantity less applicable. It is measured in SI units of joules per kilogram Kelvin, though its measurement in calories per gram degree Celsius is also common. FTP, name this property of a material that quantifies the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance one degree compared to water.
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To explain this molecule's dielectric alpha-relaxation, a model explaining its torsional and longitudinal interactions via topological twistons has been developed. Pechmann first produced it accidentally through the heating of diazomethane, but the first industrially viable approach was developed by Fawcett and Gibson. A catalytic system based on metallocenes was developed in 1976, although more often the Phillips catalyst or one based on titanium halides, the Ziegler catalyst, is used to produce the high density type of this macromolecule. FTP, identify this chemically inert polymer most often used in packaging, whose monomer is the simplest alkene.
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Tris(o-phenylenedioxy)cyclotriphosphazine can induce a shift to this structure in other molecules by promoting clathration. Martensitic transitions to this structure occur in shape metal alloys, and coarse-grained metals with this structure are prone to deformation twinning. Compression along the C-axis in iron and zinc causes them to deviate more severely from the ideal form of this structure than magnesium, which has a nearly perfect c/a ratio of 1.624. Because their axes are not orthogonal, these crystal structures are conventionally described by a four-axis system, Bravais-Miller indices. Like the cubic system, this system has a close-packing crystal structure with a packing factor of 0.74. For 10 points, name this crystal system used by hematite and graphite in which each atom has twelve equidistant neighbors.
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Two-dimensional applications of this technique include J-resolved, which accounts for J-coupling; and COSY, which relies on the application of two 90-degree pulses to a spin system. Its occurrence relies on the strength of the magnetic field, the frequency of absorption, and the gyromagnetic ratio of the proton in question. First observed in 1946 by Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell, this phenomenon is based on the precession of a proton as it is exposed to two magnetic fields, thereby indicating the presence of particular compounds in its namesake spectroscopy. FTP, identify this chemistry phenomenon that forms the basis for MRI.
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Typically a strong base such as NaOH or KOH is used in this reaction, and dehydration of its namesake products tends to give a conjugated system known as an enal. The hydroxide first removes the acidic alpha-hydrogen, which results in an enolate. The enolate then attacks the starting aldehyde, producing an alkoxide that deprotonates a water molecule and creates the beta-hydroxyaldehyde product. FTP, identify this condensation reaction, the simplest of which produces ethanal, named for the two compounds combined in its product.
identify this equation that relates the reaction quotient and number of moles in a reaction to the electrochemical cell potential.
Under standard conditions, this equation is usually simplified by noting that the ideal gas constant times the temperature divided by Faraday's constant is approximately equal to 0.0257 at 25 degrees Celsius. Analysis using this equation in dilute aqueous solutions assumes that the water is pure and that the reaction quotient depends only on the chemicals in the redox reaction. For 10 points
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Using it, a chemist can calculate via the phase rule the possibility of a reaction occurring spontaneously. Synthesizing the earlier work of Guldberg and Waage in their law of mass action and Gibb's description of chemical thermodynamics, its inventor served as a consultant on shell casings during World War I. FTP, name the principle stating that when a strain is placed on a system in equilibrium, readjustment occurs in the direction that most effectively relieves the strain, named for the Frenchman who discovered it in 1888.
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Using the kinetic gas theory, its value was first approximated by Loschmidt, and it is still sometimes called the Loschmidt number in Germany. Jean Baptiste Perrin gave it its current name and estimated its value using Brownian motion, but modern methods of calculating it rely on x-ray diffraction. It is equal to the ideal gas constant divided by Boltzmann's constant, as well as the Faraday constant divided by the elementary charge, and it can also be considered a conversion from microscopic units like atomic mass units to grams. FTP, what is this number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12, named after an Italian chemist, and given the approximation 6.022 x 1023?
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Viewed as a sequence of close-packed planes, this lattice corresponds to a stacking order of ABABAB, etc., so it has a comparatively high stacking fault. Due to the poor geometric distribution of slip systems, crystals of this Bravais lattice type are generally more susceptible to deformation by twinning. Titanium below 882°C ["degrees Celsius"], zirconium below 863°C, cadmium and berylium all have this crystal structure. Crystals of this type are characterized using four Miller-Bravais indices, rather than three. FTP, identify this non-rectangular lattice of best possible compactification.
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When calculating this value in situ at conditions other than standard temperature and pressure, it may be helpful to use one of several Lewis-Perkin equations, since these give corrections to the K-sub-fifteen ratio for which it is defined. Anchialine caves may become stratified with respect to this value, which may create euxinic conditions when combined with anoxia. At equilibrium, isopycnal diagrams may be generated by equalizing this value with temperature. Excessive warming and confinement cause it to rise locally, resulting in dense thermohaline currents such as the North Atlantic Deep Current, and this value climaxes at the center of mid-ocean gyres. FTP, name this oceanographic parameter measured relative to a potassium chloride standard according to electrical conductivity, the measure of the dissolved constituents in water.
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When reacted with a nitrile, they produce an imine anion that can be hydrolyzed into a ketone, and they can cause nucleophilic ring opening of epoxides. Pouring a solution of them over dry ice followed by protonation results in carboxylic acids, which will not form addition products with these. One of their most common uses is reacting with aldehydes and ketones to form secondary and tertiary alcohols, respectively. Because they essentially act as carbanions, they can be protonated by weak acids to yield alkanes. FTP name these organometallic reagents that are formed by reacting an alkyl halide with magnesium, named for their French discoverer.
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When reacted with an NH group and two R groups, they form enamines; when reacted with NH2OH they form oximes; and when reacted with hydrogen cyanide they form cyanohydrins. When deoxygenated by zinc they undergo the Clemmensen reduction, and when deoxygenated by a hydrazine they undergo the Wolf-Kishner reduction. When reacted with Grignards, they are reduced to secondary or tertiary alcohols. FTP, name this organic functional group that consists of a carbonyl bonded to two R groups and whose simplest member is acetone.
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When reacted with hydroxylamine it forms an oxime and when reduced by a sodium amalgam it is converted into isopropyl alcohol. Not surprisingly, the chief commercial means of producing this chemical is by catalytic dehydrogenation of isopropanol. This effective solvent has a chemical formula of CH3COCH3, and is also known as 2-propanone. FTP, name this organic compound, the active ingredient in nail-polish remover and the simplest of the ketones.
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Whereas the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction produces an alcohol, Oppenauer oxidation results in a compound with this functional group. Dithianes and dithiolanes can be used to protect this functional group, which can be then be restored with the Corey-Seebach reaction, although a more common approach to protection uses alcohols and an acid catalyst to create hemiacetals and acetals. An oxygen atom can be added adjacent to this functional group via Baeyer-Villiger oxidation, resulting in esters and lactones. For 10 points, name this functional group found in carboxylic acids, ketones, and aldehydes, a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom.
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While liquids such as hydrogen sulfide obey it, exceptions exist due to the presence of intraliquid structure; such substances include methane and water. Predicted by the Boltzmann relation, which states that entropy increases during phase changes, it allows the heat of vaporization to be estimated from boiling temperatures. With an approximate value of 90 joules per Kelvin mole, FTP, identify this rule of thermodynamics that states that most liquids have the same entropy of vaporization.
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Wilkinson's catalyst is one, as is Zeise's salt. Hemoglobin and vitamin B12 are examples of this class of compounds, the former of iron and the latter of cobalt. They are often brightly colored, as explained by the crystal field theory and can consist of either high-spin or low-spin complexes. FTP, name this class of compounds in which a central metal atom is bound by multiple ligands.
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With Cobb, the namesake of this reaction characterized the reaction of quinone and hydrochloric acid, and cyclopentenone undergoes this reaction with thiols and GSH in biological systems. Ochiai and Tada developed a tandem version of it with a carbene rearrangement, and a more famous variation uses a silyl enol ether and is named for Mukaiyama. Chiral ammonium salts are used to force the reaction to favor the "Syn" product produced by this reaction, known as its asymmetric version. This reaction is combined with an intramolecular aldol reaction to create a six-membered ring in the Robinson annulation. FTP, name this reaction which adds a namesake donor to an alpha-beta unsaturated ketone, named for an American.
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With Max Delbruck he developed a theory of molecular complementarity in antibody-antigen reactions. His theory of "directed valence" grew from his early work, in which he introduced the concept of hybrid orbitals and developed an empirical definition of electronegativity. His main ideas were collected in 1939's The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and won him his first Nobel Prize. FTP, who was this chemist who won a second Nobel in 1962 for his campaign against nuclear testing?
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With chemical formula C18H21NO3, its chemical name is (5-alpha, 6-alpha)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3. With an effects ceiling estimated at 7mg/kg, it is synthesized from morphine via the methylation of the hydroxyl group found on the second non-aromatic ring, and its antidote is Naloxone HCl. Found in cough syrups not containing DMT and Tylenol 1 and 3, this is, FTP, what opiate pain-killer that is refined into hydrocodone and oxycodone and converted into morphine in the brain?
Aldosterone
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Alkyllithium compounds [Do NOT accept "Grignard reagents" at any point in the question]
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Amedeo Avogadro
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Antione Lavoisier
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Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
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Argon
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Arne Tiselius
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Arrhenius Equation
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Arrhenius equation
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Arsenic
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Auger effect (accept early autoionization)
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Avogadro's Number
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Avogadro's number [accept Avogadro's constant; prompt on the numerical answer]
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Azides
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Baeyer-Villiger oxidation
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Barium
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Boltzmann's constant
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Boron
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Boron [accept B until mentioned]
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Boyle-Mariotte Law
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CMR spectroscopy or Carbon NMR or Carbon-13 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy
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Canizzarro reaction
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Cannizaro Reaction
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Cannizzaro reaction
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Carbon 14 [or C14]
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Carl Wilhelm Scheele
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Chromium
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Claisen condensation
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Claisen condensation (or Claisen reaction)
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Cobalt [prompt on Co]
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Cooper pairs
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Cope elimination
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Cope rearrangement
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Copper
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Corey (Robert Brainard Corey and Elias James Corey)
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Corey [accept Robert Brainard Corey or Elias James Corey]
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Cyclohexane
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DMSO (or Dimethyl Sulfoxide before mentioned)
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Debye-Hückel equation
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Debye-Hückel equation/theory
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Dewar flask or vacuum flask or Thermos flask
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Diels-Alder reaction
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Diels-Alder reaction (Accept: diene synthesis)
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Diels-Alder reaction (accept diene synthesis on early buzz)
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Diesel engine or Diesel cycle
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Emil Fischer
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Emil Hermann Fischer
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Friedrich August Kekule
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Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald
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Friedrich Wohler
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Fritz Haber
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Fugacity
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Gibbs Free Energy
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Gibbs free energy (or Gibbs function or Gibbs potential function; prompt on "free energy" or "G" or "g")
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Gibbs free energy (or Gibbs potential)
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Gibbs free energy (prompt on "G")
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Gibbs phase rule (prompt Gibbs)
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Gibbs' Phase Rule (or just Gibbs after "phase rule")
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Gibbs-Duhem equation [prompt on Gibbs' phase rule]
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Gibbs-Duhem equation [prompt on partial answer]
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Gibbs-Marangoni effect [or Marangoni convection]
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Gilbert Newton Lewis
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Gilman reagent
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Glucose (accept Fischer's Experiment on early buzz)
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Graham's Law
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Graphene
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Helmholz free energy
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Henderson-Hasselbach equation
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Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
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Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
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Henri le Chatelier
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Henry's Law
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Hess' First Law [accept Law of Constant Heat Summation before "summation"]
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Hess' law
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Hess' law [accept law of constant heat summation before it is mentioned]
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Hunsdiecker Reaction
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Hunsdiecker-Borodin reaction [or Borodin-Hunsdiecker reaction; accept early Borodin reaction]
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Hückel's rule
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Joseph Priestley
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Josiah Willard Gibbs
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Joule-Thomson effect or Joule-Kelvin effect
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Joule-Thomson or Joule-Kelvin effect
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Lennard-Jones potential
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London dispersion forces (prompt on "van der Waals forces" until mentioned)
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Lord Kelvin or Baron Kelvin of Largs or William Thomson
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Michael addition
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Michael addition or Michael reaction
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Michael addition or reaction
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Neoprene [or polychloroprene]
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Nernst equation
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Nitrogen Fixation (prompt on "ammonia synthesis" if given on "Haber-Bosch")
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Peter Debye or Petrus Josephus Wilhelmus Debije
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Phosgene
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Phosphorus [accept P until mentioned]
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Purines
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SN2 Reaction [or bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (accept in any order)]
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Sir Humphry Davy
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Solvay process
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Stanislao Cannizzaro
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Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle [or citric acid cycle before mentioned; or TCA/tricarboxylic acid cycle]
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Tay-Sachs disease/disorderÂ
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Tollens' reagent (accept ammoniacal silver nitrate before it is mentioned)
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Wallace Hume Carothers
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Wolf-Kichener reduction
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abscisic acid (or abscissin; accept dormin before it's mentioned)
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acetone or dimethyl ketone or 2-propanone or beta-ketopropane or The Secret Ingredient in Paul Litvak's "Moose Slayer" Moonshine
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acetone or dimethyl ketone or propan-2-one or beta-ketopropanone (accept early buzz of 2-propanone)
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actinides or actinoids
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aerogels
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alcohol
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alcohols [or OH; or hydroxyl][to be edited by JV]
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aldehyde
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alkene or olefine
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alkenes [accept olefin]
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alkenes [accept olefins]
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alkynes
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alpha helix
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amines
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amphoterism [or amphotericness or amphiprotism or amphiproticness]
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anhydrides (or acid anhydrides)
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antiferromagnetism
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antimony
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aromaticity
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aromaticity or aromatic
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arsenic
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arsenic [or As]
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azeotrope
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azeotropes
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azide
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azide or azido
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azides
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barbituates (correct spelling is barbiturate)
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base
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benzene
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benzene [prompt on C6H6 before read]
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benzene [prompt on C6H6]
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boron
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bromine
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buckminsterfullerenes [or 'bucky balls']
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butane
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caffeine
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calcite
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calcium ions or Ca2+ (prompt on "calcium")
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calorimeter [accept calorimetry]
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carbanion
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carbanions
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carbocations
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carbonyl
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carbonyl group (do not accept metal carbonyl)
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carbonyl group [do not accept or prompt on "aldehyde" or "ketone" as every clue is about the group itself and not a compound containing it]
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cesium
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change in Gibbs free energy
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chelate
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chelates [accept chelating agent]
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chemical activity
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chemical equilibrium
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chemical potential
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chirality
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colligative properties
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colloid
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colloids
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convection [or convective flow; accept other word forms]
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cooperativity [prompt on early "allostery" or similar answers]
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coordination compound or complex
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coordination compounds
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coordination compounds or complexes
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cracking [accept catalytic cracking; prompt "refining petroleum" and equivalents]
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crown ethers (prompt on ethers)
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crown ethers [or crown compounds]
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cyclic
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cyclization
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cyclizations
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cyclohexane (accept early C6H12)
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cyclohexane (prompt on C6H12)
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dielectric constant or relative permittivity
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dienes
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diffusion
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dimerization (accept word forms; do not accept heterodimerization as all of the examples refer to homodimerization; accept crosslinking until "XerCD" is read)
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diols (or accept glycol before mentioned)
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diprotic acids
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elastomers
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electrolysis
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electrolytes
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electron capture [prompt on K-capture]
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electron orbitals (accept molecular orbitals before "approximation")
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electronegativity
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electrophoresis
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electrospray ionization
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elimination reactions (accept E2 or E1 until "two mechanisms")
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enantiomers
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enols
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enthalpy
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entropy
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epoxides or oxiranes
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ethylene [accept C2H4 until mentioned; accept ethene]
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formaldehyde (accept early methanal)
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formaldehyde [accept methanal on early buzz]
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free radicals
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fugacity
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fullerenes (do not accept or prompt on buckminsterfullerene)
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galactose
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gas chromatography or gas-liquid chromatography
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germanium
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glycine
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glycosidic bond or linkage
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halogens [accept Group 17 elements before mentioned]
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heat capacity (accept specific heat?)
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helium (prompt on "H-e")
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hydrazine [accept early N2H4]
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hydrochloric acid (accept muriatic acid; accept HCl before it's mentioned)
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hydrogen peroxide
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hydrogen peroxide [accept H2O2 before mentioned]
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infrared or IR spectroscopy
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infrared spectroscopy
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intercalating agents (or intercalation agents or intercalators; accept other reasonable word forms)
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iron
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isoelectric point
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isoprene
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ketone [prompt on “carbonylâ€]
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ketones
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lone pairs
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magnesium [or Mg before mentioned]
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magnesium cation [or Mg2+ or Mg++]
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mean free path
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mercury
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meso compound
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meso compounds
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micelles
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molecular orbital theory (accept MO theory)
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molecular orbital theory [prompt on orbitals]
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molecular orbitals [or MOs; prompt on electron orbitals]
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multiplicity function
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neutrons
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nickel
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nitrates
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nitric acid [or HNO3 before mentioned]
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nitric oxide (accept "NO" early; "nitrous oxide" is wrong)
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nitriles
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nitriles (accept early buzz of "cyanides")
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nitriles (prompt on "cyanides")
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noble gases [or inert gases; accept group O elements before it is mentioned]
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nucleophilic substitution (grudgingly accept SN2)
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octet rule (prompt on rule of eight)
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organometallic compounds (accept obvious equivalents)
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osmotic pressure
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oxidation
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pH
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pH [prompt on negative log of hydrogen until mentioned]
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pH indicators
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peptidoglycan [do NOT prompt on or accept 'proteoglycan']
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phase transitions (accept equivalents, prompt on transitions)
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phenol (accept benzenol or carbolic acid before they are mentioned)
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phenols
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phlogiston
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phonons
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polymers
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polymers [do not accept “monomersâ€]
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prometheum
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quantum numbers [accept angular momentum quantum numbers before "Hamiltonian"]
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random walk
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rare-earths or rare-earth elements
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rayon
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reaction rate [or rate constant; or rate law before mentioned]
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reagents
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reductions
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rubidium
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salinity
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salt bridges (the macromolecular ones are less commonly called salt links; I'd be inclined to accept that at any point)
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saponification
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saponification (prompt on soap before it's mentioned)
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size exclusion chromatography or molecular sieve chromatography or gel filtration chromatography or gel exclusion chromatography or gel permeation chromatography or SEC or MSC or GFC or GEC or GPC or word forms of any of the above
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sodium [or Na before mentioned]
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solubility
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specific heat (accept heat capacity until "per unit mass")
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specific heat capacity (accept heat capacity before "water")
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spin [accept spin quantum number until “observableâ€; accept phosphorescence until "this quantity"]
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square planar
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sublimation
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sulfur
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sulfuric acid [or H2SO4 or (oil of) vitriol before mentioned]
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sulfuric acid [or sulphuric acid; prompt on oil of vitriol]
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terpenoids (accept terpenes)
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the Birch reduction
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the Keeling curve [prompt on "CO2 concentration" or similar]
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the activation energy [prompt on EA or transition-state energy]
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the common ion effect
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the contact process
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thiol (accept mercaptan on early buzz)
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third law of thermodynamics (accept Nernst's new heat theorem before it's mentioned)
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titanium
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titanium [prompt on Ti]
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titration
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transition state (accept activated complex before it's mentioned)
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tritium
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tyrosine [accept Y before it's mentioned]
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urea
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urea (accept carbamide early)
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van der Waals forces (prompt on London dispersion forces early)
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zeta potential (accept colloid before the word "it" in the first sentence)
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zinc
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zinc [or Zn before mentioned]
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zinc or Zn
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 Diels-Alder reaction
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 activation energy
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 amines
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 arsenic
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 cyclopropane
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 hydroboration-oxidation
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 ketones
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 magnesium [accept Mg before said]
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 surfactants [or micelles]
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A Raney nickel-catalyzed desulfurization is the last step in the Gassman method for synthesizing these compounds, and they can also be synthesized by an intramolecular Wittig reaction in a variant of the Madelung synthesis. The presence of the simplest of these compounds can be detected by the Kovacs reagent, and another of them was formed via the first reported intramolecular Heck reaction. They are synthesized from ketones in a [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement named after Fischer. For 10 points, name these heterocyclic aromatic molecules that contain a benzene ring fused to a pyrrole, whose namesake functional group is found on the side chain of tryptophan.
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A biological version of this reaction occurs in Pseudomonas and Actinobacter bacteria; there it is catalyzed by a mono-oxygenase enzyme. The now-accepted mechanism was proposed by Criegee, and posits that the reaction passes through a tetrahedral intermediate before rearrangement. The discoverers of this reaction used as their reagent potassium monopersulfate; today it is generally carried out with trifluoroperacetic acid, meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid, or a metal catalyst and hydrogen peroxide. For asymmetric cases the more highly-substituted side preferentially migrates in order to allow for insertion of the oxygen. Notably, it can insert an oxygen atom into a ring, turning an n-membered ring into an n+1 membered lactone. FTP, name this reaction that oxidizes aldehydes to carboxylic acids and ketones into esters.
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A catalyst with this element and four chlorine atoms catalyzes the oxidation of ethylene in the Wacker process. This element is used in the catalyst in a reaction of aryl boronic acid and aryl halides called the Suzuki coupling. Another coupling reaction involving aryl halides and a catalyst of this element is the Heck reaction. Lead acetate and quinoline are used to poison a catalyst of this element used to hydrogenate alkynes. That catalyst is named for Lindlar. This metal can store large amounts of hydrogen, and like platinum, which is in the same group, it is used in catalytic converters. For 10 points, name this group ten element named indirectly after Athena, with symbol Pd.
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A colorless, volatile liquid hydrocarbon, it is used in the production of certain polymeric compounds and yields butyl rubber when combined in small amounts of isobutene and other kinds of synthetic rubber when polymerized with Ziegler catalysts. It is usually obtained by processing coal tar or petroleum, but can also be obtained by the thermal decomposition of several types of plants, as deduced in part by Otto Wallach. FTP, name this compound also known as 2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene, a constituent of terpenes.
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A common feature of hydration-promoting catalysts, such as chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium, Wilkinson's catalyst, is the adoption of this molecular structure. Hoogsteen pairing gives rise to complexes with this configuration which are composed of hydrogen-bonded guanines stabilized around a potassium cation. The central atoms in these compounds usually possess the d8 electron configuration, and, as in octahedral compounds, the kinetics of substitution reactions in compounds with this type of geometry are strongly influenced by the trans ligand. An exemplary compound exhibiting this geometry is cisplatin. For 10 points, name this type of molecular geometry characterized by two nonbonding and four bonding electron pairs, in which the four substituents are situated ninety degrees apart on the same plane as the central atom.
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A complementary reaction to this one is often used to prepare alpha, beta-unsaturated esters and is known as the Wadsworth-Emmons reaction. Along with an alcohol, a product of this reaction can be used with diethyl azodicarboxylate in the Mitsnobu reaction, and that product is also a side product in synthesizing amines in the Staudinger reaction. A modification of this reaction uses phenyllithium and hydrochloric acid at low temperatures, to get the reaction mechanism, converting the erythro betaine intermediate to a threo betaine. That modification will yield the E- isomer as opposed to the Z- isomer normally yielded by this reaction, and that modification is named for Schlosser. For ten points, name this reaction in which an aldehyde reacts with a phosphonium ylide to produce an alkene.
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A cruder form of it was proposed by Wilhelmy in 1858, and its namesake observed the implications of this statement when equilibrium of reactive and unreactive molecules is considered in the van't Hoff equation. A T to m term is sometimes introduced to it, as a quantity in it is approximated to be independent of temperature. That quantity accounts for the rate and orientation of collisions is called the pre exponential factor. One form of it states that the natural log of the equilibrium constant has a inverse relationship with one over T, and it allows one to relate the equilibrium constant with activation energy. For 10 points, identify this equation named for the Swedish chemist.
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A differential version of this statement can be obtained by taking the equality in the combined law of thermodynamics. The Born-Haber technique assumes this physical rule to calculate lattice energies; other techniques pertinent to this law include calorimetric determination and determination of standard properties of formation. Also known as the law of constant heat summation, this law is concomitant with the fact that enthalpy is a state function. FTP, identify this law named after a German chemist which states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is the same regardless of its path.
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A dioxane-chloro version of the reagent in this reaction was developed by Kanth to increase selectivity for terminal substrates. Padra and Node developed the odorless reagents Dod-S-Me and MMS for this reaction. A common reagent used in this reaction is synthesized by adding 1,5-cyclooctadiene and some dimethyl sulfide to another compound. Its second stage involves addition of a hydroperoxide anion followed by a rearrangement with retention of configuration, while skipping that step allows the reactant to undergo a Suzuki coupling. The initial step of this reaction occurs with a particular stereochemistry due to steric hindrance, resulting in an anti-Markovnikov product. For 10 points, name this method of adding hydroxyl groups to alkenes, using boron.
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A formula developed for one type of this process scales the inverse of the magnetic field intensity, and was observed when its namesake was using a magnetic arc to separate uranium isotopes. Another form of this process is explained by the Ludwig-Soret effect, which results in a temperature gradient parallel to the concentration gradient. A set of equations, which relate flux to the gradient of concentration also governs this process, and its rate is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass according to Graham's Law. For 10 points, identify this process, wherein particles move from regions of high concentrations to areas of lower concentrations.
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A general class of reactions for compounds with this property includes the Bamberger rearrangement and the Smiles rearrangement, while substituents to systems with this property can be modified using a copper salt in the Sandmeyer reaction. Theoretical calculations of this property can be done using the Pariser-Parr-Pople method, and it can be verified experimentally by observing a ring current. Coronene displays this property, while cyclo-butadiene does not, despite both of them violating the 4 n plus 2 rule of it named for Hückel. For 10 points, name this property seen when a planar pi system is stabilized by extensive conjugation, as in certain odiferous compounds.
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A graph of this equation's terms natural log of k and 1 over T results in a straight line with a gradient of its exponential term. This equation uses a term called the frequency factor, which varies with the temperature, though its variance is small in relation to the exponential term, so it can be considered a constant. The other constants that appear in the equation are the Stefan-Boltzman constant, Euler's constant, and a constant based on how many ways the molecules can combine. FTP, name this equation that relates the rate constant, the ambient temperature, and the activation energy of a reaction.
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A major piece of evidence in support of this mechanism is the deuterium isotope effect, whereby one example of this kind of reaction occurs seven times slower with a deuterium bromide involved compared with a hydrogen bromide. As pointed out by Derek Barton, this mechanism can only occur in cyclohexane if two particular atoms are trans diaxial. It occurs with anti periplanar geometry because that allows for the greatest overlap as sigma orbitals become pi orbitals in the new compound, the formation of which is governed by Zaitsev's rule. FTP name this mechanism in which a strong base reacts with an alkyl halide in a single step to remove a hydrogen and the halogen opposite it, resulting in a carbon-carbon double bond.
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A paper he wrote about the geometrical representation of a certain kind of property by means of surfaces so excited Maxwell that he made a model illustrating the method. During the early 1880s, this man worked on a modification of the quaternion which he thought could be adapted into a new system of vector analysis, but it had little impact. He developed an "electrical theory of light" which presumed that light is a disturbance propagating through relatively fine-grained media, while his last work was a treatise on Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics which he completed a year before his death in 1903. His greatest discovery was popularized by the Dutch scientist who experimentally confirmed it, Hendrik Roozeboom. His most famous work was translated by Le Chatelier and Ostwald, and established a basis for the theory of the thermodynamic properties of heterogenous substances. FTP, name this founder of physical chemistry, an American scientist known for his namesake phase rule.
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A pastor of Leeds as well as a scientist, this man's first experiments involved the discovery that brewery gas extinguishes wood chips. A meeting with Benjamin Franklin led to the discovery that graphite conducts electricity, which he documented in his book The History of Electricity. In his most famous experiment he placed a candle and a plant in a jar and concluded that candles and organisms destroy the air while plants replenish it with what he called "dephlogisticated air." FTP, name this English scientist, the discoverer of oxygen.
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A powerful oxidizer, it deodorizes water and kills germs at concentrations of 1 part per million. At even lower concentrations in air it causes coughing, chest pain, and eye irritation. Experiments show its molecular structure exhibits resonance, as the oxygen-oxygen bonds are both identical. For ten points, identify this poisonous blue gas, whose molecules each contain three atoms.
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A quantitative test for them involves the addition of alcoholic silver nitrate solution, which follows the Zeisel test where they are cleaved using strong acids. Anisole and THF are compounds with this functional group, and a special type of these can be produced by reacting alkenes with peroxy acids. They can be produced by reacting an alkyl halide with an alcoxide produced from an alcohol in the Williamson synthesis, and the Crown varieties are used as solvents for Grignard reagents. For 10 points, identify this functional group, where two carbon molecules are single bonded to an oxygen molecule, whose diethyl variety was once used as an anesthetic.
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A quantity not accounted for in this fundamental equation but considered in the Tafel equation is overpotential, and assuming equilibrium yields an exponential form of this equation named for Butler and Volmer. The ionic flux carried by ionic species across a cell membrane is described in the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation, which accurately describes electrodiffusion in this equation. It essentially states that potential is shifted by a term equal to RT over nF times the natural log of the reaction quotient. For 10 points, name this equation which determines the equilibrium reduction or oxidation potential of a half-cell in an electrochemical cell.
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A reaction of this type using a molybdenum hexacarbonyl catalyst was developed by Banks and Bailey and yields 2-pentene as one of its products. Acidifying a solution of manganate ion yields a reddish-orange solution through this type of reaction. Microbes like D. propionocus catalyze a version of this process in which fractionation occurs between different isotopes of sulfur. As an alternative to combination, this process may be used to terminate free radical polymerization. In many bacterial species, a cytochrome C-associated protein catalyzes a reaction of this type which promotes the formation of water and oxygen from hydrogen peroxide; this reaction is also catalyzed by catalase. For 10 points, name this type of reaction in which compound undergoes both reduction and oxidation to yield two distinct species.
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A relation due to this person gives the polarizability in terms of the refractivity and permittivity and is sometimes also credited to Mossetti. The proposer of a form of the ergodic hypothesis relating to electrolysis, this physicist derived the aforementioned relation by applying that form to electrolytic dissociation. His 1857 paper on the kinetic theory introduced the concept of mean free path. An equation sometimes called his theorem states that the integral of the inexact heat differential divided by the temperature vanishes over a reversible cycle; a better-known statement due to him notes that the same integral is non-negative over a general thermodynamic cycle. FTP, name this German physicist best known for positing both the second law of thermodynamics and the concept of entropy, whose name figures in an important relation along with the name of Émile Clapeyron.
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A solution of this molecule is often used to extract impurities in the Kolbe nitrile synthesis. Limestone and dolomite are sometimes differentiated by applying a solution of this molecule to the rock, since dolomite will only react with it if powdered. Manganese dioxide reacts with this compound in the Weldon process, and the Alkali Act of 1863 required soda producers using the Leblanc process to absorb ninety-five percent of this byproduct. It is combusted in the Deacon process. The Lucas reagent consists of zinc chloride dissolved in a solution of this molecule, and the Clemmensen reduction proceeds in the presence of a zinc amalgam and this molecule. For 10 points, name this strong acid that combines with nitric acid to form aqua regia.
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A stepwise mechanism for this reaction has been proposed where a pair of electron additions occur, each addition followed by abstraction of a proton from solution, proceeding through a radical anion intermediate before reaching the neutral final product. Substituents on the target compound can control the regioselectivity of the reaction; electron-donating groups favor protonation at an unoccupied site meta to the substituents, while electron-attracting substituents favor para protonation. Reaction conditions typically feature an alkali metal dissolved in liquid ammonia, which provide the electrons and protons, respectively. FTP, what is this reaction that reduces a benzene ring to 1,4-cyclohexadiene?
in this equation, n stands for the number of independent components in the system, f the degrees of freedom, and r the number of phases. FTP, identify this phase rule named for a ubiquitous chemist.
A team led by Kaganer resolved an apparent contradiction in this by noting the strain on thin films of manganese arsenide on gallium arsenide. A team led by Cistola applied it to the behavior of fatty acids when placed in water, and William Johnson claimed that coherent solids fail to obey it. In 1980, A.I. Rusanov published a list of every generalization of this rule, including those for systems with curved interfaces and systems with chemical reactions. It states that n plus 2 minus r = f, and it can be syntactically transformed into the polyhedral formula developed by Euler
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A thermal form of process can be seen in a mixed gas through the Soret effect, while another form involving momentum can be observed in the laminar flow of a liquid across a solid surface. When semiconductors are produced, certain layers are sometimes doped via this process, although ion implantation is typically preferred.The most commonly observed form of the phenomenon can be described by a law which shows that flux is proportional to the concentration gradient and in the direction of lower concentration, Fick's law. FTP, name this form of passive transport that involves spontaneous movement of particles from a higher concentration to a lower concentration.
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A variation on this reaction uses a zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid and goes by the name of Clemmensen reduction. Normally a hydrazine hydrate reacts strongly with a base at an elevated temperature to convert a carbonyl C-O bond into a C-H2 bond. FTP, identify this type of reaction that involves the reduction of a hydrazone, named after the two scientists who discovered it.
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A well-known method for their production utitlizes a cyanide nucleophile. They react with reducing sugars in the Maillard reaction, and their phi-psi torsion angles are shown on a Ramachandran plot. One of these is the namesake of a zipper that forms an alpha-helix conformation, and accumulation of one example of this group causes phenylketonuria. These compounds are created in the Strecker synthesis and a carboxyl and their namesake group are found in the twenty most common ones, which are linked by peptide bonds. FTP, name this type of compound that makes up proteins.
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According to the Stokes-Einstein relation, the Brownian diffusion of a particle under the influence of a chemical potential gradient is directly proportional to both temperature and this other value. The Kelvin scale is derived by multiplying the fundamental temperature by this value, and in the Eyring equation, it is divided by Planck's constant. The average kinetic energy of a gas is equal to 3/2 times temperature times this value. It multiplies the natural log of the microcanonical partition function to yield the entropy in an equation inscribed on its namesake's tombstone. For 10 points, name this constant that equals the gas constant divided by Avogadro's constant, often symbolized k.
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After receiving his medical degree from the University of Upsala in 1802 this man became a professor of medicine, botany, and pharmacy in Stockholm, using his spare time to produce a highly accurate table of combining proportions and atomic weights. His other notable accomplishments include his study of isomerism and catalysis, which he named, and his formulation of the theory of dual electrolysis. For 10 points name this scientist whose experiments also resulted in the discovery of cerium, selenium, and thorium.
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Alizarin dye was the first of this class of compounds to be known. The noble gas rule states that the most stable are those whose central atom has 18 valence electrons, including molybdenum, cobalt and nickel. Characterized by a number that gives the number of bonds from the surroundings to the central atom, with 4 and 6 being the most common, examples include uranium hexafluoride, vitamin B12 and hemoglobin. If they are polydentate, they are called chelates. FTP, name these compounds in which ligands surround a central metal atom.
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Along with EDP and TMAH, a combination of this and deionized water can be used to etch silicon anisotropically to <111> (one-one-one) planes. It is most commonly produced by either the Raschig process or the more efficient Atofina-PCUK cycle. This compound's sulfate was suggested in the 1970s as a cancer treatment by Joseph Gold, and its most common industrial use is in rocket fuel. It is a reducing agent used in basic conditions in the first step of the Wolff-Kishner Reaction. FTP, identify this compound consisting of two amine groups with chemical formula N2H4.
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Along with French chemist Joseph Le Bel, this scientist gives him name to an asymmetric carbon model which allows for prediction of optical activity; he thus proposed that carbon had a tetrahedral structure. His namesake equation relates the change in the equilibrium constant to the change in temperature given the standard enthalpy change for a process, while his namesake isochore or isotherm logically relates equilibrium constants at different temperatures. His most important work was on his theory of dilute solutions, which he realized could be treated like gases. A lower-case i [EYE] is used to represent his namesake factor which describes the dissolution of solute for osmotic pressure calculations. FTP, name this Dutch chemist who modified the ideal gas equation.
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Alternative methods that reject its omission of electron correlation include Moller-Plesset perturbation and density functional theory; it also treats relativistic effects as negligible and assumes the Born-Oppenheimer approximation. The unrestricted or restricted open shell variations are used for molecules where the number of electrons of each spin are not equal. The procedure involves using a series of approximate one-electron orbitals to construct an operator named for one of its namesakes, which is then fed into the time-independent Schrödinger equation. Solving this equation generates a new set of approximate orbitals and allows for the construction of a new operator; the process is iterated until the orbitals are self-consistent with the potential field that they generate. FTP, name this procedure used to approximate wavefunctions and energy levels in atoms with multiple electrons.
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Although monosaccharides are a more directly usable form of energy storage, considering this property reveals that plants store carbohydrates as polysaccharides to reduce strain on membranes. The fact that it is equal to the concentration times the universal gas constant times the absolute temperature was discovered by van't Hoff. This equation can be used to find the molar mass of a dissolved substance, and can be derived by equating the free energy on both sides of a semipermeable membrane. FTP, name this colligative property which can be measured in atmospheres.
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Among the inventions named for this scientist are a grease-spot photometer for measuring brightness and a carbon-zinc electric cell. He explained the workings of geysers, and discovered that ferric oxide could be used as an antidote to arsenic poisoning after an explosion involving arsenic compounds nearly killed him and left him blind in one eye. With Gustav Kirchhoff he pioneered the use of spectroscopic analysis, allowing them to discover cesium and rubidium. FTP, who was this German chemist who invented a vertical metal burner named for him?
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Among this man's early work was a study of an enzyme in the pathway used to convert squalene to cholesterol, and he developed a synthesis of (1,5) dienes using reductive coupling of allylic alcohols. He later used those allylic alcohols and a namesake titanium tartrate catalyst in a reaction co-discovered with Tsutomu Katsuki. This advocate of a type of chemistry involving rapid synthesis of easy-to-make molecules, "click chemistry," used a cinchona ligand and an osmium-based catalyst to form vicinal diols from alkenes. Along with William Knowles and Ryoji Nonori, this man received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on chirally catalyzed oxidation reactions. For 10 points, name this chemist now at The Scripps Research Institute, who has namesake asymmetric dihydroxylation and epoxidation reactions.
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An alcohol with formula C13H28O uniquely cannot undergo these interactions because of its large tert-butyl groups. Hoogsteen base pairing employs these interactions, which are strongest when they are symmetric. Typically, nitrogen, fluorine, and oxygen facilitate these interactions, which are stronger than van der Waals interactions. These interactions can form a dimer of H2O. They cause the hexagonal lattice of ice crystals and the high boiling point of water. For 10 points, name these bonds, which are named after an element with atomic number one.
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An aldehyde can be converted to one of these compounds by first being converted to an oxime and then undergoing dehydration. In turn, these compounds can be reduced to aldehydes by treatment with stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid, followed by hydrolysis. Immediate hydrolysis in the presence of an acid or a base yields their corresponding carboxylic acid and they can also be reduced, in the presence of lithium aluminum hydride, to primary amines. FTP, name these organic compounds characterized by a carbon triple bonded to a nitrogen.
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An alternative to this is the Kochi reaction, which uses lead acetate and lithium halide as reagents. The mechanism of this reaction involves initial formation of a hypobromite as a result of the precipitation of a metal bromide salt. A radical reaction is initiated by homolytic cleavage of the oxygen-bromine bond of the hypobromite. The carboxyl radical then proceeds to shed carbon dioxide, leaving an alkyl radical, which then attaches to a bromine to create the final product. Performed with a heavy metal salt heated with bromine, FTP, name this reaction that decarboxylates an acid leaving an alkyl halide with one less carbon, which is named for German chemists Heinz and Clare.
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An approximation of it named for Russell uses the TDS value to determine one of its parameters via the Langelier approximation, while one constant that appears in it has units of moles per kilogram to the one half power, according the Bates-Guggenheim convention. Along with Guggenheim, Scatchard and Bronsted improved upon this model by developing the SIT theory, and that model has a better fit than a modification of it named for Davies. This relationship assumes the existence of only long-range interactions, and it was extended to account for Brownian motion by Lars Onsager. It assumes that the solvent is structure-less and that the solution is dilute, and the theory behind it implies that the electrostatic potential falls off exponentially when r is greater than the atomic radius due to screening by counter ions. For 10 points, identify this equation which is used to calculate the activity coefficients, and is named for a German and a Dutch scientist.
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An electron donor, it neutralizes singlet oxygen and the hydroxyl radical in the heart. Its vasodilating effect increases blood flow to the sexual organs, making orgasm more intense, and it has been used to treat rheumatoid arthritis. With an isoelectric point of 7.47, it is a major component of zinc-binding proteins. Found in large quantities in hemoglobin, its extraordinary buffering ability in humans arises from the fact that an environmental pH of almost 6.0 is required for it to give up the hydrogen on its imidazole ring. FTP, name this amino acid whose decarboxylation produces histamine.
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An equation named for this man gives the rate of change of the equilibrium constant with respect to temperature as delta H standard over R T squared. One paper by this man cited the isomerism of maleic acid and fumaric acid as evidence for a theory independently proposed by J. A. Bel concerning the tetrahedral nature of the carbon atom. One quantity named for him is a measure of the effective number of particles in solution. That quantity is related to the degree of dissociation, is important in colligative properties such as osmotic pressure, and is known as this man's namesake "factor." For 10 points, name this Dutch scientist who won the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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An equation stating that the square of one measure of this quantity is equal to square of the band gap minus the square of the homopolar band gap was developed by Phillips and van Vechten. The principle of equalization of this quantity states that in a bond, each atom's value for this quantity will be the geometric mean of the atoms' original values; that principle was developed by Sanderson, who computed this quantity as the ratio of atomic number to atomic volume, divided by what would be expected from a linear interpolation of those values for inert gases. The first ionization energy and electron affinity are averaged to obtain the Mulliken scale for it, and the Pauling scale assigns fluorine a value of four. For 10 points, name this measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons to itself.
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An important feature of this model is that qualitative predictions about deviations from ideal shapes can be made on the basis of differences in the sizes of the domains involved. Developed by Gillespie and Nyholm based on proposals by Sidgwick and Powell, its basic postulate is that the region of space occupied by a pair of electrons can be approximately represented by a sphere, with the preferred arrangements of pairs those in which the spheres are closely packed around the core of the atom. A simple method for predicting the arrangements of bonds around an atom in a covament molecule, FTP, what is this model with a five-letter acronym?
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An important method of maintaining population inversion in this device is called Q-switching, which involves the modification of the resonance characteristics of its cavity. The most common type of the dye variety is the Rhodamine 6G in methanol, while the gaseous type consists of krypton-ion and argon-ion varieties. In 1960, Theodore Maiman invented the solid-state type, which utilized the process of pump flashing a ruby in order to produce a uniform red beam of radiation. FTP, identify this device that is created via light amplification through stimulated emission of radiation.
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Anomalous ones may occur in compounds with atoms of an ns2 configuration, as in triple bonds between atoms of lead or germanium. Chelation results from ligands that may bind to multiple sites of a metal ion because of their presence, and hydrogen atoms attract those in highly electronegative atoms via intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Responsible for water's bent geometry, molecular angles predicted by VSEPR theory take into account, FTP, what couples of valence electrons that do not take part in bonding or sharing with other atoms?
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Antagonists of this compound include amphenone and spironolactone, which can be used to treat its overproduction, known as Conn's syndrome. Atrial natriuretic factor suppresses this compound's release and inhibits the release of renin, which is involved in a feedback system with this compound and angiotensin II. Following its release from the zona glomerulosa it stimulates ion pumps in the capillaries surrounding the distal convoluted tubules in the kidneys, resulting in increased excretion of potassium ions and increased blood pressure and volume. FTP, what is this mineralocorticoid which increases reabsorption of water and sodium ions from filtrate?
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Antenna pigments like deazaflavin or MTHF enhance the rate of F-A-D-H-minus-mediated reversal of this process by photolyases, and XerCD reverses this process in chromosomes in E. coli. Attempting to conduct a bimolecular elimination of hydrogen bromide from 3-bromocyclopentene will cause this to happen via the Diels-Alder reaction as 1,3-butadiene is formed. DNA-binding enzymes that display this characteristic typically have palindromic binding sites. In substituted ethylenes, the formation of these involves diradical intermediates, and the simplest carboxylic acids exist in this form in solution. For 10 points, name this phenomenon exhibited by two identical molecules binding to each other to produce the smallest type of polymer.
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Arly thiophenes can be produced by the Volhard-Erdmann reaction of this type, and heavy metal catalysis is often effective for the Nazarov reaction, which is one of these for vinyl compounds. Moore and Myers recently discovered similar exothermic reactions of this class, and the Borsche-Drechsel reaction of this type synthesizes carbazole by arranging a bridge of the namesake type at the bridgehead carbons of two homocyclic rings. FTP, name this class of chemical reactions including the Dieckmann reaction; reactions that produce closed ring compounds.
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Aryl ones are synthesized using tert-butyl nitrite and a substituted trimethylsilane, while vinylic ones are synthesized from allenes that have an electron withdrawing group across from the site of addition. The classic alkyl synthesis of these is the Dutt-Wormall reaction, which uses a sulfonamide, and they frequently rearrange to isocyanates. These compounds also provide the easiest way to aminate a compound, by reacting this functional group's sodium salt under SN2 conditions and then reducing the product with lithium aluminum hydride. For 10 points, name this functional group, which, taken alone, isoelectronic with carbon dioxide, a series of three double-bonded atoms of nitrogen.
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As a trace element, it is essential to human red blood cell development, in that it is required by Vitamin B12. Isolated in 1753 by Georg Brandt, it has since been detected in Egyptian statuettes and glass at the ruins of Pompeii. Its German name was originally applied to ores thought to carry copper, but which were actually arsenic-bearing ores of this metal, perhaps explaining why its German name refers to goblins that live in mines. Most commonly used in magnetic alloys and its eponymous blue pigment, FTP, identify this chemical element with atomic number 27 and symbol Co.
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As mentioned in the Asimov short story "Pate de Fois Gras," this element's isotopes have the highest "packing fraction," that is, that they use the most energy per nucleon to maintain nuclear stability, making them the most stable. The presence of this element in a stellar core is a star's death knell, as its fusion, like all elements lighter than it, is an endothermic process instead of exothermic. FTP, identify this element, of which Rudyard Kipling wrote "is the master of them all," the lightest ferromagnetic element and 90% component of Earth's core.
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At 2.4 billion barns, the 135 isotope of this element has by far the highest neutron absorption cross-section, so much so that older nuclear reactors have to wait for enough of it to decay to prevent a "precluded startup," but fortunately this wait is less than a day. Its large size has also made it the candidate of choice for atom-by-atom manipulation, including the development of a single atom switch in 1996 and the precise placement of 35 atoms on a nickel crystal to spell "IBM". FTP, identify this noble gas discovered in 1898 by Ramsey and Travers, with atomic number 54 and symbol Xe.
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At Heidelberg he studied under Leopold Gmelin, who recognized this man's ability and advised him to make chemistry his career. He then went to study under Jons Jakob Berzelius and would later translate Berzelius' work into German. Along with Justus Liebig he took up the study of benzaldehyde, and from this work came the theory of radicals, the first attempt to understand the structure of organic compounds. He also became the first to prepare metallic aluminum, but his greatest work came from a compound synthesized from ammonium cyanate. FTP, name this scientist who, in 1828, synthesized urea.
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Attempts to isolate this element prior to its real discovery in 1947 at Oak Ridge led to the announcement of the elements illinium and florentium. Its isotope with mass 147 can be separated from other rare-earth isotopes via an ion exchange technique. Sandwiching this element between layers of silicon produce a miniature battery that can operate continuously in extreme temperature conditions for up to five years. The only lanthanide that does not occur in nature, FTP, what is this element whose name is derived from a famed mythological captive?
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Avidity is a form of this concept resulting from polyvalency, and Levinthal's paradox assumes that one process governed by it proceeds via a sequential rather than parallel mechanism. The KNF model describes a sequential induced fit pattern for it, which accounts for the negative form of this phenomenon, while the WMC model proposes molecules changing conformation from a T-state to an R-state. It is quantified by the Hill coefficient, which for myoglobin is 1.0 and for hemoglobin is 2.8. It is typically exemplified by deoxyhemglobin's weaker affinity for oxygen versus oxyhemoglobin. For 10 points, name this type of allostery in which the binding of a ligand to a molecule affects the affinity of subsequent ligands to that molecule.
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Because of its insolubility in blood it can be used to calculate the functional residual capacity of the lungs through the dilution method. Its high thermal conductivity makes it necessary in thermoacoustic refrigerators, and it is also useful in the production of rocket fuel as it condenses oxygen and hydrogen. Rutherford's gold foil experiment made use of this element's nuclei, and it is created constantly by the fusion of hydrogen atoms in stars, making it the 2nd most abundant element in the universe. FTP, name this noble gas with atomic number 2 that one can inhale from party balloons to great amusement.
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Beginning his most famous work in 1884, he based his studies on the earlier work of van't Hoff concerning the importance of three-dimensional structure in atoms and its effect on optical activity. Synthesizing the first available isolated samples, he showed that the best known types contained six carbon atoms and that the each different arrangement led to a different polarization when light was shown through the sample. This led him to develop the L and D series for the stereochemical configuration of sugars and allowed him to predict future isomers. FTP, name this chemist, winner of the Nobel Prize in 1902.
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Bentonite acts as an extreme barrier for this class of substances, limiting their mobility due to ultrafiltration. The zeta potential describes electric potential at the double layer interfaces seen in this class of substances. Their stable formation, termed peptization, is opposed by the formation of large clusters of particles in these systems, a process known as flocculation. The Tyndall effect describes light scattering through this type of substance, which is characterized by separate continuous and dispersed phases. For 10 points, name this type of chemical mixture where particles of one substance are dispersed throughout another, examples of which include foams, gels, and emulsions.
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Both nitrogen and sulfur-containing compounds of this class can undergo the Stevens rearrangement. The sulfur variety are formed as intermediates in DMSO oxidations such as the Pfitzner-Moffatt and Swern reactions. Variants of the most widely used reaction involving these compounds include those using them as a lithium halide complex, and the Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons reaction, which uses a phosphonate. They are more stable than their corresponding carbanion due to the field effect and they are generated from the corresponding halide using a strong base. FTP, name these organic compounds whose phosphorus variety react with aldehydes and ketones in the Wittig reaction.
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Both the charged residue model and the ion evaporation model are two competing theories that explain this technique, which has been used in colloid thrusters to control satellites, and to study noncovalent gas phase interactions, in addition to its best-known usage. The substance to be analyzed is ejected from a 10 micrometer capillary, where it forms a Taylor cone. Coulombic fission breaks up the resulting droplets, forming the target lone ions. Used to isolate ions for mass spectroscopy, FTP, identify this technique that earned John B. Fenn a share of the 2002 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
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CAAX is a recognition motif for an enzyme that adds this type of molecule to Ras and other proteins. The cyclization of these compounds involves enzymes with an "aspartate-rich" DXXDD motif that produce intermediates like bornyl diphosphate. Biosynthesis of some of these compounds, such as artemesinin, takes place in specialized secretory structures like glandular trichomes, where a plastidial type of synthesis is employed. Enzymes important in their production include DXR and HMGR, and these compounds are derived from two isomeric precursors, IPP and DMAPP, which can be generated from either 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate or mevalonic acid. Examples of this class of compounds include taxanes and giberellins, as well as squalene, testosterone, and other steroids. For 10 points, name this class of organic molecules which are made of subunits of isoprene.
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Charles Pedersen shared the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery, in which his strategy for their synthesis was to link catechols via hydroxyl groups. The 18-6 type is notably toxic to humans and exemplifies how these compounds are capable of coordinating with a wide variety of alkali metal cations. They are always composed of a number of ethyleneoxy units linked together in a ring, and rings featuring internal oxygens characterize them. For ten points, name these compounds, named for their resemblance to royal headgear.
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Chloracne is the major biological result from this chemical mixture consisting of equal parts of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, the latter of which contains varying amounts of the by-product tetrachlrodibenzodioxin, which is often refered to as TCDD or simply as dioxin. Named for the stripe marking drums containing it, it was used in Operation Ranch Hand, which sought to destroy crops and defoliate forest areas that might serve as cover for enemy troops. FTP, what is this mixture of herbicides which from 1962-71 was sprayed in Vietnam?
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Codeine is simply the addition of a methyl and this functional group to morphine. They often form azeotropes and when reacted with Lewis acids give oxonium salts. In the presence of oxygen this class of compounds can oxidize into unstable peroxides, resulting in an explosion. Catalytic hydration of olefins is the primary process used in their creation, though a student might be more familiar with their manufacture via the dehydration of alcohols. FTP, name this class of organic compounds characterized by an oxygen bonded between two carbons.
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Compounds of this element have been used for things as various as dyes for wallpaper and the pressure treatment of wood. A key component of Fowler's Solution, it can exist as a tetramer of itself, and when bound with gallium, it is commonly used in semiconductors. Compounds of this element bind to lipoamide-containing enzymes, especially those responsible for bacterial respiration, so Paul Ehrlich used it as an early treatment for syphilis. Unfortunately, it also causes eczema, nausea, and aplastic anemia in humans, and may have killed Napoleon. FTP name this toxic metalloid known for polluting drinking water, number 33 on the periodic table.
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Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek theory predicts that a larger absolute value for it correlates to greater system stability, since the effects of van der Waals forces are counteracted and particles are less likely to form flocs. Affected by such variables as pH and anionic or cationic surfactants, it can be measured using a laser Doppler velocimeter, which operates by measuring the electrophoretic mobility of particles, and then using the Smoluchowski or Henry equation to estimate this quantity. A charged, suspended particle forms a double layer of ions in solvent; this potential forms at surface of hydrodynamic shear between them. FTP, name this electrical potential, useful as a measure of stability in colloids.
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Despite his numerous successes, this man incorrectly calculated the age of the earth to be 100 million years using geophysical means, for he didn't know about radioactivity. He became wealthy through his invention of a receiver for the submarine telegraph. Along with a famous friend, he discovered that when a gas is allowed to expand without performing external work, the temperature of that gas falls. After his ennoblement, he would gain the barony of Largs. FTP, name this man, who collaborated with James Prescott Joule, best remembered for formulating the absolute scale of temperature that bears his name.
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Discovered by Charles Hatchett in 1801, it was originally named columbium. This name was used in the U.S. until the 1950s, when the name was internationally standardized to the one given it by its German re-discoverer, Heinrich Rose, in 1844. More plentiful than lead but less plentiful than copper, it was named by Rose because of its similarity in ores and properties to tantalum. FTP, name this element, named after Tantalus' daughter, atomic number 41.
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Dissolving sodium in this compound creates the donor electrons that drive the reduction of benzene in the Birch reduction. Dissolving a precipitate in this compound is the final step in producing the Tollens reagent, which displays a “silver mirror†in the presence of aldehydes. This molecule is oxidized to form nitric acid in the industrial Ostwald process. Iron or ruthenium typically catalyzes the reaction that forms this compound from hydrogen gas and nitrogen found in the air. For 10 points, name this molecule produced in the Haber-Bosch process, with chemical formula NH3.
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Don't go outside to look for this element: it's never found free in nature, and only constitutes a few millionths of the Earth's crust. A few medicinal plants, such as aloe vera and ginseng, contain high concentrations, and researchers have reported that compounds containing this element may help control cancer, AIDS, high cholesterol, and pain. Its oxide has a high index of refraction, and is used frequently in wide-angle camera lenses. Because it can be purified better than any other semiconductor, its electronic properties have been studied in detail. FTP, name this element, situated after gallium in the periodic table and named for a European country.
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Dr. Octopus once tried to use a mixture of poisonous ink and a derivative of this to kill the readership of the Daily Bugle. Stanley Jacob discovered that it could be used to carry biological compounds deep into tissue, and it is often used as a topical analgesic. In the first step of the Swern oxidation, one molecule of it reacts with a molecule of oxalyl chloride, forming an intermediate that decomposes and is attacked by an alcohol. The deuterated variety is a common solvent in proton NMR. It can be added to a PCR reaction mixture to pry apart G-C rich templates more easily, and is an excellent solvent for the Williamson ether synthesis and SN2 reactions in general. With chemical formula C2H6SO, FTP name this polar aprotic solvent that easily seeps through skin, whose abbreviation stands for dimethyl sulfoxide.
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Drug discovery research employs a synthesis that produces alpha-phosphonate examples of this functionality from a carbonyl, a hydrophosphoryl compound, and a primary one of these. A test for this functionality, which can discern between their degrees of substitution, employs aqueous sodium hydroxide and benzenesulfonyl chloride and is named for Hinsburg. CO2 is released upon the addition of hydrazoic acid through an isocyanate intermediate in one reaction to form them. PPh3 is used to reduce azides to this functionality in the Staudinger ligation. The best known synthesis of these compounds reacts primary alkyl halides with potassium phthalimide, and is named for Gabriel. For 10 points, name this functionality whose members possess a nitrogen with three single bonds to substituents.
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Due to the failure of its developer to write in anything but his native language, the work behind this concept went largely unnoticed until 1889, and some of the behavior predicted by it wasn't fully explained until the work of Morris Selig Kharasch in 1933. Its discovery was the result of research done on the prediction of regioselective addition reactions of hydrogen halides. Stating that reactions occur via protonation to give the more stable carbocation, FTP, identify this rule of organic chemistry that states hydrogen adds to carbons with more hydrogens, originally stated by its eponymous Russian discoverer.
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Dump in nitric acid to oxidize, protonate to form a hemiacetal, add sodium amalgam to reduce one terminal carboxlic acid to an aldehyde, then add sodium in ethanol to reduce the aldehyde to an alcohol. After performing a Kiliani synthesis, you are left with two structures, one of which is mannose. The other, whose 16 isomeric forms puzzled the scientific world until Emil Fischer solved the riddle of its structure, is known to biology students as the main product of photosynthesis. For ten points name the compound with formula C6H12O6.
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Energy band gaps in substances like vanadium cause this parameter to increase asymptotically near the critical temperature. The difference between its two types is proportional to the square of the thermal expansion coefficient and inversely related to the isothermal bulk modulus. The model for it as temperature approaches zero is the Debye T-cubed law, which assumes a continuous state distribution, an improvement on Einstein's quantum atomic oscillator model. Its limit is equal to 3 times the gas constant as given by the Law of Dulong and Petit. FTP, name this thermodynamic quantity, the amount of heat required to raise a mass unit's temperature by one degree centigrade.
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Enzymatic instances of this reaction are catalyzed by bacterial type II fatty acid synthesis enzymes, and by Chalcone synthase, which contain a Thiolase fold. A modification of it replaces a reactant with succinate, while a classic version of it occurs between ethyl benzoate and acetophenone, the former of which is not enolizable. It is driven by the removal of a doubly-alpha proton in the final product and the subsequent resonance stabilization of the negative charge, and its modifications include the Stobbe and crossed varieties. An intramolecular version of this reaction is used to create five- or six-member rings and is named for Dieckmann. For 10 points, name this condensation reaction that forms beta-keto-esters, the ester counterpart of the aldol condensation.
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Examples of these materials include methoxy-benzilidene butylanaline and fluorinated tolans. The Onsager model can be used to explain lyotrophic examples, which undergo phase transitions as a result of concentration changes rather than temperature. Cholesteric varieties, which induce circular dichroism, exhibit chirality and are sometimes known as twisted nematic. In the typical nematic phase, their molecules have a random distribution but preferred orientation, while their smectic phase displays an ordered layered structure. In their most famous application, a thin layer of them is placed between two cross polarizers, and applied electric fields can create order in them to stop the transmission of light. FTP name these substances used in namesake displays in computer monitors and HDTV's.
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Examples of this type of compound include 2,3-dibromobutane and 1,3-dimethylcyclohexane. Although their trans isomers exist as pairs of enantiomers, their cis isomers have a plane of symmetry. Although a structure with two stereocenters may have up to four possible stereoisomers, if one of the diastereomers is of this type of compound, there will only be a total of three stereoisomers. FTP, identify this type of compound that, despite containing tetrahedral atoms with four different attached groups, still has a plane of symmetry and is therefore achiral and optically inactive.
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Experimental verification of one part of this statement came when a compound synthesized by Richard Willstatter was found to decolorize solutions of potassium permanganatel, and important research on its reversal was done by Baird. Systems that are contrasted with those that obey this statement are known as Mobius systems, and systems that do obey it have an even number of sign inversions and can only participate in thermal pericyclic reactions is a condition similar to this statement is satisfied. The namesake of this statement also lends his name to a theory of activity coefficients with Debye. This statement explains why cyclopentadiene is highly acidic, and 10-annulene compounds are not subject to it ebcause they are not planar. For 10 points, name this rule that coplanar monocyclic rings are aromatic only if they contain 4n+2 delocalized pi electrons, named after a German chemist.
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Experiments by Francisco-Miguel Marqués et al. suggested the possibility of a stable cluster of four of them. Brockhouse developed a method of spectroscopy using these particles, and work leading to their discovery showed that beryllium rays could remove particles from paraffin wax and was performed by the Joliot-Curies. An antineutrino is released when these undergo a certain type of decay, and free ones have a lifetime of approximately fifteen minutes. They undergo beta-minus decay, and are created by electron capture. Discovered in 1932 by James Chadwick, for 10 points, name this electrically neutral subatomic particle, found in the nucleus with protons.
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First formulated in 1803, it is based on the idea that, in dilute solutions, solute molecules are bordered primarily by solvent molecules, and thus the probability of escape for a given solute molecule is independent of their total concentration. Therefore, the return rate from a gas above the solution will inevitably equal the rate of escape from the solution. Thus, for dilute solutions at equilibrium with a gas at very low pressure, the gas pressure will be proportional to the amount of dissolved gas. FTP, this states what relation, named for the 19th-century British chemist who discovered it?
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First prepared by adding glycerol to a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acids, it's a liquid at room temperature but freezes easily. It is even more unstable in solid form, but, when mixed with a porous inert substance such as charcoal or kieselguhr its stability greatly increases, a property discoverd by Alfred Nobel. For ten points, name this chemical also used to ease cardiac pain.
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First prepared in about 1620 by Jan Baptist van Helmont, this compound is one of the few stable compounds with an odd number of electrons. The 1998 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine was awarded for the discovery that it is used within the body to regulate blood pressure. Industrially it is reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst to manufacture hydroxylamine and can also reacted to lose or gain an electron to form a nitrosyl. In the body it causes endothelial cells to relax, an effect exploited in anti-impotence drugs and the alleviation of chest pain by nitroglycerin. FTP, name this toxic gas with chemical formula NO.
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First proposed by Lewis, it is related logarithmically to a gas's standard Gibbs free energy divided by the temperature and gas constant. At equilibrium, this quantity must be equal in both gas and liquid phases. Taking the derivative of the natural log of this function is equates it to the derivative of a reaction's chemical potential. Equal to the gas' pressure when the gas is ideal, FTP, identify this thermodynamic quantity which replaces partial pressure when working with real gases and describes the tendency of a substance to escape from its current phase, symbolized by f.
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First synthesized in free form by Theodor Curtius in 1887, this compound is often used for deoxygenation of boiler feed water. Its addition converts 1,3-diketones into pyrazoles, while it reacts with imides in the Einhorn-Brunner Reaction to produce triazoles. It is manufactured with 80 percent yield and no by-products by the Atofina-PCUK method, though it's often produced by the less efficient Olin-Raschig process, which uses oxidation by sodium hypochlorite. More notably, it is used in a reaction which is modified by the Huang-Minlon route; in that reaction it acts to condensate aldehydes or ketones in the first step and then a strong base produces reduction; that is is the Wolff-Kishner Reduction. Also known for its use in rocket fuel, FTP, name this compound which results from coupling two ammonia molecules, with the formula N2H4.
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For a black hole, this quantity is calculated as Boltzmann's constant times the area divided by 4 times the square of the Planck length. The Tsallis variety of it relates it to non-extensivity, and the Shannon type is used in information theory. It can be calculated for a monatomic ideal gas in the Sackur-Tetrode equation, and it is the negative derivative with respect to temperature of Helmoltz Free Energy. Its discontinuous nature in mixing was the subject of the Gibbs paradox, and its tendency to increase is the subject of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. For 10 points, name this quantity symbolized S, a measure of disorder.
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For a colloid, this point is where the zeta potential of colloidal particles is zero, and is dependent on particle surface properties. This characteristic can also be used to resolve proteins in an electrophoretic gradient of amphiphilic molecules, a technique known as its namesake "focusing," which is employed as the first dimension in 2D SDS-PAGE. Molecules near this pH are particularly useful as dilution buffers, although small changes in pH near this point will significantly affect the ionization state of the molecule. Given by the average of the acid dissociation constants of the ionizable groups in a molecule, FTP, identify this point at which a molecule has no net electric charge.
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For a constant magnetic field, the energy of the anomalous Zeeman effect is proportional to a function of these values known as the Landé g-factor. In any system, there is one of these for each operator that commutes with the Hamiltonian and one given by the Hamiltonian's eigenvalues. The radius of electron orbitals in the Bohr model is proportional to that value squared, and they are constant as additional electrons are added according to the Aufbau principle. No two fermions can have the same value for these according to the Pauli exclusion principle. For 10 points, name these values, which describe among other things the shell, subshell, and spin values for an electron.
HMV. In an ordinary system, its proper variables are temperature and pressure, and it equals F + PV, where F is the Helmholtz free energy. For a reaction, if the change in this quantity is negative, then the reaction will be spontaneous. FTP, often symbolized by either phi or G, identify this type of free energy named for an American physicist.
For a uniformly magnetized sample, where H is the magnetic field strength, this quantity can be defined as F
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For an isothermal process, the change in this quantity is equal to nR (en are) times the natural log of the ratio of volumes. Heat capacity is equal to temperature times the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to temperature. This quantity can be calculated by finding the natural logs of available microstates, and its change is equal to the change in heat divided by temperature. It can be defined as the amount of thermal energy in a system that cannot do useful work, and the second law of thermodynamics means that for the universe this is always increasing. For 10 points, name this measurement of disorder in a system.
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For constant pressure, the change in this quantity equals the heat of reaction. Also the sum of the internal energy and the pressure times volume, it's the quantity used in Hess' Law. The variable which determines if a reaction is exo- or endothermic is, for ten points, what thermodynamic variable usually denoted by H?
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For elements with low atomic numbers, the Auger process competes with the fluorescence that is characteristic of this process. Potassium-argon dating methods are valuable since all of the argon arises from potassium by this radioactive transition rather than chemically. The lighter isotopes of transition metals, such as silver-105, tend to decay by this process. Positron emission competes with this process, which results in neutron and a neutrino, the latter of which gets ejected. Despite the change in atomic number, the total number of nucleons is conserved. For 10 points, name this process that sees the nucleus taking a namesake negatively charged particle from the K shell.
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For simpler cases, it has an outside term expressed as the product of the transmission coefficient, Boltzmann's constant, the reciprocal of Planck's constant, and temperature, although it is often expressed with a delta-G-plus-plus. Statistical mechanics is necessary to determine the orientation of collisions that allows calculation of its frequency factor, which is usually based on its steric factor z. Taking the logarithm of both sides is also useful, as it illustrates a linear dependence between the natural log of k and the reciprocal of T. FTP, name this equation relating activation energy and thus rate constant to temperature, named for a Swedish chemist.
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For strong solutions, it is generalized as Duhring's Rule, which uses water as a model -- but other electrolytes do not obey it. For it to apply, the activity coefficient must be 1.0, making the solution ideal. When attraction between the solute and the solvent is stronger than the attraction of either substance for itself, the principle applies only imperfectly. FTP, name this principle of chemistry, which states that the mole fraction of a solvent times its vapor pressure in a pure state equals the vapor pressure of the solvent.
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Formed in processes such as the Dutt-Wormall reaction, compounds of these with other organic functional groups are unstable and most will break down under standard conditions, and as a result, the n-nonyl form is the smallest that can be isolated and stored, and in general, a minimum carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of three-to-one is required to guarantee stability. They are highly toxic, with LD50 values close to that of a similar class of compounds, cyanides. As a toxin, they act by inhibiting the function of a cell by binding to the heme cofactors of cytochrome c oxidase, and thus leading to chemical asphyxiation of cells. For ten points, name this organic functional group that contains three double-bonded Nitrogen atoms.
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Formulated following the study of the dehydration of alcohols, when it is disobeyed Hoffman products arise. Not applicable when the leaving group is poor, when the base is bulky, or when conjoined dienes are formed, E1 reactions generally follow it, though E2 reactions have stereo-chemical requirements that deviate from it. FTP, identify this rule of organic chemistry that predicts that elimination reactions proceed to give the most highly substituted alkene.
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Formulated in 1819, it applies with fair accuracy at normal temperatures to elements within a simple crystal structure. Many atomic weights were originally derived using this law, although it was later discovered that the heat capacity of all solids tends toward zero at low temperatures. FTP, identify this empirical rule which states that the molar heat capacity of a solid element is approximately equal to three times the ideal gas constant, named after its two French discoverers.
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Four cationic instances of this type of reaction are required for the synthesis of lanosterol, and molecules such as (2E, 4E)-2,4-Hexadiene can undergo a photochemical variety of this reaction through a disrotatory path. The thermal occurrence of this reaction in enediynes is known as the Begman variety, while types of this reaction catalyzed by compounds such as organotin include the Stille and Heck reactions. A reaction of this type which occurs in divynil ketones and is catalyzed by strong Lewis or Bronstedt acids is known as the Nazarov one while another example of this type of reaction produces a beta-keto ester through a mechanism similar to that of Claisen condensation and is called the Dieckmann reaction. For ten points, identify this type of reaction which results in the formation of a ring compound from a chain.
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Given the definition of partial current densities, this equation is derived from empirical considerations by considering the energy at which the partial currents are equal are equal; the same empirical equation substituted with the reversible potential yields the Butler-Volmer equation. The explicit form of this equation contains the ratio of the concentrations of the oxidized and reduced species, though this is often exchanged for the reaction quotient, Q, in practice. FTP name the equation that states that a cell's potential with respect to a standard potential, at which Q is 1, is proportional to the natural logarithm of Q and is named for a Nobel laureate.
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Gutmann introduced a measure that increases with the strength of these and is known as DN. In molecular orbital theory, reactions involving them see their HOMO interact with their counterpart's LUMO. Electron withdrawing groups decrease the ability of aromatic ring containing compounds to act as one, while imidazole and pyridine act as these. E2 elimination is promoted by relatively strong examples of these, and nucleophiles correspond with a classification of these. In one classification, they are electron pair donators, while according to the Bronsted-Lowry definition they accept protons. For 10 points, name these substances with a pH greater than 7.
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Guven and colleagues pioneered the attachment of these molecules to copolymeric hydrogels to control swelling rate. The surface chemistry of activated carbon was formerly modeled as this type of chemical, though newer methods use a simpler two-parameter approach. In aqueous suspensions, metal particles behave like this type of chemical. Though tyrosine and glutamate are not this type of compound, thirteen of the most common amino acids are. K-sub-a-2 is typically the lowest dissociation constant for this type of acid, examples of which include carbonic acid and sulfuric acid, and titrations for these acids typically show two equivalence points. For 10 points, name this type of acid that can generate two moles of hydronium ion per mole of acid dissociated.
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Having the chemical formula CoCl2, it is also known as carbonic dichloride. It is prepared by the reaction of carbon monoxide with chlorine in the presence of a catalyst. Poisonous in concentrations above 50 parts per million in air, if inhaled it causes severe and most often fatal edema of the lungs in a few hours. FTP, name this poison gas, associated with Victor Grignard.
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He first published his work in 1811, but it went largely ignored for nearly fifty years until it received the endorsement of Stanislao Cannizzaro at the first international scientific conference, convened in Karlsruhe by Friedrich Kekule. Following his hypothesis, he demonstrated the error in Dalton's contention that water consisted of a single atom each of hydrogen and oxygen and correctly deduced the diatomic nature of oxygen and nitrogen. This also led to his creation of the term molecule from the Latin for "small masses". FTP, name this Italian physicist whose hypothesis held that all gases at a given temperature, pressure and volume had the same number of particles.
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He is the namesake of reaction where a sugar reacts with an alcohol in the presence of a Lewis acid catalyst to yield a glycoside. During his time at Strasboug, he discovered the similarity between hydrazobenzene and phenyl-hydrazine, and the latter compound and a ketone are used to synthesize indole in a reaction named for him. He also names a reaction where a tetrahedral intermediate is formed upon the nucleophilic attack of an alcohol group which is followed by elimination of a hydroxyl group, and 2-dimensional structures used to represent sugars are this man's namesake "projections." For 10 points, identify this German chemist who lends his name to an esterification.
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He left Harvard after quarreling with his mentor T. W. Richards, after which he became Superintendent of the Bureau of Weights and Measures in the Philippines. He published the seminal books Valence and the Structure of Atoms and Molecules and Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances shortly after serving as chief of his nation's Chemical Warfare Service in World War I. His later researches elucidated the role of the triplet state in phosphorescence, and this man's work in photochemistry led him to coin the term "photon." Legend has it that this educator inaugurated the tradition of difficult problem sets in chemistry courses while dean of the College of Chemistry at Berkeley. FTP, name this American chemist, the first man to isolate a pure sample of heavy water and namesake of an electron mediated acid-base definition and certain dot structures.
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His achievements include showing how sound waves in a liquid can behave like a diffraction grating, and he did work on adiabatic demagnetization. Along with Scherrer, he developed powder X-ray diffraction analysis, and conceived the theory of X-ray scattering by gaseous molecules. Earlier, he developed a theory of strong electrolytes with Hückel and modified Einstein's theory of specific heats to include compressibility and expansivity. FTP, identify this Dutch-born physicist for whom the unit of dielectric constant is named, the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1936.
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His favorite sister, a radio star, died suddenly in 1937, and the loss compounded a long struggle with depression. Two days after his 41st birthday he killed himself in a hotel room in Philadelphia by taking potassium cyanide, ending a brilliant career which included becoming the first organic chemist elected to the National Academy of Sciences and 31 papers establishing general theories on polymers. FTP, name the DuPont research chemist who, in 1934, discovered the synthetic fiber Nylon?
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Hydrophilic TEG yoctowells mimic the interactions of these compounds with oligamines. These compounds are good candidates for rotaxane wheels because of their relatively easy synthesis and modification. The Manning reaction is used to generate their aza derivatives as well as nitrogen-substituted versions of these molecules, which are known as cryptands. A twelve-carbon example of this class of molecules catalyzes the formation of "purple benzene" by complexing the potassium ion of potassium permanganate. They can be formed by reacting oligoethylene glycols with oligoethylene glycol ditosylates or dichlorides in a modification of the Williamson synthesis. For 10 points, name this class of macrocyclic organic compounds whose subunits contain oxygen bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups.
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If a gas obeys the van der Waals equation of state, then this quantity can be calculated at any temperature. This quantity related to the chemical potential can be used to determine phase equilibrium for mixtures. Activity is defined as the ratio of this quantity's present value to its standard state value. For a gas, it represents the pressure a real gas would exert if it were ideal. FTP, identify this term from physical chemistry that measures the tendency of a molecule to expand or escape its current phase.
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In 1756 this man succeeded his teacher William Cullen as professor of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, having finished his medical degree at the University of Edinburgh where he began the study of magnesia alba that would later lead to his greatest discoveries. In the 1760's he began to incorporate into his lectures his observation that melting ice takes up heat without changing temperature and that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts of heat to raise them to the same temperature, but he is best known for an earlier discovery he called "fixed air". FTP name this chemist, discoverer of latent heat, fixed heat, and what is now called Carbon Dioxide.
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In 1889, this scientist began issuing "Classics of Exact Science," a series of reprints of important papers on topics in physics and chemistry. A year earlier, he proposed a dilution law that relates the degree of disassociation of an electrolyte to its total concentration. The first director of Leipzig's Physiochemical Institute, he gave the first modern definition of a catalyst. FTP, identify this chemist who devised a process for producing ammonia from nitric acid, the winner of the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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In 1907, this man patented an arc furnace for melting iron and steel. The son of a tanner, he studied at the Paris School of Mines under Le Chatelier. In 1886, he patented a system which used one large, central graphite electrode in the cell holding the molten material, which was a slightly different approach than the American who independently discovered the process in the same year. FTP, identify this French metallurgist who developed a process for manufacturing aluminum simultaneously with Charles Martin Hall.
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In 1911, with his associate Lindemann, this scientist developed a special calorimeter to determine heat capacities at low temperatures, and had earlier patented an improved filament for light bulbs. He made important contributions to the understanding of ionic hydration, electrochemical cells, and to the theory of buffer solutions, formulated a law of diffusion of electrolytes and another relating equilibrium concentrations of a solute distributed between immiscible liquid phases, the latter of which formed the basis for modern techniques of solvent extraction. FTP name this German physical chemist, whose heat theorem became synonymous with the Third Law of Thermodynamics.
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In 1939, Luis Alvarez and Robert Cornog demonstrated the radioactive decay of this isotope, five years after its initial discovery by Harteck, Oliphant and Rutherford. This disproved the earlier theoretical contention by researchers at the Cavendish laboratory that it, and not Helium-3, should be stable and explained their inability to extract it from water. FTP, name this isotope of hydrogen, formed from the fusion of a proton and deuterium, with a half-life of 12.32 years.
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In 1952, American astronomer Paul Merrill discovered that the 99 isotope of this element is present in S-type stars. It also occurs in the Earth's crust in minute traces from the spontaneous fission of uranium, but its short half-life -- one and a half million years for the 98 isotope -- means it could not have been an original consitutuent element on Earth. FTP, name this element first discovered in a sample of molybdenum that had been bombarded with deuterons at Berkeley by Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segre (SEG-ray).
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In 1955, Lifshitz used them as the microscopic description of the Casimir effect's bulk property for dielectric media. The Lennard-Jones potential allows a good approximation of their strengths as a function of distance. Including both Keesom and Debye forces, this class of intermolecular forces arises from the polarization of molecules into dipoles. They share their name with an equation that corrects the ideal gas law and are sometimes called London dispersion forces. FTP, name this set of intermolecular forces named after the Dutch scientist who received the 1910 Nobel Prize in physics.
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In 1993, this scientist shocked his audience by announcing that he believed that AIDS was not caused by HIV, but by a massive overload of typically irrelevant viruses working in tandem to destabilize the immune system. Furthermore, he devoted a section of his book, Dancing Naked in the Mind Field, to this notion. Part of his suspicion may come from his mistrust toward large sums of money being pumped into medical research, perhaps because his own discovery garnered him only $10,000 while Hoffman-LaRouche paid $300 million for the patent. FTP, name this man, whose method for selectively multiplying and mass-producing specific DNA segments in just hours, better known as the polymerase chain reaction, won him the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna proved that these macromolecules demonstrate wave-particle duality. The cyclopropanation reaction involving them is called the Bingel reaction. Most reactions involving them take place at 6,6-double bonds, and the endohedral varieties containing three atoms of terbium cause them to become egg-shaped and violate the isolated pentagon rule. Most often forming nanotubes or icosahedrons, FTP, identify this family of molecules that are carbon allotropes and named after a famous architect.
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In 2008, Kulp, et al. discovered bacteria using a compound of this element as an electron donor in photosynthesis. Unlike those of silicon, gallium semiconductors doped with this element exhibit direct bandgap and can be used in laser diodes to directly convert electricity into light. It is also a notable component of Fowler's solution. The pentavalent oxide of this element can replace inorganic phosphorus in glycolysis, allowing glycolysis to proceed, but preventing ATP generation by uncoupling glycolysis. A qualitative assay for it trioxide is known as the Marsh test, which utilizes sulfuric acid and the oxidation of zinc. Also notably used in neosalversan, for 10 points, name this toxic metalloid with the symbol As.
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In 2008, a roundabout mechanism for this type of reaction was observed in gas phase interactions between chloride ions and methyl iodine gas. The Finkelstein reaction, which involves two halides, proceeds through this mechanism, as does a common method of producing primary and secondary amines. It is greatly enhanced in the presence of crown ethers due to solvation effects freeing up anions, and this mechanism's transition state is trigonal bipyramidal as a change in the stereochemistry of the system occurs known as the Walden Inversion. For 10 points, identify this type of reaction in which a nucleophile forces out a leaving group and takes its place in a single step.
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In a Fermi fluid, this property is equivalent to Fermi energy at absolute zero, while it is identically zero for a conservative system of phonons. Diffusion may be understood as the action of its gradient, which is known as the chemical force. For each component of a system, it is defined as partial derivative of the system's free energy with respect to that component's particle number, so the equilibrium condition is that its sum over all components vanishes. FTP, name this energetic thermodynamic quantity, symbolized ? and useful for deriving the law of mass action.
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In an October, 1997 JCE article, Parquet and Lin outlined a microwave-assisted version of this procedure that creates a reagent in situ by irradiation of isatin. This reaction is analogous to hydroxylamine-mediated oxime synthesis. It is sometimes cited as only its second step, which is usually catalyzed by an alkali ethoxide or potassium hydroxide, but that second step cannot proceed without an initial hydroxone formation by the carbonyl-containing reactants. It is now rarely performed since it requires extremely dangerous heating of hydrazine in the presence of ketones or aldehydes. FTP, name this organic reduction of ketones or aldehydes to corresponding alkanes, named for German and Russian chemists.
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In basic solution, it can undergo the Cannizzaro reaction to produce methanol. Accidentally produced by Alexander Butlerov in 1859, credit for its identification is given to August Wilhelm von Hofmann. Capable of adding electrophilically to alkenes, it can be prepared industrially by heating dry air and methyl alcohol vapor in the presence of a catalyst like copper or silver, and can also be synthesized from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Frequently used as a disinfectant and also known as methanal, FTP, name this compound with chemical formula C-H-2-O, the simplest of the aldehydes.
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In carbon 13 NMR, this compound has a single peak and 27.1 ppm. Using platinum oxide and hydrogen in acetic acid will reduce benzene to this compound. Substituted ones try to reduce 1 3 diaxial interaction and flagpole hydrogens can destabilize one form of this compound. Its most stable conformation is one in which the carbon-carbon bonds are strained, half of the hydrogens are in an axial position, and the other half are in the equatorial position making the molecule strain free. Its conformations include the twist, boat, and chair. For 10 points, name this alkane with a saturated six member carbon ring.
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In his early research, he showed that uric acid, xanthine, and caffeine were all derived from a single nitrogenous base, which he named. Then, he discovered a substance that reacts with simple sugars to form derivatives called osazones. Following his discovery and the naming of purine and phenylhydrazine, he worked on stereoisomers of the substance with which he is associated. FTP, name this German chemist, whose namesake projections help in the structural analysis of sugars.
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In his final paper he described palladium hydride, the first known instance of a solid compound formed from a metal and a gas. Earlier, his studies with phosphoric acid led to the concept of polybasic acids, yet perhaps his most useful work was the discovery of the method of dialysis. This was done with his work with mixtures, which earned him the name "father of colloid chemistry." Best known for demonstrating the inverse square relationship between the density of a gas and its rate of diffusion, FTP, name this British scientist.
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In his final paper this chemist described palladium hydride, the first known instance of a solid compound formed from a metal and a gas. From his work on the three forms of phosphoric acid he developed the concept of polybasic acids, devised the method of dialysis, and proved that partial decomposition of certain chemical compounds results from liquid diffusion, but is best known for a law used to separate isotopes stating that the rates at which gases diffuse is inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities. FTP, who was this Scottish chemist, considered the father of colloid chemistry?
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In its ideal form, a gas is heated at a constant pressure, expands isentropically, cools at a constant volume, and then is compressed isentropically before heating again. In practice, a compression ratio of between 15 and 25 to 1 is necessary to implement it. Extremely useful in situations when weight is not an issue, it is frequently implemented as a 4-stroke engine in which no spark is necessary, as the oil sprayed into the compression chamber ignites on contact with heated air. The most efficient of all internal combustion engines, FTP, name this common type of engine, seen in boats, trains, and trucks.
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In its natural state, it exists as a 2 to 1 mixture of its ortho and para forms. Predicted due to differences in the chemical and physical weights of its related element, its discovery was assisted by Brickwedde and Murphy, and it was first prepared in its pure for by G.N. Lewis. It is extensively used as an isotopic tracer since it reacts much more slowly than its related element, and the large amount of energy released during nuclear fusion of its atoms or in its lithium compounds has led to its use in thermonuclear weapons. Discovered by Harold Urey, FTP, what is this isotope of hydrogen found in heavy water?
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In later life this man worked with Sanger in his studies of Insulin and Richard Millington Synge in his chromatograhpic analyses and became the president of the Nobel Foundation in 1960. From 1930 to 1937 he made many discoveries concerning the blood, includin that of albumin, usuing the technique for which he is best known. FTP name this biochemist, winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1948 for his work on electrophoresis.
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In nanochemistry, these organic compounds are commonly used to cap self-assembling gold and silver monolayers to provide rigidity and stability, and they are especially useful in this function on hanging mercury drop electrodes. More acidic and less polar than the oxygen-containing counterparts from which they are named, oxidation of their functional group enables cross-linking in proteins, where they are found on cysteine residues. They can be synthesized through addition to alcohols of polymer supported hydrosulfide, which creates a mercapto-group. FTP, what is this functional group characterized by an -SH group?
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In nuclear transport theory this approximation is generally valid when the scattering cross-section dominates that of absorption and the system is optically thick. In that case it allows the transport equation to be simplified to an ordinary differential equation. More often it is found in diffusive mass transport problems where it states that the diffusion flux is proportional to the concentration gradient of the material which diffusion is occurring in. FTP name this law often combined with Graham's law to calculate exchange rates of gases across membranes.
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In nucleophilic aliphatic substitution reactions, this mechanism depresses the reaction rate by making the first step of SN-1 reactions reversible, and it slows DDT solvolysis in saline solution. Its importance increases after the equivalence point is passed in titration, and if present during neutralization, it counteracts the change in the value modeled by the central ratio of the Henderson-Hasselbach equation, functioning as a buffer. An application of Le Chatelier's principle, FTP, name this effect that alters the molar solubility of a compound by addition of species identical to a pre-existing product of dissolution.
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In number theory, this term is used to designate integers with n minus one digits which, when multiplied by an integer less than n, result in the same digits in a different order. In physics, this term designates a generalized coordinate whose conjugate generalized momentum is conserved, and thus one on which the Lagrangian does not depend. In group theory, this adjective is used to describe groups which are generated by a single element, while in graph theory this term designates a graph which contains at least one path whose first and last nodes are the same. For 10 points, identify this adjective which in chemistry is used to describe molecules whose carbon atoms form a ring.
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In oceanography, the f-ratio is the total primary production of organic compounds caused by them. They have a trigonal planar arrangement, and are a hybrid of resonance structures that give each of their oxygen atoms either a double bond or a formal charge of minus one. The copper type can be impregnated on zeolites, forming a catalyst useful in treating diesel fumes, while their hydroxylamine variety undergoes violent autocatalysis. The calcium type, also called Norgens-salpeter, inhibits steel corrosion by reacting with ferrous ions. The sodium salt combines with sulfuric acid and then can be fractionally distilled to form sodium bisulfate and nitric acid. The ammonium and potassium varieties are powerful oxiders used in fertilizers and explosives. FTP, name this polyatomic ion with formula NO3 [N O 3] minus.
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In one synthesis named for this man, cyanohydrins and aldehydes react in the presence of anhydrous hydrochloric acid to form oxazole. He discovered phenylhydrazine, which when reacted with an aldehyde or ketone, forms enamine, imine, and aminal intermediates in his namesake indole synthesis. In his most famous namesake reaction, water must be removed to prevent the product from reverting to its alcohol and carboxylic acid reactants. Known for that esterification, FTP name this chemist perhaps most famous for depicting complex sugars with straight backbones and 90° bond angles in his eponymous projections.
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In the Corey-Bakshi-Shibata catalyst, an atom of it is attached to a pyrrole ring, an oxygen atom, and a toluene group. This element's acids are combined with amines and ketones in the Petasis reaction and in combining alkyl halides through the Suzuki coupling. Complexes containing it are called sido or arachno according to Wade's rules, and a more famous reaction using it is sometimes named for Herbert Brown. Mined from the ore Uletite, its silicate was once used in making hard glass for manufacturing laboratory equipment. For 10 points, name this element that participates in an anti-markonikov addition reaction to alkenes, with atomic number 5 and symbol B.
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In the Cottrell equation, the current generated in a chronoamperometry experiment is proportional to the square root of a coefficient of this type and a Loschmidt tube can be used to study this phenomenon. The ability of plasmas to escape confinement in a magnetic field faster than kinetic estimates would predict is accounted for by the Bohm type of this process and in Lévy flights its constant becomes infinite. Stochastic variables can be applied to molecular states to produce the Ehrenfest model of this process and random walks involving non-Brownian motion produces the anomalous version of this process. For 10 points, what is this process that is governed by a relationship between flow rate and concentration difference known as Fick's law and can describe gas molecules moving down a concentration gradient.
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In the Kastle-Meyer test, it is used in conjunction with alcohol and hydrogen peroxide to show whether there is blood present. Derived from a specific anhydride, this compound was reclassified by the FDA in 1997, indicating that it should no longer be the active ingredient in Petrogalar and Ex-Lax, in which it induced smooth muscle relaxation and diarrhea. It is debated whether or not this compound is carcinogenic, but it is usually produced in an alcohol solution, and in high concentrations of hydroxide, nucleophilic addition can occur, rendering it colorless. FTP, name this frequently-used acid-base indicator, which turns pink between pH 8 and 10.
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In the limit of low pressure and coverage, this relation can be derived from Hirasaki's model. Solid-phase microextraction techniques have been used to determine its constants, two of which are dimensionless, and the rest of which must be converted between units, while their reciprocal is the water partition coefficient. Its application to the solvent is a special case which falls under Raoult's Law, and it assumes dilute ideal solutions. Most simply stated as P equals KC, it holds that the concentration of a solute gas in a solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the solution. The cause of decompression sickness, FTP, give this gas law named for an English chemist.
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In the nematic phase of these substances, molecules have a preferred orientation while their positions are distributed at random. Some exhibit a cholesteric phase in which the application of a pressed hand on a black surface shows temperature variations through color patterns. For 10 points, identify these substances, used in the displays of watches and calculators.
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In the presence of palladium, a thioester is reacted with an organohalide containing this metal to produce ketones in the Fukuyama coupling, and this element is coupled with copper to produce cyclopropane in the Simmons-Smith reaction. An amalgam of mercury and this metal is used in the Clemmensen reduction. Its sulfide mixed with iron forms the mineral sphalerite, and a pyrithione of this metal was common in shampoo before deemed harmful. The production of galvanized steel involves soaking the steel in this metal and then using galvanization to coat the steel with it. Appearing with copper and tin in pennies, for 10 points, name this metal with symbol Zn.
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In the reaction of 2-bromobutane in a solution of sodium ethoxide and ethanol, the products will be 2-butene and 1-butene in a ratio of approximately 7:3. Essentially the opposite of Markovnikoff addition, it allows for the prediction of chemical products upon the elimination reaction of an alkyl halide. FTP, name this rule which states that the more highly substituted alkene will prevail in such a reaction, and which was proposed in 1875 by its eponymous Russian chemist.
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In the reduction named for this chemist, Bakshi, and Shibata, borane is used to reduce ketones enantioselectively via a chiral oxazaborolidine catalyst, known as the CBS catalyst. This person's namesake method of preparing olefins is also named for Winter. Terminal alkynes are made by via Wittig-like reaction on diboromoalkenes in the reaction named for him and Fuchs. Known for retrosynthetic analysis and as the original synthesizer of gingolide B and the prostaglandins, he is the namesake of rules determining the secondary structures of proteins with Pauling. FTP, name this American winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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In this method, if one molecule is larger than another, its increased mass will cause it to move more slowly toward the cathode or anode. Spraying the end result with ninhydrin will cause previously colorless amino acids to form colored spots. Amino acids with an isoelectric point greater than the buffered solution will move toward the cathode because of their positive charge. FTP, name this method of separating molecules by applying them to filter paper or gel and subjecting them to an electric field.
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In this method, the McReynolds constant standardizes the Kovats retention index of the compound of interest with respect to squalane, while the rate of band broadening is given by the Van Deemter equation. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are especially sensitive to the thermionic emission type, but care must be taken to eliminate current reducing CFC's from the sample if an electron capture or flame ionization detector is used. Ion-flow problems can be considerably reduced by using a ion trap mass spectrometer detector, in which a drift tube collects the sample for analysis as it emerges from the capillary or silica packed column. FTP, name this type of chromatography in which the volatilized portion of a sample is drawn off and separated by a carrier vapor flowing over a stationary phase.
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In this reaction, the adduct of butadiene and maleic anhydride is used in the synthesis of the important fungicide captan. It does not require a catalyst, nor is the reaction retarded by the presence of oxidation inhibitors. One of the most valuable and versatile methods for the preparation of the compounds containing a six-membered ring, it proceeds most rapidly when the dienophile is substituted by electron-attracting groups. FTP, identify this reaction, also known as diene synthesis, the 1,4-addition of an alkene to a conjugated diene which was discovered in 1928 by two German chemists.
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In this reaction, unsaturated aldehydes, esters, nitriles, and amides are common acceptor components, while malonic ester and the product of a Claisen condensation are common donors. The base catalyst removes a proton from the donor, commonly a beta-keto ester, which then must be able to form a stable enolate ion. Another enolate is formed after the newly created nucleophile attacks the carbon-carbon double bond of the acceptor, which then abstracts a proton from the solvent to complete the reaction. FTP name this reaction between an enolate and an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound, noted for its conjugate 1,4-addition product.
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In zeolite pores, a confinement effect that acts primarily upon this entity reduces the gap between it and its counterpart. The ionization potential of a closed-shell system may be determined by ascertaining the negative of its energy, a relationship described by Koopman's theorem. Walsh's rule predicts that molecular structures are predicated on the stability of these, while in ring-opening electrocyclic reactions, their symmetry directs the symmetry of the newly formed p-orbitals. Lewis bases have a lone pair of electrons in this region, and the photochemical induction of cycloaddition of ethylene is activated by excitement of a pi electron that migrates to enter a new one of these. The Diels-Alder reaction involves interaction between this orbital of the diene and the opposite orbital of the dienophile. For 10 points, name this frontier orbital that contains at least one electron.
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Including entropic effects such as hydrophobicity, their theorization was based on Laplace's theory of capillarity. The distances over which they act are proportional to the inverse of the seventh power of the intermolecular distances and they explain the viscosity, surface tension and adhesion of gases and liquids. Based on Andrews' discovery of critical temperatures, they were described by the theorizer of the law of binary mixtures as well as a namesake state equation. FTP, including dipole-dipole and London dispersion forces, name these weak, long-range forces of attraction between real gases.
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Industrially, this compound is created from the reaction of dry ice and ammonia to produce ammonium carbamate, which decomposes into this compound. This compound is produced in a namesake cycle, also known as the ornithine cycle, which converts ammonia into it. Friedrich Woehler was the first chemist to create this compound, which consists of two amine groups bonded to a carbonyl. Elevated levels of this compound in the blood are present during kidney failure. For 10 points, name this first organic compound to be made synthetically, which is found in urine.
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It can be detected and quantitated using the Marsh test, which involves reduction by zinc and reaction with hydrogen to form a gas that can be decomposed to give this element in pure form. With copper, it forms a number of brilliant green compounds such as Scheele Green and Paris Green; these compounds have also found use as insecticides. In combination with gallium, it forms a direct bandgap semiconductor material used in high frequency applications and semiconductor lasers. While it has found use in medicine for centuries, including Paul Erlich's "magic bullet" for syphilis, its chemical similarity to phosphorus makes it an allosteric inhibitor of many enzymes, making it and most of its compounds poisonous. FTP, name this toxic metalloid with atomic number 33.
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It can be produced by catalytic hydrogenation of benzene or by fractional distillation of petroleum and 90% of what is produced commercially is used in nylon production. It is a colorless liquid with an odor similar to that of chloroform or benzene and it has two major conformations, one involving the staggering of hydrogens and the other the eclipsing of some hydrogens on neighboring carbons and the presence of two flagpole hydrogens. FTP, name this hydrocarbon with the aforementioned "chair" and "boat" conformations, a cyclic alkane with chemical formula C6H12.
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It can be transformed into lyxose using the Ruff degradation. Like the other aldohexoses, its chemical formula is C6H12O6, but unlike talose or glucose, it gives an optically-inactive meso compound upon reaction with nitric acid. A major component of many gums, mucilages, and pectins in plants, it is also a constituent in animal glycolipids and glycoproteins. For ten points, name this simple sugar which bonds to glucose to form lactose.
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It is a fundamental constituent in the processes that produce the breast cancer drug Tamoxifen and the anti-inflammatory Naproxen. Reactions involving it are governed by the Schlenk equilibrium, and these reactions often take place in diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran. The addition of mercuric chloride amalgamates can help to speed up the normally sluggish reactions that form these compounds, which involve adding an alkyl or aryl halide to magnesium. FTP, identify this reagent used in a namesake organometallic reaction to form carbon-carbon bonds, which is named after a French chemist.
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It is caused by strange orbital angular geometries, which makes their electrons poor at schielding the charge of the nucleus and increases effective nuclear charge at a rate much higher than the general trend. It explains a number of unexpected properties of certain elements, such as why molybdenum and tugsten have nearly the same atomic radius despite tungsten's having 32 more electrons, and also the extreme physical and chemical similarity of many of its namesake elements, which include the bunch discovered in Ytterby, Sweden. FTP, name this effect caused by the properties of f orbitals, and named for a group of elements starting with element 57.
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It is difficult to use the de Haas-van Alpen effect to determine Fermi surface parameters of compounds containing these substances, as the presence of upwards of 20 conduction electrons confounds analysis. Consumption of these substances may be treated with a combination of penetate calcium disodium and siderophore analogues to minimize their bonding to endosteal bone surfaces and subsequent bone tumor formation. These substances are often isolated by reducing their tri- or tetra-fluorides at high temperatures in the presence of lithium or calcium. A Mott transition within this group explains a switch from high-symmetry to low-symmetry crystal structures and from relatively localized to itinerant 5f electrons. For 10 points, name this series of elements that includes thorium and uranium and is found below the lanthanide series on the periodic table.
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It is equal to the enthalpy change minus the temperature times the entropy change. Under standard conditions, it is also equal to negative R T times the natural log of K, where R is the gas law constant, T is the absolute temperature, and K is the equilibrium constant for the reaction; thus a high negative value indicates a forward-going reaction. FTP, identify this quantity, named for a Yale chemist, which is a measure of the spontaneity of a reaction.
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It is frequently used to measure lattice energies, and is solely dependent upon the final state of the reactants and products. It is even more useful in calculating the enthalpy change of a reaction that can not be measured directly. Also known as the law of heat summation, FTP, name this law that states that the total energy change for a chemical reaction is the same regardless of the route that is taken.
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It is governed by a pre-exponential term, usually symbolized by capital A, which prefixes an exponential term that states the probability for occupying a given energy state decreases exponentially with energy. The statistical method behind this law was worked out by its two namesake discoverers and one of them involved his namesake constant. It can be considered a classical treatment of Bose-Einstein and Fermi-Dirac statistics, applicable to chemical systems. FTP, identify this law describing the distribution of speeds among the molecules of a gas named after a Scot and an Austrian.
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It is mainly obtained in the form of impurities in sulphide ores, which can be roasted to create an oxide which is then reduced to yield the metallic form, and from the minerals realgar and orpiment. It is used in lead-based alloys to produce hardening, and its compounds are used as doping agents in semiconductors and in insecticides, while several complex organic compounds containing it are employed in the treatment of certain diseases, such as amebic dysentery, caused by microorganisms. FTP, name this element, which may have been first isolated around 1250 by Albertus Magnus, a metalloid of group V with atomic number 33 and symbol As.
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It is observed in the case of combining ground state atomic yttrium to ethane, and unlike its companion type proceeds in one step. It is less likely to occur when dealing with a secondary compound, however, in the presence of a tertiary compound and any alkoxide ion, or strong base, it predominates. This mechanism is the best evidenced by the dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides to produce alkenes in which case it takes precedence over any type of substitution reactions. FTP, identify this type of reaction, so named because it is a second-order elimination.
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It is one of the few groups that favor substitution on a cyclohexane ring in an axial position, due to steric considerations. When heated, they undergo the Curtius rearrangement and become isocyanate groups, which in the presence of water is converted to an amine group. Often used in explosive triggers due to their sensitivity, they behave much like halogens, since their instability makes their displacement easy. FTP, identify this chemical group, consisting of a chain of 3 nitrogen atoms.
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It is prepared as a by-product during the fractional distillation of crude benzene from coal tar. It can coordinate to positive ions such as ferrocene with the removal of a hydrogen ion, which gives it aromatic properties. Its normal structure undergoes condensation reactions with ketones to give colored compounds called fulvenes, and it readily undergoes room temperature polymerization to form its dimer. However, its most recognized use is as a reagent for creating cyclic compounds. FTP, identify this compound with formula C5H6 used in the Diels-Alder reaction.
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It is prepared by the hydrolysis of ethanal cyanohydrin, or through the oxidation of propan-1,2-diol with dilute nitric acid. An alpha hydroxy carboxylic acid, it is produced in the human body from pyruvic acid, and ends up in the liver where it is converted to glucose. FTP, identify this chemical compound, technically known as 2-hydroxypropanoic acid, which causes cramping pains when it builds up in muscle tissue during exercise, and whose name reflects the fact that it is manufactured by fermenting a milk sugar.
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It is produced most effectively by the nuclear reaction between lithium-6 and neutrons from nuclear fission reactors. The effect of cosmic rays on atmospheric nitrogen leads to its presence in natural water, as discovered by Aristid Grosse and Willard Libby. A radioactive species with a half-life of 12.32 years, it was discovered by Paul Harteck, M.L. Oliphant, and Ernest Rutherford, who bombarded deuterium with high energy deuterons. FTP, what is this isotope of hydrogen named for the presence of a proton and two neutrons in its nucleus?
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It is rarely observed in acid catalyzed hydrations and hypohalous additions, but always results in regioselective reactions. There are several restrictions on its application, including the absence of peroxides. In addition, an asymmetric reagent, often a hydrogen halide, and an asymmetric alkene must be used. Stating that the free hydrogen will always add to the double bond carbon that already has a larger number of hydrogen atoms, FTP, identify this rule of organic chemistry named for the Russian who proposed it.
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It is the cause of the one over r to the 12th power term in the Lennart-Jones potential, as well as of ferromagnetism, which results because this effect causes the spin to align instead of anti-align. It is responsible for the degeneracy pressure in collapsing stars, and for the existence of Hund's second rule. The shell structure of atoms is a direct consequence of this law, postulated in 1924 to explain results of spectroscopic experiments. Applying to particles that obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, FTP, name this law which states that no two fermions may occupy the same quantum state at the same time.
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It is the prime example of positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law. Full separation of toluene from water is accomplished through the use of Dean-Stark trap, which circumvents the problem presented by a mixture in this state. Most often involving ethers, the Gibbs-Konovalov theorem describes its condition at the maximum and minimum of a vapor pressure curve, and states that, as long as pressure is constant, both the vapor and solution have the same composition while the mixture is in this state. FTP, identify the state in which two mixed liquids boil at constant composition, the bane of fractional distillation.
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It was first calculated by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, and an alternate measure, due to different standards, is known as the Loschmidt Constant. Its current name was given by Jean Perrin in his 1909 paper entitled, "Brownian Movement and Molecular Reality," changing the old naming standard of an uppercase "N." The current number only applies when using the mass unit of a gram. FTP, give the name of this number, whose value is 6.022 x 10^23, and is the number of objects in a mole.
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It was first produced in 1863 by Joseph Wilbrand. This compound melts at 82 degrees Celsius and is formed by heating its two nominal reagents in a bath of concentrated sulfuric acid to successive temperatures of 82, 117, and 145 degrees Celsius, which allows for the stepwise attachment of functional groups to its central benzene ring. It can be safely melted in steam-heated vessels and poured into casings for military use, which then will eventually necessitate its heating past 240 degrees Celsius. FTP, name this highly explosive chemical compound, commonly abbreviated TNT.
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It was first proposed independently in two 1916 papers, one of which was by Walther Kossel. One explanation for it sees it as an extreme means of achieving lower energy, but it is violated by a large number of cases, notably ones involving hypervalence. It was introduced in part by Gilbert Lewis, after which it was used to explain the relative inertness of the noble-gas elements. FTP, what is this rule of chemistry stating that atoms seek to attain a configuration with eight outer electrons?
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Its direct introduction can be accomplished via the oxo process or by the action with carbon dioxide of Grignard reagents, and can be introduced indirectly by the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols. Present in many flavoring and perfume components, this divalent chemical unit is a constituent of acyl halides, quinones, amides, esters, and anhydrides, and is the characteristic functional group of ketones and aldehydes. FTP, name this functional group consisting of an oxygen atom and a carbon atom connected by a double bond.
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Its equation result fails to predict the specific heats of polyatomic gases because the increase in internal energy associated with their heating adds energy to rotational and perhaps vibrational degrees of freedom. However, it serves well in the definition of kinetic temperature since it involves just translational degrees of freedom. It states that the average kinetic energy of molecules in a gas is equal to three-halves times Boltzmann's constant times the temperature. FTP, identify this principle that relates molecules in thermal equilibrium to their average kinetic energy.
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Its first step is the acid-base reaction between hydroxide and another start product. Next, halogenation occurs when the lone pair on the nitrogen attacks Cl2 or Br2. The hydroxide base then reacts with the newly formed molecule, removing a proton to form N-haloamidate. Halide elimination occurs to form an acyl nitrene, which then rearranges to form an isocyanate. Finally, the isocyanate is hydrated to form carbamic acid, which decomposes into the products. FTP, name this reaction which produces an amine and carbon dioxide from amide.
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Its intramolecular form is called the Dieckmann cyclization and produces either five- or six-membered rings. Its crossed form, common in the biosynthesis of fatty acids, only takes place if one its reactants has no alpha-hydrogens. In its intermolecular form, it begins with an acid-base reaction between a formation of an ester enolate by an alkoxide base. The enolate acts as a nucleophile and attacks the carbonyl carbon of another ester molecule. The resulting tetrahedral intermediate collapses to give the final product, a beta-keto-ester. FTP, name this reaction, the ester analogue of the aldol condensation.
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Its namesake asserted that, in exchange reactions of neutral salts in aqueous solution, no heat effect is observed, and silver telluride is also named for the man who came up with this idea. Discovered in seminal experiments involving work with sulfuric acid, it was first published in Recherches Thermochimiques in 1840. Arising from the law of conservation of energy, its relevance comes from the fact that energy changes are state functions. FTP, name this law of summation indicating that the heat of a chemical reaction is independent of the path of the reaction, named for a Swiss-Russian chemist.
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Its namesake discovered pentaerythritol in 1882 when a solution of acetaldehyde and formaldehyde reacted with barium hydroxide. It is also used to test for the presence of alkynes with the triple bond in the 1 position, forming a yellow precipitate if positive. Benedict's solution and Fehling's test are often used to reach the same conclusion as this chemical, but Brady's reagent is usually used first to determine the presence of a carbonyl group. Usually an aqueous solution of ammoniacal silver nitrate, FTP, identify this reagent that tests whether a given substance is an aldehyde or a ketone.
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Its singly-ionized form produces the 3968 and 3933 Angstrom spectral lines that are the strongest absorption features in the solar spectrum, the so-called H and K lines. Its hydroxide is used in preparing nixtamal, and its chloride, which is used to make chemicompetent bacteria, is a byproduct of the Solvay process. It is selectively bound by both EGTA and serum albumin, and within cells, it is sequestered in the endoplasmic reticulum. Along with phosphate, it forms hydroxyapatite, a major component of bone. FTP, name this alkaline earth metal found in milk with chemical symbol Ca.
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Its useful polymerization can be carried out via the Ziegler process, and other useful reactions include producing its oxide, which is used in the manufacture of antifreeze and detergents. Slightly soluble in water, it is commercially produced by the cracking or fractional distillation of petroleum or natural gas. In addition this compound is a common plant hormone, whose secretion promotes the ripening of fruit. FTP, name this compound with formula C2H4, the simplest of the alkenes.
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Its value is proportional to the Madelung constant, which is related to the crystal structure. Higher values tend to reflect lower solubilities, smaller radii, and higher charges. Directly immeasurable, this quantity, represented by U, can be calculated by an indirect process that uses Hess's Law. FTP, identify this thermodynamic quantity, measured by the Born-Haber cycle, which is the amount of energy required to separate a crystal into its constituent gaseous ions.
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Laplace replaced this law with the adiabatic law to give a correct derivation of the speed of sound. This law was discovered during its namesake's attempts to disprove Franciscus Linus's funicular hypothesis. This law was later derived by taking the limit as the ratio of molecular diameter to average intermolecular distance goes to zero. One experiment verifying this law involves taking a J-shaped piece of glass tubing, sealing air at one end, and placing varying amounts of mercury into the tube. The air pump designed to verify this law was designed by Robert Hooke, an assistant to its namesake. For 10 points, name this gas law which states that for an ideal gas at a fixed temperature, pressure and volume are inversely proportional, a law named after an Irish chemist.
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Lavoisier discredited the idea of it when he discovered that oxygen was always involved when tin, lead, phosphorus, and sulfer underwent oxidation. Johann Becher first proposed it when he claimed that a substance liberated a combustible substance during fire and George Stahl gave it a name in the 18th century. FTP identify the hypothetical principle of fire that left only ash after being liberated.
as soldiers celebrated a victory, a future Nobel Laureate combined malonic acid from apples with urea to have a party of his own. The initial discovery at first found little application, but, by substituting two ethyl groups for two hydrogens attached to carbon, Fischer and von Mering created its first widely used therapeutic member, Veronal, and one of its other applications came soon after in Luminol, which helped combat epileptic seizures. FTP, name this class of drugs discovered by Adolf von Baeyer, known for their ability to depress the central nervous system and act as sedatives or hypnotics.
Legend has it that this class of chemicals got its name from the holiday on which it was discovered in 1864
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Leon Brillouin resolved the paradox by showing the entropy increase made in choosing outweighs the decrease resulting from execution. In the original version, two isothermal gases were joined at a small hole. By manipulating the hole, one gas could be made hotter and the other cooler. For ten points, what netherworld being, first summoned by a Scottish scientist, seemed to use this method to violate the laws of thermodynamics?
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Limnologists can use diatomic assemblages as biological ones, and anthocyanins are naturally occurring ones that are found in blueberries. PSP is one such compound that recently found a new application as both a weak estrogen receptor agonist and a stimulator of ovary surface epithelial cell differentiation into oocytes. Like PSP, which exists as a zwitterion in acidic conditions, most of these compounds are weak acids or bases, allowing them to detect the endpoint of titrations. Phenolphthalein and methyl yellow are commonly used members of, FTP, what group of compounds who change color in response to pH changes?
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Measured in terms of the HOMO and LUMO energy levels, this concept was first postulated in the 1939 book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals. Its creator, a Cal Tech physicist who was rewarded with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 for its discovery, was Linus Pauling. FTP, give the term for the tendency for atoms in a molecule to attract electrons.
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Melamine resin is formed by dehydration of this compound, while barbiturates can also be formed by addition of this compound to malonic acid. Other uses of this compound include separation of racemic mixtures. Originally produced by a reaction between silver cyanate with ammonium chloride, it is now made in indusrial quantities by heating carbon dioxide with ammonia. When arginine is split, it forms an ornithine molecule and a molecule of this; the principal end product of mammalian nitrogen metabolism. First isolated by H.M. Rouelle, FTP, name the compound used to disprove the theory of vitalism when, in 1828 Friedrich Wohler, first synthesized it from inorganic materials.
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Miller, Dykes, and Polesky developed a cheaper "salting-out" alternative to this process, while Chelex and FTA paper are more recent alternatives. Impurities generated by this process can lead to artificially inflated 260/280 ratios in spectrophotometric quantification. In cesium chloride purification protocols, this step is performed iteratively until the sample is no longer pink. The reagent used for this process may be used at a pH of 4.7 or 7.9, depending on whether the sample contains RNA or DNA, and it is usually followed by ethanol or isopropanol precipitation. For 10 points, name this technique used to purify nucleic acids by transferring contaminating proteins and lipids into an organic phase consisting in part of hydroxylated benzene.
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Nitric acid and water form an example of the "maximum" type, while ethanol and water form a "minimum" type. Although they cannot be separated by fractional distillation, a third component can be added to form a new one of these with one of the original components, giving rise to the namesake type of distillation. They arise due to deviations in Raoult's Law, leading to maximums or minimums in the boiling-point composition diagram. FTP, what are these mixtures of liquids that boil at constant composition?
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On an industrial scale, it is produced by the Monsanto or Cativa processes, which use rhodium and iridium catalysts respectively and which proceed through an iodomethane intermediate. It can also be produced from the oxidation of ethylene, either directly or through oxidation to acetaldehyde via the Wacker process. Nearly half of annual industrial production is further processed to prepare vinyl acetate monomer for use in polymers. At high concentrations, it behaves more like an polar organic solvent than an acid; in pure form, it forms cyclic dimers connected by hydrogen bonds. Below 16.7 degrees Celsius, it freezes to form large crystals resembling ice, giving the concentrated acid its name of "glacial." FTP, name this common organic acid with formula CH3COOH.
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One atom of this element with three ether linkages reacts with an alkyl bromide in the Arbuzov reaction. In one compound, this element is bonded to an anisole group, double-bonded to a sulfur, and single bonded to two other sulfurs; that compound is called Lawesson's reagent. Its radioactive 32 isotope is used to label DNA hybridization probes for Southern blots, and it appears in namesake di-ester linkages running along the DNA backbone. Notably discovered by Henning Brand in his own urine, for 10 points, identify this element which has red and white allotropes and chemical symbol P.
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One chemical of this type is the TA sequence that mediates psoralen-induced cross-linking. One mechanism by which these chemicals operate begins with displacement of part of a cationic sheath, after which these molecules are attracted by temporary hydrophobic regions into their namesake position. Leonard Lerman is credited with discovery of these compounds. One class of these that tends to cause non-conservative changes is the proflavines, though most of them act by causing insertions or deletions, including the drugs daunorubicin and (S)-thalidomide. FTP, name these chemicals that are highly mutagenic because they perturb the structure of DNA by becoming stuck between base pairs in their namesake type of reaction, the most famous example of which is ethidium bromide.
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One corollary to this equation gives the ratio of activity to mole fraction for the constituents of a binary system as the ratio of derivatives of activities with respect to mole fractions at constant pressure and temperature. It can be derived by substituting the temperature and pressure Maxwell relations into the usual differential of the Gibbs function, then equating the differential of the definition of the Gibbs function as a sum over species only. It sets differential pressure time volume equal to entropy times differential temperature plus sum over species of particle number times differential chemical potential. For 10 points, name this equation used in the usual derivation of the rule that the number of species plus the number of degrees of freedom minus the number of phases equals two.
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One example produces ethylbenzene from acetophenone. Hydrazine is added to a aldehyde or ketone, giving a hydrazone compound. This compound is placed in a basic solution and heated, causing the deprotonation of the hydrazine group and the release of nitrogen, leaving an alkane. For ten points, identify this reduction reaction named for the two chemists who discovered it independently in 1911 and 1912.
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One example, produced by Novagen, is "Pop Culture," which is added directly to cultures of E. coli to allow for the extraction proteins without the need for cell harvest. The Bradford variety is used in colorimetric assays to quantify total protein concentration, while Benedict's and Fehling's are used to oxidize glucose. FTP, organic magnesium halides dissolved in dry ethyl ether compose the Grignard version of what common chemical reactants?
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One graphical representation of this equation exhibits spurious loops which imply that certain substances have negative compressibility. That region is modified by a horizontal line determined by the Maxwell equal area rule. A later modification of this equation introduced a T to the one half term in the denominator of the A parameter; that equation was introduced by Redlich and Kwong. This equation contains factors which account for the volume of individual molecules as well as the attractive forces between molecules, its b and a terms. For 10 points, identify this equation of state, the first modification of the ideal gas law to describe real gases, which was developed by a Dutch scientist.
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One intermediate output of this process is described as "fuming," and it ideally runs at 450 degrees centigrade. To ensure a purer end product, the gaseous products pass through absorption towers multiple times in this process's DCDA portion. Platinum catalysts were abandoned in favor of less efficient vanadium oxide catalysts to reduce the risk of poisoning in this process, byproducts of which process include oleum and sulfur trioxide. It is much more efficient than the previously used lead-chamber process. For 10 points, name this chemical process developed by a vinegar merchant which can use pyrite as an input, the preferred industrial method of producing sulfuric acid.
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One man with this last name built a vacuum line used to separate germanium hydrides, and headed the lab in which Hoogsteen pairing was discovered. That man was the first to determine the structure of glycine and alanine, and co-names a molecular model in which atoms are represented as spheres with radii proportional to van der Waals radii along with Pauling and Koltun. A second man with this last name co-names an enantioselective reduction of ketones via the namesake catalyst along with Bakshi and Shibata, and co-names a reaction in which terminal alkynes are created from aldehydes along with Fuchs. He also developed a method in which molecules are dissected into smaller and smaller parts until they are broken down into simple building blocks, a technique he termed "retrosynthetic analysis." For 10 points, give the common last name of these American chemists with first names Robert and Elias.
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One method of deriving this statement is solving Schrodinger's equation for the condition psi of theta equals psi of 2 pi plus theta, giving a wavefunction proportional to e to the plus or minus i n pi. It can also be derived by noting that the systems in question contain one low-lying bonding molecular orbital followed by a series of paired MOs at higher energies. Hirsch, Chen, and Jiao developed a three-dimensional version of this statement that applies to fullerenes, while another method that leads to it assumes zero-differential overlap, a computational method named for Pariser, Parr, and Pople. It applies to planar systems with conjugated double bonds. For 10 points, name this rule that states a molecule with 4n plus 2 pi electrons is aromatic, named for a German.
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One modification of a reaction used to synthesize this functionality uses dimethyl 1-diazo-2-oxopropylphosphonate, also known as the Ohira-Bestmann reagent, and an aldehyde. The original reaction uses a ketone and is a low temperature, base-promoted homologation named for Seyferth and Gilbert. Two molecules containing this functionality can be coupled end-to-end in another reaction named for Eglinton. That reaction relies on the terminal variety of this functionality, which can be synthesized by reacting an aldehyde with triphenylphosphine and a geminal dihalide on an alkenyl carbon. Created by the Corey-Fuchs reaction, for 10 points, name this functional group containing two pi and one sigma bonds between carbon atoms.
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One of its key terms represents the activities of the species in the generalized version of this equation, where the activities of gases are usually taken as their partial pressures and the activities of solutes are taken as their molar concentrations. At standard temperature and pressure, this equation is also capable of calculating the electric potential of a cell. Stated in equation form as delta G equals delta G naught plus R times T times the natural log of the reaction quotient, FTP, identify this chemistry equation named after the formulator of the third law of thermodynamics.
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One of these molecules containing two geminal acceptor groups is the product of the Knoevenagel reaction. Ethers can be formed by alkoxy-mercuration between an alcohol and one of these, or by reacting a peroxy-acid with one of these. In the process of hydrogenation, some of its bonds are broken by reacting them with protons, and Lindlar's catalyst is often used to yield the cis-variety from an alkyne. Markovnikov's rules state that when hydrogen halides are added to them, the acid hydrogen attatches to the carbon with the greatest bonded hydrogens and the halide attaches to carbon with the fewest bonded hydrogens. Ethylene is the simplest member of, for 10 points, what group of unsaturated organic compounds that have at least one carbon-carbon double bond?
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One of these phenomena occurs during the manganese-catalyzed decarboxylation of oxaloacetate, but not in the enzyme-catalyzed version. The Bartell model of the "molar volume" one of them is only applicable to liquids near their melting point, and another type of them can be described by the Gross-Butler equation. Wolfsberg revised the Bigeleisen-Mayer equation, which governs these phenomena, to account for anharmonicity. Dependence of a reaction rate on this kind of effect is known as the "kinetic" variety, and can be used to probe mechanisms of enzyme function. For 10 points, name these effects caused by the substitution of one atom with another atom of equivalent atomic number and different atomic mass.
that reaction is named for Chugaev. An amine oxide is reacted with mCPBA in the Cope one of these, which is an alternative to the one using excess methyl iodide named for Hoffman which naturally obeys Hofmann's Rule. The deuterium isotope effect can differentiate the two mechanisms for this kind of reaction, one of which works best with anti-periplanar geometry. FTP, name this kind of reaction which follows Zaitsev's rule when it produces alkenes, a reaction in which substituents are removed from a molecule.
One of these types of chemical reactions is named for Grieco, and results in a terminal alkene, while this type of reaction is the second step in a Knoevenagel reaction. Another example of one of these sees an alcohol react with a potassium xanthate to form a carbonyl sulfide and methane-thiol besides the main product
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One of this man's namesake equations states d ln [lawn] K by dT equals delta H over R times T squared, and can be used to determine enthalpy of a reaction without a calorimeter. With Ostwald, he established the first journal of physical chemistry. Working under Wurtz, he explained optical activity in organic molecules independently of Le Bel, and his namesake factor, usually denoted with a lowercase "i," accounts for the dissolution of electrolytes in calculations of osmotic pressure. FTP, name this scientist, the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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One phenomenological theory of their behavior was proposed by Tisza in 1940, and improved upon by Landau. They view the substance as composed of two components with varying relative density, leading to the so-called "second sound" effect. At low temperatures the excitations are phonons but at higher temperatures they are "rotons." The specific heat curve behaves as a logarithmic function near the transition temperature, which is called the lambda point. Substances in this phase are characterized by zero viscosity under certain conditions. FTP, what is this phase exhibited by helium below a temperature of 2.18 Kelvins?
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One problem with it is its frequent violation by hydrogen bromide, which often exhibits the opposite behavior it predicts. It occurs when the mechanism involved is electrophilic addition, and is due to a distortion in the electron distribution in a double bond, making one carbon atom negative in charge. It states that when a hydrogen halide adds to an unsymmetrical alkene, the hydrogen attaches to the carbon with more hydrogens already attached. FTP, what is this rule of chemistry named for the Russian chemist who first proposed it?
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One process for creating this compound involves using gold-palladium nanoparticles on a high surface-area carbon. Another method for synthesizing this compound involves the deprotonation of hydroxy groups on anthracene to ketones and is named for Riedl and Pfleiderer. Generation of this compound in the thyroid requires the presence of calcium ions if NADPH is used, but not if NADH is used. Along with a divalent iron salt, this compound is used in the Ruff degradation, and the Baeyer-Villeger reaction occurs in a solution of this compound and a Lewis acid. Alcohols can be synthesized from alkenes by using this compound in the second step of hydroboration. For 10 points, name this compound broken down in cells by the enzyme catalase, a potent oxidizing agent with formula H2O2.
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One quantity in this equation can be expressed as one minus theta over theta where theta is the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. It can be applied to calculate the net charge on a protein at a given pH and is considered an approximation of the law of mass action applied to one species. This equation is less useful in extremely dilute solutions and when dealing with extremely strong acids or bases, and it ignores the minor dissociation of water and also hydrolysis of bases. For 10 points, identify this equation which relates the log of the ratio of conjugate base over acid and pKa to pH which is useful in characterizing buffer systems.
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One reaction by this name closed the A ring in Mukaiyama's total synthesis of Taxol, and proceeds by a radical mechanism, in which a reducing metal like magnesium generates ketyl radicals by a single-electron mechanism. Another reaction by this name produces multisubstituted tetrohydrofuran derivatives when preceded by Prins cyclization, and uses acid-catalyzed dehydration to shift an alkyl group and form, in its simplest case, tert-butyl methyl ketone. The namesake molecule of both reactions can be formed from two molecules of acetone in the "coupling" of this name. For 10 points, a coupling reaction and a rearrangement are both named after what vicinal diol?
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One reaction with this eponym has products that follow the Anderson-Schulz-Flory distribution. Another reaction with this eponym is modified by first combining an aryl bromide and a hydrazone in one step, known as the Buchwald modification. Other reactions with this eponym include one that uses phenylhydrazines to distinguish between epimeric sugars, and one that uses a cyanohydrin to produce an oxazole. This name is given to a reflux of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol and strong acid, as well as a construct commonly used to represent sugars, a certain "projection". For 10 points, give this name shared by chemists Franz and Emil, which also names the most common esterification reaction.
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One superacid shaped like an icosahedron features a skeleton almost entirely composed of this element. The selectrides are a group of reducing agents featuring this element bonded to three sec-butyl groups, and Tthe nitrogen atom in proline binds to this element in the Corey-Bakshi-Shibata catalyst. Aryl- and vinyl- acids containing this element react with aryl- and vinyl-halides on catalytic palladium in the Suzuki reaction. Anti-Markovnikov addition is a feature of the best-known reaction featuring this element, in which an alkene is converted into an alcohol. That reaction features a namesake hydration followed by an oxidation and is catalyzed by a reactive compound consisting of this element bonded to three hydrogen atoms. For 10 points, name this fifth element.
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One tool used for its detection is proton NMR, and in 1984 Olmstead proved its stability by producing its crown ether salt. Under the right conditions it can display chiral behavior, but it is generally racemic. Its stability and reactivity are dictated mostly by the extent of its conjugation. Bearing a trigonal pyramidal geometry, it serves as the reactive intermediate in many organic reactions, particularly elimination reactions. Defined as the conjugate base of a carbon acid, FTP, identify this negatively charged ion that usually has three substituents and a lone pair of electrons.
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One type of this device used in the CMS experiments of the Large Hadron Collider consists of a barrel with two endcaps and utilizes lead tungstate to determine particle energies. Another of these devices, named for Joly, consists of two spherical containers in a steam bath and measures how much condensation appears on each container. Modern-day ones use thermocouples or thermistors as their measuring devices. Yet another type of this device that maintains constant volume to eliminate PV work determines a sample's heat of combustion. That is known as the “bomb†type. For 10 points, name this instrument that can measure the heat given off in a reaction or the specific heat of a sample.
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One type of this phenomenon leads to the formation of Benard cells and is named for Benard and Rayleigh. An approximation useful for modeling this process holds density constant except in gravitational terms and is named for Boussinesq. This behavior occurs when the Rayleigh number is high. The natural type is governed by the Grashof number, which relates the buoyant and viscous forces, and occurs when flow is caused by temperature-driven density differences, as in the air around a fire. FTP, name this thermal energy transfer process that creates its namesake currents and occurs with the movement of a heated fluid.
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One type of this reaction uses DMSO and oxalyl choloride at about negative 78 degrees Celsius to generate a ketone, and another type can use peracids to convert cyclic ketones into lactones. In addition to the type named for Swern, a reaction of this type catalyzed by chromium trioxide, its namesake's "reagent," converts secondary alcohols into ketones. The Baeyer-Villiger and Jones are types of this reaction, for which a Lewis structure can be employed to determine its namesake state. For 10 points, name this type of reaction in which an atom loses an electron, contrasted with a reduction.
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One type of this technique is beneficial because of the higher signals produced, the so-called Jacquinot Advantage. Another form of this technique, developed from techniques used in NMR, uses picosecond-long exposures to track dynamics, the so-called two dimensional or color-correlated form of it. Samples can either be ground into a nonvolatile mull of nujol or spread across a pair of salt plates. In this technique, higher stretching frequencies tend to correspond to bonds to lighter elements like hydrogen, and one part of it is the group frequency region. Containing the fingerprint region, for 10 points, name this type of spectroscopy that uses electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than visible light.
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One use is to determine the electric potential need to maintain a given ion concentration across a membrane. Some pH meters use it to determine the concentration of hydrogen ions by measuring the voltage on an electrode. However, it is most often used in the other direction, when ion concentrations are known, and electrode potential is not. FTP, identify this equation, namesake of a German physical chemist, which predicts cell voltage under non-standard conditions of temperature and concentration.
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One use of this term in computer science refers to a device used to decouple processes so that the reader and writer may operate at different speeds or on different amounts of data. A major problem concerns dealing with the overflow problems of another device of this name, a part of RAM used for temporary storage of data that is waiting to be sent to a device. In chemistry, their functional range is described in the Henderson-Hasselbach equation, while an example of their use is the addition of limestone to a lake affected by acid rain. FTP, what is this term describing a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base that serves to moderate the pH of a solution?
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One useful approximation in this theory uses variationally minimized matrix elements that act as coefficients in a linear combination of orthonormal basis functions due to single atoms. Its namesake constructs are the eigenfunctions of the Fock operator, and the square moduli of the entities it concerns give the distribution of electrons due to more than one nucleus. Its namesake entities can be determined by the aforementioned LCAO approximation, can be visualized by hybridizations such as sp3, and come in bonding and anti-bonding varieties. For 10 points, name this theory of electron distribution in chemical compounds that is more realistic than VSEPR theory.
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One variation on this equation is the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation, which accounts for instances involving multiple ions and a non-equilibrium steady state. A very intuitive derivation of this equation requires the use of Boltzmann factors and the probabilities of certain redox reactions. However, it is most commonly presented in terms of entropy and Gibbs free energy. FTP, identify this equation from electrochemistry which is named after a German scientist and which calculates a system's electric potential.
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One variety of them formed from secondary imines such as pyrimidine are named for Zincke. Two equivalents of these compounds yield a carboxylic acid and a primary alcohol in a disproportion reaction named for Cannizaro. They are characterized by an NMR shift of about 9 to 10 ppm, and their oxidation in the presence of a diamine-silver complex yields a "silver mirror" in the Tollens test. For 10 points, identify this functional group which features a carbon double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to a hydrogen atom, exemplified by methanal and ethanal.
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One variety of this condition was often mistaken for Friedreich's Ataxia until the 1980s, and its more common variety is closely related to Sandhoff disease. A common test for it involves the body's breakdown of 4-methyl-lumbelli-ferone. This disease is caused by a failure to metabolize GM2 gangliosides in the lysosomes of the brain. That is because a mutation in the HEXA gene causes aberrant activity of hexosaminidase A, leading to this disorder. It is characterized by a “cherry-red†spot on the retina of affected individuals and usually leads to death in its sufferers by age two. For 10 points, name this recessive genetic disorder prevalent in Ashkenazi Jews.
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One varity of this general class of compounds is known as homoleptic, and this class of compounds is employed the ROMP reactions described by Grubbs. This class of molecules often undergoes reactions called insertion and deinsertion, and a common reaction involving these compounds is called beta-hydride elimination. An important application of this class of compounds is in olefin metathesis, as evidenced by the application of Schrock carbenes. All sandwich compounds belong to this class of compounds, as do such compounds as Gilman reagents, and Ziegeler-Natta catalysts are compounds of this type. Including such compounds as Grignard reagents and metallocenes, for ten points, identify these compounds whose distinguishing feature is a bond between a carbon and a metal.
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One version of this quantity represents the sum of the predicted values of data. Other versions are given by the Bekenstein-Hawking formula and Sackur-Tetrode equation, which give this state variable for black holes and ideal gasses. It is proportional to a constant times the natural log of the number of microstates, the constant of proportionality being Boltzmann's; that formula appears on his grave. Introduced by Clausius, it is at a minimum when a system approaches absolute zero. FTP, name this measure of disorder, that, for an isolated system, does not decrease with time according to the second law of thermodynamics.
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One way to synthesize carbonyls is to cause these chemicals to undergo a saponification, protonation, and heat decomposition to liberate carbon dioxide. The utility of these multi-coupling reagents stems from the fact that, of their four structural carbons, two belong to different electrophilic groups and two are nucleophiles for different groups, which allows selective bonding to all four. These compounds are the major products in the reaction of two compounds of the form R-C-O-O-R-prime under base catalysis. These may be understood generally as the result of attaching a carbonyl to the product of a reaction between an acid and an alcohol. For 10 points, name this class of compounds of which the aforementioned Claisen condensation produces beta- forms.
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Performing "electro-deoxidation" on an oxide of this metal may be able to improve on the current method of producing it and is called the Fray-Farthing-Chen Process. Along with a heavier element, extremely pure varieties of this element can be produced in the crystal bar process. When this element is combined with two oxygen molecules it yields a compound that produces the asterism in star sapphires, rutile. One method for producing the metallic form of this element yields a "sponge" form of it and replaced the Hunter Process; the creator of that method also devised a way to produce the chemically similar element, Zirconium. This transition metal is extracted in the Kroll process. For 10 points, name this strong, lightweight element with atomic number 22 and symbol Ti.
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Peri-acylated gossylic versions of these compounds are potent inhibitors of lactate dehydrogenase, explaining their antimalarial activity. This compound may be used as the acylating agent in a variant of the Friedel-Crafts reaction that produces a ketimine intermediate. Under nickel catalysis aryl examples of these compounds will add across triple bonds, and nucleophilic addition of an alcohol to one of these substances in the first step of the Pinner reaction produces imides. A condensation of these compounds named for Thorpe forms enamines. . Elementary syntheses of these substances may occur via nucleophilic substitution by cyanide ions, as in the Kolbe synthesis, and they may be prepared by reacting thionyl chloride, or other dehydrating agents, with amides. For 10 points, name this functional group, which contains a carbon triple-bonded to nitrogen.
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Pulsed amperometry is combined with this technique in analysis of sugars. Preparation of reagents for this technique include sparging and endcapping, though endcapping cannot fully prevent the peak-tailing problem encountered in one version of it. The MuDPIT technique developed by John Yates employs a multidimensional form of this technique followed by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry. Invented by Csaba Horváth, it often uses either a refractive index or UV detector. This technique employs "organic modifiers" to control the polarity of the mobile phase in its "reverse phase" variety, and it also comes in "normal phase" and "ion exchange" forms. For 10 points, name this version of column chromatography in which a mobile phase that is neither solid nor gas is forced through a column at a high flow rate, allowing for the analysis and separation of small molecules.
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Pyrethrin contains one of these molecules bridging an ester and an alkene moiety, and 1-1-1-propellene contains three of these molecules fused together. DBU and a diethyl malonate derivative are used to add this moeity to a fullerene in the Bingel reaction, and its bonds have partial pi character according to the Walsh orbital model. Adding a carbene to an alkene is another way of generating it; that same transformation can be performed via the Simmons-Smith reaction. Bent or banana bonding is used to explain how it relieves its incredible ring strain, which occurs due to the sixty degree angles between its carbon-carbon bonds. For 10 points, name this compound consisting of three carbons in a ring.
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Reacting these compounds with benzenesulfonyl chloride in an aqueous base can help distinguish between different varieties of them in a process known as the Hinsberg test. Primary ones can be formed in the presence of formic acid via the Leuckart reaction, and the related Eschweiler-Clarke procedure can methylate them. Reacting these compounds with hydrogen peroxide is the first step in converting them to alkenes via the Cope Elimination. They can be prepared by reacting an alkyl halide with potassium phthalimide in the Gabriel synthesis. For 10 points, identify this class of organic compounds containing a singly bonded nitrogen atom.
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Reaction of these compounds with a strong acid may produce a tri-alkyl oxonium salt. Allyl aryl ones can undergo the Claissen Rearrangement, and the smallest cyclic member of this group is ethylene oxide, while cyclic poly- ones are known as "crown." Members of this class of chemicals can be produced by dehydroxation of alcohols or by alkoxide nucleophilic displacement on an alkyl halide, which is known as the Williamson synthesis. FTP, name these chemical compounds defined by the presence of an oxygen bonded to two alkyl groups and perhaps best known for their diethyl variety, which is a notable anesthetic.
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Reduction by sodium amalgam converts it to isopropyl alcohol, and oxidation by chromic acid yields carbon dioxide and acetic acid. Naturally resulting as a product of the breakdown of body fat, it is a ketone that is readily soluble in water, ethanol and ether, making it a valuable solvent. For ten points, name this chemical with formula CH3COCH3 that is the primary active ingredient in nail polish remover.
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Robert Bergman showed how these compounds can be activated by irradiation in a cyclopentadiene carbonyl rhodium coordination complex medium, which is important because they normally interact only through Van der Waals forces. Sodium metal is used to recover them along with salts in the Wurtz Reaction, and they may be produced by hydrolysis of a Grignard Reagent or by fractional distillation of crude oil. FTP, what are these simple hydrocarbon chains with formulae C-n, H-2n-plus-2, examples of which include propane, ethane, and methane?
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Seas of calcite predominate during times of low concentration of this element. The NIMS probe discovered that Ganymede has a sulfate of this element, which is also used to treat eclampsia. Its molten form is used to make metallic titanium in the Kroll process. The active site of rubisco contains a carbamylated lysine attached to an ion of this element. Its cationic form is used to stabilize the product of PCR, and it is also prevalent in certain reagents in a Schlenck equilibrium. It is found in Grignard reagents as well as coordinated to the porphyrin ring of chlorophyll. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 12 and symbol Mg.
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Setting the partial derivative of this quantity equal to zero will allow one to arrive at the standard form Kohler Equation, and at constant temperature, the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to pressure is simply equal to volume. For a single species in a mixture and all else constant, the partial molar value of this quantity is equivalent to its chemical potential. Its standard change in a voltaic cell is defined as the negative product of moles of charge, Faraday constant, and potential difference, while in a chemical reaction it is the negative product of the ideal gas constant, temperature, and the equilibrium constant. Most generally defined as enthalpy minus the product of temperature and entropy, FTP name this thermodynamic parameter whose change must be less than zero for a reaction to be spontaneous.
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Simulations have predicted that small changes in heat capacity may account for observed deviations from one of this man's equations, as visualized in his namesake plots. That equation can be modified to include the standard entropy of change but generally relates the log of a ratio of equilibrium constants to a change in inverse temperature. He also names an equation that uses an eponymous quantity, which itself appears in expressions of colligative properties and describes the dissolution of a substance, known as his factor. For 10 points, identify this namesake of an equation used to find osmotic pressure of dilute solutions, a Dutchman and first winner of the Nobel in chemistry.
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Sometimes produced by the Sicilian process, this element takes on a reddish-brown solid form known as its "plastic" form when cooled from a molten state. Combining with nearly all other elements at valencies of 2, 4, and 6, its natural form consists of 8 atoms held in a so-called "puckered" ring. It is attached to two hydrogen atoms in its most famous compound, known for its smell of rotten eggs. FTP, what is this yellow nonmetallic element with atomic number 16 and symbol S?
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Stretching them reduces the total number of conformations in the amorphous form, increasing the order, and causing largely-crystalline regions to appear. These substances possess cross-linked regions to prevent plastic flow, and rather flexible chains, meaning that "T sub g," the glass temperature, is low. Their most useful property is their extensibility, which can be more than 1000 times that of ordinary, non-polymeric solids. FTP, name this class of flexible polymeric substances, whose most well-known example is rubber.
what is this quantity loosely characterized as a measure of "disorder" in a system?
Strominger and Vafa derived this for extremal black holes by counting the degeneracy of BPS soliton bound states, confirming the Bekenstein-Hawking formula for it. The Boltzmann relation for plasma particle density may be used to directly relate this property to the scalar potential and Gibbs' paradox is that, when derived classically, this state function is not extensive. For 10 points
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Structurally simple examples of them include the iridoids, which are based on a ten-carbon skeleton. Sterols and steroids are also examples, though their extensive modifications and cyclizations can obscure their parentage from a branched chain hydrocarbon. More recognizable are long-chain plant pigments such as retinoids and carotenoids. The key step in their biosynthesis is the HMG-CoA reductase pathway. They characteristically have carbons in a multiple of five, a result of their biosynthesis from dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate, activated forms of a particular saturated hydrocarbon. FTP, name these common organic molecules composed of isoprene subunits.
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The Bloom lab at UC Davis showed that inhibiting this process also inhibited nitrate assimilation in plant shoots. 5-FCL removes 5-formyl-THF, which inhibits this process by binding to SHMT. SHMT cooperates with GDC to mediate glycine-serine interconversion in this process. In one step of this process, two glycine molecules are converted to one serine molecule, and in a later step in the peroxisome, serine is reduced to glycerate. The final step of this process occurs in the chloroplast and sees glycerate phosphorylated to 3-phosphoglycerate, which subsequently enters the Calvin cycle. For 10 points, name this side reaction that releases carbon dioxide when oxygen binds to RuBP instead of carbon dioxide.
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The Boltzmann-Matano method gives coefficients for this process, whose Knudsen type occurs at low pressure. On surfaces, it can occur in reptation and leapfrog modes, while it names an approximation used in reconstruction of optical tomograms. The Bohm type occurs in plasmas, and its constant is related to the ratio of terminal drift velocity to an applied force in the Einstein relation. Multiplying that same constant by 4 and time gives the square of the length associated with this process, whose flux is inversely related to separation in Fick's Laws. For 10 points, name this process also described by Graham's law, the movement of a particle down a concentration gradient
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The Cadiot- Chodkiewicz coupling links two of these in the presence of copper (I) chloride catalyst and a base, while in a namesake homologation. The Cory-Fuchs reaction generates these from aldehydes, while reacting them with mercury salt in water yields enols. They can be synthesized by the dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides, and hydrogenating one of these in the presence of palladium on calcium carbonate "poisoned" with quinilone, also known as Lindlar's catalyst. For 10 points, identify this class of compounds, the simplest example of which is acetylene, characterized by a carbon-carbon triple bond.
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The Castner-Kellner process uses this method to produce alkali hydroxide, and it was applied to heavy water in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment that discredited cold fusion. First discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800, it was later used by Moissan on potassium hydrogen difluoride in hydrogen fluoride to produce fluorine. The amount of chemical change produced in a given substance by a given amount of charge is proportional to its equivalent weight according to one of two laws formulated by Faraday concerning this process. Anodization and the Hall-Heroult process both make use of this process. For 10 points, name this process that typically involves a liquid medium and two electrodes and uses a current to decompose chemicals.
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The Corey-Bakshi-Shibata catalyst contains a toluene molecule bound to one of these atoms, and the reducing agent L-selectride contains lithium and this element. Acids of this element react with alkyl halides in the Suzuki coupling, and complexes of this element adopt closo, nido, and arachno configurations according to Wade's rules. 9-BBN contains this element, and another reaction that uses it was developed by Herbert Brown and is a counterpart to oxymercuration that violates Markovnikov's rule. FTP, name this electron deficient element whose sodium hydride is a common reducing agent, with atomic number 5 and symbol B.
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The Curtin-Hammett principle describes conditions under which this quantity becomes relevant for a multiple-pathway situation. For a given system, this quantity may be calculated from the slope of an F-plot or more straightforwardly from a Scatchard plot. It is proportional to the negative exponential of the ratio of the Gibbs free energy divided by the absolute temperature, and its standard definition was given using a reaction between acetic acid and ethyl alcohol by Waage and Guldberg. FTP, identify this thermodynamic quantity whose expression is given by the law of mass action as the ratio of the activity or concentration of products to that of reactants, a certain constant denoted K.
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The DVLO theory of colloid stability predicts a balance between electric double layer forces and these forces which prevents particle aggregation. They are usually on the order of 1 kilocalorie per mole, making them over 400 times weaker than most covalent bonds. They account for the increase in boiling points between subsequent members of the series of homologous alkanes and in the noble gases. Sometimes also referred to as van der Waals forces, FTP name these induced dipole forces which are the major intermolecular interaction among nonpolar atoms or molecules.
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The Diels-Alder reaction involving 1,3-butadiene and this class's simplest compound produces 1,4-cyclohexadiene. Adding ozone to them and then water produces carboxylic acids, while adding water in the presence of a mercury salt produces an enol which tautomerizes to form a ketone, and adding hydrogen in the presence of Lindlar's catalyst partially reduces them to alkenes. FTP, name this class of compounds with formula CnH2n-2 [C-n-H-2n minus 2] whose simplest member is acetylene and which is characterized by a carbon triple bonded to a carbon.
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The Duhem-Margules equation can be used to derive it and a similar relation, and this law can be related to the Lewis-Randall rule by the Gibbs-Duhem equation. Its proportionality constant gives a relation between the chemical potential of solute atoms and infinite dilution; that constant is determined experimentally by measurements on a liquid-vapor equilibrium and the value depends on temperature as well as the solute-solvent pair involved. It explains decompression sickness in divers and the fizzing of soda when a bottle is opened. For 10 points, name this law of chemistry that relates the dissolved concentration of a gas to its partial pressure above the solvent.
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The Falicov-Kimball model gives upper and lower bounds for this quantity, while the Gibbs-Bogoliubov inequality generates an upper bound to it in liquid alkali metals. Its electrical component can be calculated from Debye's charging law, while it can be derived from the Clausius inequality under isochoric conditions. Dividing this quantity by negative temperature squared relates it to the partial derivative of Gibbs free energy, and taking its derivative with respect to particle number gives chemical potential. For 10 points, name this quantity that describes the amount of useful work available from a closed system at constant temperature, calculated as U minus TS.
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The Frankland synthesis makes organometallic compounds of this element. Dialkyl derivatives of this element are transmetallation agents in the Negishi coupling. The carbonate ore of this element is smithsonite, while its silicate is hemimorphite. Franklinite is a spinel of this metal but its most important source is sphalerite ore . This element is present in the active sites of carboxypeptidase and carbonic anhydrase, while a method of transforming alpha-haloesters to beta-hydroxy-esters uses an enolate of this metal and is named for Reformatsky. This metal is also coordinated to two cysteine and two histidine residues in some DNA binding domains, its namesake fingers. For ten points, name this transition metal with atomic number 30 and chemical symbol Zn.
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The Gatterman-Koch reaction adds carbonyl groups to derivatives of this molecule, which when substituted with a hydroxyl group can undergo the Pechmann condensation to synthesize coumarins. The ANRORC mechanism is used to describe certain types of nucleophilic substitutions in it, and reacting it with sodium and an alcohol in liquid ammonia will selectively reduce it in a reaction named for Birch. It readily undergoes the Lewis acid-catalyzed Friedel-Crafts acylation, and simple derivatives of it include aniline and toluene. For 10 points, identify this chemical compound with molecular formula C6H6, whose structure was elucidated by Kekulé.
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The Gibbs paradox deals with a faulty derivation of this quantity which erroneously suggests it is not an extensive variable. For a monatomic ideal gas, its value is given by the Sackur-Tetrode equation, while for a black hole it is proportional to the surface area of the event horizon. In general it is equal to Boltzmann's constant times the natural logarithm of the number of accessible states. According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, it always increases in irreversible processes. Proposed by Rudolf Clausius and symbolized S, FTP, what is this measure of the disorder in a system?
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The Gibbs-Bogoliubov inequality can be used in conjunction with a trial state to give an upper bound on this quantity, while Weekes-Chandler-Andersen perturbation has been applied to Lennard-Jones fluids to give an analytic solution. Proportional to Boltzmann's constant and the natural logarithm of a system's equilibrium constant at constant volume, a system in thermal equilibrium minimizes it. Defined as the internal energy of a system minus the product of its absolute temperature and entropy, FTP name this thermodynamic potential, a free energy named for a German physicist.
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The Gin synthesis of Nominine relies on an intermolecular version of this reaction, while Ishihara's triamine catalysts allow acroleins to undergo this reaction. Rajaram and Sigman's catalysts facilitate the oxo-variation of this reaction, which uses carbonyl compounds to create pyrans, and this reaction was one of the first understood through the use of Fukui's theory. Seelig's ribozymes catalyze it in vivo, and a more familiar variation uses 1,1-diarylethylene and is named for Wagner and Juaregg. The aza variation of this reaction is used to synthesize pyridines, while this reaction prefers a transition state in which the groups on one reactant are pointed inwards, called the "endo" state. FTP, name this [4+2] cycloaddition reaction that creates a cyclohexene derivative from a diene and a dienophile.
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The Hammett function replaces this quantity when activity coefficients become highly variable. Anthocyanins are biological compounds used to measure this quantity, and the Bohr effect for hemoglobin states that binding of oxygen is dependent on this quantity. Activity of lysosomes is determined by alteration of this quantity, which can be measured using cresol red or various alizarin compounds. One equation for determining this quantity sets it equal to the pKa plus the log of conjugate base over acid concentration and is named for Henderson and Hasselbalch. Measured by chemical indicators, for 10 points, identify this quantity given by the negative log of the concentration of hydrogen ions, whose value is less than 7 for acids.
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The Haworth phenanthrene synthesis can utilize two of these reactions, and pinacol(*) formation can often be observed during this reaction. This process has been employed to reduce vanillin compounds using toluene as an auxiliary solvent to yield creosol. It can be used to convert a Friedel-Crafts acylation product to an alkyl side-chain, and requires the use of amalgamated zinc which functions in part as a metal activation surface. It is not particularly effective with alicyclic and aliphatic ketones and such acid-labile molecules should be reduced using the complementary Wolff-Kishner reaction. For 10 points, identify this chemical process requiring a strong acid substrate which allows for the deoxygenation of aldehydes or ketones to produce hydrocarbons.
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The Hay test for jaundice makes use of this property because bile can alter its value for urine. Thermodynamically, it is defined as the partial derivative of Gibbs free energy with respect to area at constant pressure and temperature, and it is related to temperature via the Eotvos equation. LaPlace's law relates the collapsing pressure of a spherical bubble to twice the value of this property, which is also the driving force of capillary action. Measured in dynes per centimeter and explained by the cohesive forces between molecules with nothing above them, FTP name this quantity that can be lowered by surfactants and allows certain bugs to walk on water.
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The Huang-Minlon form of this reaction carries out the reaction in a high-temperature boiling solvent, avoiding the need for the use of multiple sealed tubes in the original procedure. The main step is a double-bond migration, catalyzed by a strong base, after the formation of a hydrazone intermediate, and the loss of nitrogen gas completes the reaction. Often used after a Friedel-Crafts acylation to produce an alkyl product, it is complementary to the Clemmensen reduction. FTP what is this reaction that uses hydrazine to reduce a ketone to an alkane, named for the German and Russian men who independently discovered it?
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The Johnson-Corey Chaykovsky reaction produces them from carbonyl compounds through the action of a sulfonium ylide. They may also be synthesized by treating a halohydrin with a suitable base, which will catalyze a ring-closing SN2-style reaction similar to Williamson synthesis. Allylic alcohols can be treated with t-butylperoxide and titanium tetraisopropylate to produce them stereoselectively, a reaction that won a 2001 Nobel Prize for its discoverer, Barry Sharpless. Also the end result of the Prilezhaev [prih-leh-ZHEY-ev] reaction, they are produced by treating an alkene with a peroxyacid in a process also known as the "Butterfly Mechanism," and are highly reactive, in part due to their approximately 60-degree bond angles. FTP, name these compounds, cyclic ethers whose rings contain only three atoms.
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The Kapustinskii equation can be used to calculate this quantity based on an assumed ionic radius for (6,6)-coordination and the Madelung constant. As the ionic radius of either the cation or anion increases, this quantity decreases, and solids consisting of divalent ions have a much larger value than monovalent ions. The most famous way of calculating this quantity involves the atomization and ionization of a metal and nonmetal and is known as the Born-Haber cycle. The opposite of the energy of crystallization, FTP, name this chemical property defined as the energy required to separate a mold of a crystalline solid into a gas of its ions.
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The Karl Fischer test is an example of this procedure used to determine water content in a sample. The amount of surfactant needed to achieve stabilization of a colloid can be determined by the zeta potential type of this process, and EDTA is commonly used to perform its namesake action on metal ions in solution in the compleximetric type of this process. Methyl orange can be used in the chemical or acid-base type of this technique, which employs that and other indicators to observe the equivalence point of a sample. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique employed to determine the concentration of an unknown solution by slowly dripping in some solution of known concentration.
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The Knudsen method for calculating this quantity uses the fact that the rate of effusive mass loss is proportional to it. The Kelvin equation gives its value for a liquid dispersed as droplets, expressing the difference in its value above curved and flat surfaces. Its temperature variation along phase boundaries other than the solid-liquid boundary is expressed in the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, and boiling occurs when this value becomes equal to the external pressure. FTP, name this property, the equilibrium gas pressure above an enclosed liquid or solid.
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The Kucherov reaction uses it to hydrate acetylenic hydrocarbons in the presence of a boron trifluoride catalyst, and the Jacobsen rearrangement of polymethylbenzenes also makes use of it. With diphenylamine and acetic acid, it helps comprise the Dische reagent, and its reaction with zinc oxide causes the pigment zinc yellow to have that color. Originally produced by burning a certain element with potassium nitrate, one innovative way to manufacture it includes the brainchild of Peregrine Phillips, the contact process. Also known as oil of vitriol, for 10 points name this strong acid found in car batteries with chemical formula H-2-S-O-4.
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The Lewis-Randall rule states that the coefficient of this property in an ideal solution is equal to its coefficient for a pure species in the same physical state, temperature, and pressure of the solution. It was devised to quantify differences between the properties of pure and salt water. It is equal to the exponential of the standard reference free energy divided by the kinetic temperature. For an ideal gas, its coefficient is by definition unity. FTP, what thermodynamic quantity measures the tendency of a gas to expand or escape?
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The Lewis/Randall rule states that this quantity's value for each species in an ideal solution is proportional to the mole fraction of that species. Use of this quantity corrects for nonideality due to attractive and repulsive forces between particles, and sidesteps problems with using the chemical potential for real fluids. It has units of pressure, and may be defined as pressure times its namesake coefficient, usually symbolized phi. For an ideal gas, phi is equal to one, and this quantity equals the pressure. FTP, what is this quantity which represents the tendency of a substance to escape from its phase?
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The Linde process is a prime industrial example that takes advantage of this effect. A deviation of Boyle's law, this effect allows gases to be cooled beyond their inversion temperature. Ideal gases avoid this effect, which is caused by the conversion of heat into work necessary to overcome the van der Waals forces between molecules as they move apart. FTP, identify this effect which states that temperature of a gas falls when it expands without expending energy, named after the two British scientists who discovered it, and demonstrated when air escapes a tire.
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The MacMillan catalyst serves to accelerate an asymmetric version of this reaction, and Seelig showed that this reaction could be catalyzed in vitro by certain ribozymes. The Woodward-Hoffmann rules were first applied to this reaction, and in order for it to occur, one of its reactants must be in s-cis form. Driven by the conversion of pi bonds into more stable sigma bonds, this reaction almost always favors the endo product, and its simplest form is the reaction of ethene with butadiene to yield cyclohexene. For 10 points, name this doubly-eponymous reaction, a 4+2 cycloaddition between a diene and dienophile.
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The Maier-Saupe mean field theory and the Onsager hard-rod model are theories that predict phase transitions in them. They can form from disc-shaped basic units that stack to form columns in the discotic columnar phase. The cholesteric phase is the thermotropic type of these substances, whose lyotropic type includes those formed by the Tobacco Mosaic Virus. The centers of its molecules tend to lie in layers in the smectic phase. Its molecules are mostly oriented the same way but distributed randomly in the simplest phase, known as nematic. FTP, identify this substance used in display devices.
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The Miyaura Reaction specifically involves synthesis of compounds with this element, and Suzuki coupling occurs between halides and organic acids of this element. One organic reaction involving this element was partly developed by Herbert Brown and is a two-step reaction which often uses the solvent THF. It proceeds in an anti-Markovnikov fashion in which the compound containing this element adds across the double bond, producing an alcohol after the second step of oxidation. Originally discovered by Humphrey Davy, FTP, name this element which has one electron in its 2p shell, thus making its atomic number 5.
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The Powder method is used to determine the magnitude of the unit vectors, and assumes a sample of smaller, randomly-oriented targets. Since the work of Perutz and Kendrew in 1958, it has become the most productive means of analyzing protein structure. This was first applied to myoglobin. The back-reflection and transmission Laue methods are two forms of this kind of analysis, relying on white light and a stationary target. It is useful because small-wavelength radiation must be used to successfully analyze molecules but such high-frequency light cannot be lensed; instead, this process analyzes a large number of similar repeating structures. FTP, identify this technique used to study the structure of crystal lattices, which fell out of the discovery of Bragg's law.
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The Pólya constant is a measure for a given number of dimensions that this process will return to the origin in a lattice. In graphs, it is aperiodic if the graph is bipartite, and it is irreducible if the graph is connected, while it is called ergodic if the graph is connected but not bipartite. Google's PageRank uses one while crawling the web, and it is a Markov process because the next state is not dependent on any previous move. Seen in Brownian motion, this is, FTP, what type of process by which the next movement of a particle or object is dependent on probability alone.
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The RRK theory allows one to calculate this quantity for one type of interaction. The Brönsted-Bjerrum equation corrects the constant involved in this quantity for a particular effect. It's not equilibrium, but the log of the ratio of its constants is found in the Hammett equation. Primary isotope effects and the salt effect alter this quantity. Its constant can be found with an equation that takes an exponential of negative activation energy divided by RT, the Arrhenius equation. The order of a component is the exponent to which its component is raised in the laws named for this quantity, which can be increased by a catalyst. For 10 points, name this measure of the speed of a reaction.
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The Rodionov and Fedorova, or "crossed" version of this reaction utilizes formaldehyde as a reducing agent. This reaction cannot occur with hydrogen present on the alpha carbon of the carbonyl since compounds that can form an enolate will instead undergo an aldol condensation. Unusual in that it forms a tetrahedral intermediate that can expel a leaving group, a hydride ion, it has limited utility in synthesis other than for converting alpha-keto aldehydes into alpha-hydroxyacids. Discovered with benzaldehyde and generally conducted in potassium hydroxide, FTP, identify this reaction, the base-catalyzed disproportionation of an aldehyde into carboxylic acids and alcohols.
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The Schlenk equilibrium, which can be affected by the presence of dioxane, describes the stability of these compounds, whose synthesis can be improved by the addition of mercuric chloride amalgamates. They react with nitriles to form intermediate imine anions, and dry carbon dioxide can be bubbled through them to create carboxylic acids, which themselves do not form an addition product with these. In what is sometimes called their namesake's reaction, they act as strong nucleophiles to form tertiary or secondary alcohols from ketones or aldehydes. For 10 points, name these compounds formed by reacting an alkyl halide with magnesium, named for a French guy.
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The Schlosser modification of this reaction uses excess lithium salts, which stabilize the intermediate betaine created in the first step. The betaine forms an oxygen-containing four-membered ring, which subsequently breaks up into the products. A similarly named modification of this reaction stabilizes one of the reactants, forming the E form of the desired product almost exclusively. Named after the winner of the 1979 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, FTP, name this reaction, which forms an alkene from the reaction of a carbonyl group with a compound known as phosphorane or an ylide.
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The Sonogashira coupling uses a palladium catalyst to join one of these compounds to a vinyl halide. Alkylated ones are formed in the Nicholas reaction, and other substituted ones can be formed in the Seyferth-Gilbert homologation. In the Corey-Fuchs reaction, they are synthesized from aldehydes, while reacting them with dicyclohexyl borane can create aldehydes or ketones if their functional group is terminal. They can also be synthesized from dihalides by dehydro-halogenation, and they react with Lindlar's catalyst to reduce to alkenes. For 10 points, name this class of compounds defined by a triple bond between two carbon atoms.
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The Sparkle Model is a computational modeler that predicts the geometries of the constituents of this chemical group. Its members obey the Oddo-Harkins rule, which states that odd-numbered members are less abundant than even-numbered ones. Members of this group tend to lose three electrons, usually 5-d-1 and the 6-s-2, to obtain their most stable configuration. The decrease in ionic radius across the series is known as its namesake contraction. Comprising the 4f electron shell elements, FTP, identify this series of the Periodic Table named after its first member, element number 57.
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The Spencer and Danner modification to it replaces the critical compressibility with a namesake factor unique to each component. Unlike the Lee/Kessler correlation, this correlation remains accurate even for highly polar fluids, and unlike the two-parameter Lyderson-Greenkorn-Hougen correlation, does not require knowledge of the density, making it more useful near the critical point of the liquid. Given as V-sat equals the critical volume times the critical compressibility raised to the quantity 1 minus the reduced temperature to the two sevenths power, FTP, what is this equation that can be used to estimate the molar volume of a saturated liquid?
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The Tebbe reaction uses a metal carbenoid to create molecules of this functional class, while the Peterson reaction allows chemists synthesizing them to favor a specific stereoisomer. Only one stereoisomer can be generated by the Julia reaction because its last step requires that R-chains be anti- to one another. They can also be created fromcarbonyls using an ylide in the Wittig reaction, but the easiest way to produce them is through a bimolecular E2 reaction. FTP, identify these molecules, such as ethene or propene, characterized by a carbon-carbon double bond.
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The Tischenko reaction is one of its variants, in which use of an alkoxide instead of hydroxide as the catalyst results in the formation of an ester. In the "crossed" variety of this reaction, excess formaldehyde is used to increase the yield of one of the products. This reaction involves an initial nucleophilic addition by a hydroxide group, resulting in its namesake tetrahedral intermediate, which then reacts with another molecule of reactant in a disproportionation step. FTP, name this reaction whereby carboxylic acids and alcohols are formed from aldehydes, which is named for an Italian chemist.
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The Zincke form of this class of compounds results from the reaction of a pyridinium salt with 2,4-DNP and a primary amine. The presence of this functional group can be distinguished by an absorption band around 2720 to 2820 inverse centimeters in IR spectroscopy, or by a chemical shift of around 9-10 delta in proton NMR spectroscopy. They undergo disproportionation in the Cannizzaro Reaction to yield acids and alcohols, and they can be detected by a brick red precipitate in Fehling's Test or by the formation of a silver mirror on the wall of a test tube in the Tollens test. FTP, name this class of organic compounds defined by a terminal carbonyl group.
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The alkyl form of these molecules can be treated with triphenylphosphine and ozone to produce nitro compounds, and these compounds can also be reduced to primary amines via the Staudinger ligation. Isocyanates can be produced by treating carbon monoxide with these compounds, and their reactions with alkyl or aryllithium compounds produce primary amines. The Curtius rearrangement pyrolises the acyl variety of these compounds to give isocyanates, and they can be produced by reacting alcohols or olefins with hydrazoic acid. Typically sensitive to shock, the lead forms of these compounds are used in detonators and blasting caps, while the sodium salt is commonly found as an explosive in automobile airbags. FTP, name this functional group which contains three double-bonded nitrogens.
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The alternate recycling type of this technique has been applied to the study of gold nanocrystals. The methods of Whitaker and Andrews are used for determining molecular weight with this technique, which frequently involves the use of dextran blue as a void volume marker. Desalting apparati like G-twenty-fives, use the same matrix as this technique, and it is useful for studying ligand-binding because ligand-bound protein elutes earlier than unbound protein. This type of column chromatography tends to dilute samples because it does not involve adsorption or gradient elution, and it is often used to distinguish protein monomers from oligomeric complexes. For 10 points, name this type of chromatography in which porous sepharose beads are used to separate proteins by mass.
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The article that postulated it is the most cited article in the history of the American Chemical Society. It is similar in transformational structure to one named for Beidler, and the Eadie-Hofstee representation compensates for its error structure. Its y-intercept is constant with varying amounts of competitive inhibitor, but fluctuates with uncompetitive inhibitor variance. Its slope, the ratio of a famous constant and the maximum velocity, increases by adding a mixed non-competitive inhibitor. A mainstay of enzyme kinetics, FTP, identify this double reciprocal linear representation of the Michaelis-Menten equation.
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The change in the energy of these entities with respect to molecular geometry is depicted on Walsh diagrams. The Woodward-Hoffmann Rules were derived from the concept of the conservation of symmetry of these entities, and were based on Fukui's theory of "frontier" ones. Lewis acid-base reactions can be thought of as having the highest occupied one in one molecule donate electrons to the lowest unoccupied one of another molecule. Antibonding ones are denoted with asterisks, and the most common examples of these are designated using either sigma or pi. For 10 points, name these delocalized electron clouds, formed from the linear combination of atomic orbitals.
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The change in this quantity for mixing is equal to the sum of the products of the component's mole fraction and the natural log of the mole fraction times RT. When temperature is constant, the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to pressure is volume. The chemical potential is equal to the partial derivative of this quantity with respect to the number of particles. The equilibrium constant is equal to the exponential of negative RT dividing the change in this quantity. It is equal to enthalpy minus the product of temperature and entropy. For 10 points, name this quantity that when the change in it is negative indicates a reaction is spontaneous, and which is symbolized G.
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The chemist for whom this reaction is named gained fame for mentoring a group of Japanese students known as the Choushu Five. Phase transfer catalysts like tetra-butyl-ammonium are often used in industrial procedures to provide a soft counter-ion, while one version of it sees an alkyl tosylate react with an alcohol. It is the most common way to create a product that can also be obtained by acid-catalyzed intermolecular dehydration of alcohols. In its usual form, this reaction sees an alkoxide ion react through backside attack with a primary alkyl halide. For 10 points, name this reaction used to produce symmetrical and assymetrical ethers.
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The chemistry involved in this process was based on the fifty-year-old findings of A.J. Fresnel. It replaced the much less effective LeBlanc process, which in England had left areas devoid of grass and trees. This process was truly a feat of engineering, since the discoverer merely took Fresnel's chemistry, and applied the use of an 80-foot high carbonating tower in which ammonium brine would trickle down and carbon dioxide rise up. Named for the Belgian who patented it in 1861, FTP, what is this process for the production of sodium carbonate?
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The cyclic type of these compounds may undergo de-symmetrization in the Evans reaction, and the maleic type can be created by the oxidation of benzene. They may be symmetrical or mixed, which affects the complexity of their nomenclature, and their oxygen atom may be replaced by sulfur, in which case the molecule may be given the designation "sulfane." Consisting of two carbonyl groups with only an oxygen between them, the acetic type is a quite common reagent that is created when two molecules of acetic acid come together and kick off water. FTP, name this functional group with a name that literally means "without water."
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The discoverer of phenylhydrazine, which formed osazones in reactions with simple sugars, his investigations of purines determined the structures of caffeine and uric acid. His stereochemical work included finding the 16 forms of glucose and the structure of fructose. For ten points, name this founder of enzyme chemistry and German Nobel laureate.
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The disruption of one of these in a common kinase G-loop structure mediates the phenotype of WeeB mice and appears to inhibit imatinib binding in E255K Bcr-Abl mutants. Gas-phase zwitterions can be stabilized either by charge solvation or by these interactions. The Bohr effect is mediated by the formation of one of these between a histidine and an arginine in deoxyhemoglobin, and in the heptad repeats of coiled coils, these are formed between e and g residues. This type of bond shares its name with a structure that may consist of a glass tube filled with sodium nitrate. For 10 points, name this term that describes either an electrostatic interaction between oppositely charged moieties of a macromolecule or the structure that connects the oxidative and reductive halves of a galvanic cell.
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The efficacy of the Boord olefin synthesis prevents ones with vicinal alkoxy groups from being synthesized. Particularly hindered ones react by single-electron transfer, but normally their namesake reaction uses two equivalents of them to generate a six-membered ring for a transition state. Reactions involving them must be carried out in aprotic solvents, and the only way to produce ones incorporating fluorine requires a metal powder named for Rieke. For 10 points, name these organometallic reagents, most commonly used as nucleophiles for reducing carbonyl groups to alcohols, which could be known as alkyl or aryl magnesium halides.
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The enantioselective reduction of these compounds by a bicyclic boron-containing proline derivative in the presence of diborane was pioneered by Corey, Bakshi, and Shibata. A hydroxyl aryl version of this functionality is produced in the Fries rearrangement. When acting on a secondary but not a primary alcohol, the Jones reagent produces this functionality. In the presence of acid or base, it forms a tautomer with enol, and in solution with ammonium silver nitrate, this compound fails to produce a precipitate. Thus, it has a negative result in the Tollens test. For 10 points, name this functional group, consisting of two alkyl groups attached to a carbonyl group, the simplest of which is acetone.
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The energy gap between highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital is important in controlling reaction rate in this type of reaction. The reaction has a stereochemical feature resulting in two possible orientations, with the endo adduct preferentially formed when the reaction is under kinetic control. An example of this reaction is the combination of acrylonitrile and 1,3-butadiene. Utilizing the compound cyclopentadiene to make cyclohexanes, it earned its discoverers the 1950 Nobel Prize in chemistry. FTP, name this reaction named for two Germans.
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The equilibrium value calculated from it is used in the chord-conductance equation, and its namesake is paired with Planck as the creator of a molar flux equation. Derivable from both the equation linking free energy change to reaction quotient and by the assumption that drift and diffusion are equal and opposite in its namesake's current density equation, it can be obtained from the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation in the case of only one ion. Useful in concentration cells, its importance comes in the case of nonstandard cell potentials. Including Faraday's constant and the charge of the ions involved, FTP, name this central equation of electrochemistry, named for the winner of the 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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The existence of the "pre-exponential factor" in this equation results from the fact that the collision rate is only weakly dependant on temperature, allowing one to treat as a constant its product with the steric factor. In one form, the natural log of the "pre-exponential factor" A provides an intercept of the graph formed by plotting the natural log of k against 1 over T, producing a straight line with gradient given by the negative of the activation energy divided by the gas constant. FTP, what is this equation concerning the rate constant, developed by the winner of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903?
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The first Bose-Einstein condensate including this element, one of three metals which is liquid at room temperature, was observed at 45 nanokelvin in October 2002. In 1995 its hydride was found to be stiffer than diamond, while its hydroxide is still the strongest existing base known to man. Its 137 isotope has been used in radioactive dating with lead-210, but may be more notorious for rapidly destroying bone marrow and skin cells. FTP, name this alkali metal, the most electropositive element, which is commonly used in atomic clocks.
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The first known pair of these molecules were two different types of tartaric acid whose behavior was explained in 1844 by Louis Pasteur. 30 years later, van't Hoff and le Bel deduced that the atoms of fluorochlorobromomethane must be arranged in a tetrahedron to explain the different "handedness" of its two forms, which also fall in this category. FTP, give the term for molecules which are mirror images of each other.
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The greatest body of data available about this effect concerns copper (II) compounds. It is chiefly seen in high-spin d4, low-spin d7, and d9 configurations, in all of which the t sub 2g orbitals of octahedrally coordinated metal ions are all equally occupied, giving rise to a doubly degenerate ground state, and thus a distortion in the octahedron, often seen as an elongation along one of the four axes, with extreme cases causing a full distortion to a square planar complex. For 10 points -- name the effect in which a molecule in a degenerate state is unstable relative to a nondegenerate configuration of lower symmetry.
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The initial reagents in this process must be ultrapure to prevent poisoning of the vanadium oxide catalyst. In this process, oxygen and sulfur dioxide are reacted, and the reaction product is dissolved in a concentrated solution to form oleum, H2S2O7, which can be reacted with water to give the final product. Developed in 1831 by a British vinegar merchant, it can produce a much more concentrated product than the older lead chamber process. So named due to the interaction sulfur dioxide and oxygen have with the catalyst, this is, FTP, what major industrial process that produces sulfuric acid?
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The isothermal pressure partial derivative of this state function is equal to the isentropic pressure partial derivative of the enthalpy; a fact useful in deriving Maxwell's relations. It is constant along a coexistence line in a state diagram, and is logarithmically related to a reaction's equilibrium constant. If the change in this quantity is negative for a reaction, the reaction is spontaneous; a zero change implies equilibrium. Defined differentially as the maximum attainable work of an open system, FTP, identify this state function that may be simply defined as the enthalpy minus the product of temperature and entropy and that is named for an American scientist.
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The lack of hydrogen exchange plus the existence of a large element effect show that this occurs instead of carbanions. Proposed by E.D. Hughes and Sir Christopher Ingold, more evidence for it includes a large hydrogen isotope effect, the fact that it is unaccompanied by rearrangements, and that it follows second order kinetics. For ten points, name this mechanism which Hughes and Ingold used to explain dehydrohalogenation.
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The log of free metal ion concentration in soil increases linearly with an increase in this property. Potential energy is plotted against this property in a diagram that shows regions of passivity and immunity, the Pourbaix diagram. An "optimum" of this property is the range over which an enzyme displays maximum catalytic activity. This property is equal to the negative log of the acid dissociation constant, minus the log of the quotient of the concentration of the weak acid and that of its conjugate base, by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. This property is plotted against the amount of titrant added in a titration chart. For 10 points, give this property that equals the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration in solution, which is seven for pure water.
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The loss of the beta-hydrogen in its mechanism occurs from the least-hindered substituent; thus it follows the rule of its namesake, which also holds for ester pyrolysis. It initially involves the use of methyl iodide and silver oxide to convert the starting material into a quaternary ammonium salt; an E2 elimination then occurs in the prescence of heat and water to give the final products. FTP, this is what chemical reaction resulting in an alkene and a tertiary amine, a process also known as exhaustive methylation and named for a German chemist?
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The monomer for this compound was originally produced through the combination of vinyl acetylene with hydrogen chloride in the presence of cuprous chloride, though presently, a three-step process involving chlorination, isomerization, and dehydrochlorination results in the desired 2-chloro-1,3-butadiene product. Unlike the natural analog that it emulates, this compound is noninflammable and chemically inert, thus finding industrial uses in gaskets, electrical insulation, hoses, and pipes. It can be foamed with nitrogen gas to provide exposure protection, and its thermoplastic rubber properties can be enhanced through combination with Spandex. For 10 points, name this DuPont-discovered compound most commonly known for its use in laptop sleeves and wetsuits.
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The namesake of this principle first observed it in hydrohalogenation, but it has also been observed with hypohalous addition and acid catalyzed hydration, and it has been seen to result in a particular regioselectivity. Its success lies in the intermediate created by the use of pi electrons from a double bond, and its explanation depends on recognizing the different stabilities of the two possible carbocations formed during protonation of the alkene. FTP, name this rule which states that a hydrogen ion in a protic reagent will attach itself to the carbon atom with the most pre-attached hydrogen atoms.
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The older name for this class of organic compounds came from their ability to react with mercury. Unlike They are acidic, unlike alcohols, and react with alkalis and certain metals to form salt-like compounds. A characteristic property is their strong disagreeable smell, as seen in the odor of garlic or the scent of skunks. FTP, identify these compounds, formerly called mercaptans, similar to alcohols but containing a sulfur atom in place of the oxygen atom.
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The original use of osmium and uranium catalysts for it has now given way to iron catalysts containing potassium and aluminum oxide promoters. The reaction involved is reversible and exothermic, so that a high yield is favored by low temperatures around 450 degrees Celsius. The raw material now most frequently used for it is called synthesis gas, which is used in the reaction between 3H2 and N2. Of immense importance for the fixation of nitrogen for fertilizers, FTP, what is this industrial process for producing ammonia?
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The osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to both the solute concentration and this number. The maximum heat capacity of a solid is held by the law of Dulong and Petit to be three times this constant, while the difference between the heat capacity at constant pressure and at constant volume is approximately this. Equal to Avogadro's number multiplied by Boltzmann's constant, it appears in a law relating pressure, volume, and temperature. FTP, what is this constant approximately equal to 8.314 Joules per Kelvin moles, symbolized by capital R?
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The probability with which an atom may emit a fluorescent line photon, rather than exhibit this effect, is the fluorescent yield. Spectroscopy which utilizes this effect bombards a material with photons with energies between 2 and 50 kilo-electron-volts, which allows for component analysis of thin surfaces as electrons can only a short distance. FTP, name this effect also known as autoionization, in which light causes the ejection of a K-shell electron, named for a French physicist.
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The properties of these compounds that can exhibit anchimeric assistance have been extensively studied by George Olah. The production of alcohols after diazotization of the starting material in the Demyanov reaction proceeds through the creation of these compounds. They can undergo Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement to produce more stable ones. Examples include the Wheland intermediate, produced during electrophilic aromatic substitution by the addition of the electrophile. Their relative stabilities can be justified by invoking hyperconjugation to explain why tertiary ones are more stable than secondary and primary ones. FTP name these reactive intermediates generated in S-N-one mechanisms, compounds where a carbon atom possesses a positive charge.
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The properties that make this polymer useful probably derive from its helical structure with the fluorine atoms on the surface of an inner ring of carbon atoms. Possessing a high softening point of 327 degrees Celsius, its preparation requires ammonium peroxosulphate as an initiator, and it is formed by the polymerization of tetrafluoroethene. FTP, what is this plastic used in electrical insulation, gaskets, and non-stick cookware?
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The protonation of nitric acid by this compound creates greater-than-normal amounts of nitronium ions, which are used to nitrate benzene in a textbook electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction. The dehydrating property of this substance is often demonstrated by pouring it over sucrose. The production of this compound was revolutionized by the use of lead-lined chambers. It is now produced using a vanadium(2) oxide catalyst in the contact process. For 10 points, name this compound with chemical formula H2SO4, a strong acid found in car batteries.
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The reaction of this molecule with oxalyl chloride was the subject of pioneering photochemical work by Kharasch and Brown. Hassel's study of this molecule yielded its molecular structure and his 1943 paper "On The Conformations" of it elucidated those for the first time. Reacting it with pure oxygen forms adipic acid, which is used in the production of nylon. Its strain energy-bond angle curve has minima at twenty-three kilojoules per mole and maxima at forty-five kilojoules per mole, the former corresponding to the skew configuration, but its stable configuration is non-planar with a bond angle of about one hundred nine point five degrees. FTP, name this molecule having conformations twist, boat, and chair; a cyclic alkane with formula C6H12.
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The relationship between the weak version of this phenomenon and heavy fermion superconductivity is a topic of much current research. Occurring mostly in transition metal and rare earth oxides, it is found below 120 Kelvin in manganese oxide and 280 Kelvin in dichromium trioxide, but has been observed at over 600K in some lanthanum compounds. Unlike in ferrimagnetism, the cancellation of atomic moments is complete, so there is no net moment. Materials that can exhibit this behavior do so only below the Neel point; above that point, show paramagnetism. FTP, name the behavior resulting when neighboring magnetic moments in a material are in an antiparallel alignment; the opposite of a more familiar form of magnetism.
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The scientist responsible for this statement provides an alternate name for disilver telluride and discovered that oxidation of sugars results in saccharic acid. One consequence of this law unrelated to electricity is Kirchoff's law, and it is what allows for the calculation of lattice energy in the Born-Haber cycle. This law can be derived by considering a series of intermediates in a thermodynamic sequence and noting that the quantity it concerns is a state function, so its change is equal to the difference in the bond enthalpies of final products and initial reactants. For 10 points, identify this law of constant heat summation that states that the enthalpy change of a reaction is path-independent.
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The side chains point radially outward, and approximately every fourth unit is hydrogen-bonded to an adjacent one, which gives this structure its stability. Discovered by Linus Pauling, its name comes from its shape and from the fact that it was the first secondary polypeptide structure to be classified. FTP, what name is given to this polypeptide chain segment in the shape of a coil?
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The simplest member of this group, which also yields the whole group its name, is described by the chemical formula C5H4N4. Other members include xanthene, which is found in tea, caffeine, and uric acid. FTP, name this class heterocyclic organic compounds consisting of two rings of carbon and nitrogen atoms, the most famous of which are guanine and adenine.
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The symmetry-preserving Kosterlitz-Thouless type of these occurs in two-dimensional superconductors. Mean-field theories break down in the vicinity of these events, leading to inaccuracies in the Ehrenfest scheme by which they are classified. In the neighborhood of these, fluids may exhibit critical opalescence. Those involving latent heat are known as first-order; the second-order ones are continuous and include the one between paramagnetism and ferromagnetism and the one between viscous flow and superfluidity. FTP, identify these physical events typically characterized by a critical point such as the Curie temperature and some common examples of which are the boiling and freezing of water.
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The total mass of the biologically active form of this element has doubled since the beginning of the 20th century and an overabundance of it has been shown to reduce biodiversity. One of its oxides is an extremely effective greenhouse gas and can catalyze ozone destruction in the stratosphere, while another of its oxides serves as a fuel for the production of tropospheric ozone. Biologically active forms of it are produced naturally by lighting and certain types of bacteria, who "fix" it. It is mostly inert due to the very strong bond between its atoms as a diatomic gas. FTP, name this element, the most abundant in the atmosphere.
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The treatment of a double bond with diiodomethane and a couple of copper and this element produces cyclopropanes in the Simmons-Smith reaction. Oxides of this element tend to be n-type semiconductors due to hydrogen impurities. The chloride of this element is combined with hydrochloric acid to make Lucas' reagent. The formation of beta-hydroxy esters from alpha-haloesters and aldehydes involves the formation of enolates with this element in the Reformatsky reaction, while the reduction of ketones to alkanes can be performed in the presence of hydrochloric acid and an amalgam with this element in the Clemmensen reaction. FTP name this metallic element whose sulfide ores include wurtzite and sphalerite, and which forms a thin layer on steel to galvanize it.
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The two main ways to apply this process are the Soderberg and prebake methods. High electrical power requirements and the disposition of toxic flouride waste products have been a problem since its discovery in 1886. The ore is purified in sodium hydroxide, and carbon dioxide is added in order to precipitate the hydroxide of the desired metal, which is decomposed by heating. FTP, name this chemical process that uses an electrolytic cell to extract from bauxite its product of aluminum.
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The variation of energy with conformation for the molecular variety of these can be seen in Walsh diagrams. Hartree proposed the approximation of this name, which expresses a many-electron atomic wavefunction as a weighted product of single electron wavefunctions. Their filling order in the ground state is the subject of the aufbau principle and Hund's rules, and the molecular ones with higher energy are known as antibonding, or star. FTP name these wavefunction solutions whose atomic version includes the s, p, d, and f types.
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The x- and y-axes of this construct are the torsional angles about the alpha-carbon to nitrogen bond and alpha-carbon to carbon bond, respectively. Actually toroidal in shape, the structure of collagen is found in its upper-left quadrant, while a right-handed 310 ["three-sub-ten"] helix is located in the lower left. The lower right quadrant is usually forbidden, except for those polypeptides containing many glycine residues. FTP, identify this diagram that maps out the conformations available to a polypeptide and is named for its Indian constructor.
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Their derivatives most often interconvert through nucleophilic acyl substitution, and the Kolbe-Schmitt and von Richter reactions generate them as products. Among the numerous methods to synthesize them are the oxidative cleavage of alkenes by potassium permanganate and the reaction of excess Jones' reagent with primary alcohols. These compounds generally possess pKa's ranging from 3 to 5, and the butyric example is found in rancid butter, while the formic one provides the sting in ant bites. FTP name this class of organic compounds defined by a carbon both double-bonded to an oxygen and single bonded to a hydroxyl.
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Their dilution is governed by Ostwald's Law, and they form the most notable exceptions to Henry's Law. Gases may act as them under conditions of high temperature of low pressure. Acetic acid is a weak one, while potassium chloride is an example of a strong one. They include all inorganic acids, bases, and salts. FTP, what are these electrical conductors in which current is carried by ions rather than free electrons.
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Their namesake minerals, such as allanite, specify their dominant member using a suffix known as a Levinson modifier. Their principal economic sources include ion-adsorption laterites and the minerals loparite, monazite and bastnäsite. They appear in a certain type of lunar highlands rock together with potassium and phosphorus, as indicated by the acronym KREEP. Their namesake minerals include gadolinite and xenotime, which contains yttrium. Cerium has the highest crustal abundance among, FTP, this group of elements consisting of scandium, yttrium and the lanthanides.
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Their namesake value is the mass iodine equivalent of maleic anhydride used per unit mass of sample undergoing maleic hydride addition. Danishefsky's namesake one of these chemicals, H4C4Me4SiO2, produces a heterocyclic ring in the reaction named for it. This class of chemicals is especially amenable to Ziegler-Natta polymerization with cross-linking and allenes are a type of the less-common cumulated variety of them. The three varieties are classified by bond separation; the two most common are the unconjugated and conjugated varieties, of which the 1,3-buta- type is the simplest. FTP, name these hydrocarbons containing at least two double bonds, the conjugated type of which undergo Diels-Alder reactions.
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These chemicals received their alternate name because they form stable derivatives of certain heavy metals. The esters of this class are abnormally susceptible to nucleophilic acyl substitutions, so they are common acylating agents in living systems. They are often prepared by SN2 reaction of sodium hydrosulfide with unhindered alkyl halides. FTP, identify this class of compounds, a main component of skunk spray and other malodorous substances; alcohol analogues in which the hydroxyl group is replaced with an SH group.
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These compounds are useful to produce drugs such as Tamoxifen by reducing ketone side groups. As an undesirable side reaction, they can convert haloethers to alkenes by the Boord olefin synthesis, and their synthesis always produces Schlenk equilibrium. Before use of these compounds, one must flush the reaction vessel with nitrogen, as they are highly reactive with oxygen, and they are usually dissolved in either THF or diethyl ether. Used to form strong nucleophiles and eventually carbon-carbon bonds, they are produced by reacting an organohalide with magnesium. FTP, identify these compounds, named for the French chemist who won the 1912 Nobel Prize for their discovery.
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These compounds become isocynates via a hydroxamic acid intermediate in the Lossen rearrangement, and undergo alpha-hydroxylation in the Chan reaction. Methods of synthesizing them include a migratory insertion which uses MCPBA on a ketone, and carboxylates of any length can be created using the synthesis named for the malonic type of them. Cyclic ones are known as lactones, and in addition to the aforementioned Baeyer-Villiger oxidation, they can be synthesized under reflux conditions in a reaction named for Fischer that uses an acid and an alcohol. Also undergoing the Claisen condensation when reacted with a base. FTP, name these organic compounds responsible for the sweet smell of fruit.
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These compounds can be created from alpha amino-ketones and from compounds containing a methylene group alpha-bonded to a carbonyl group in the Knorr synthesis. In a similar fashion, they can be created from 1,4 diketones in the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and three-four substituted ones are formed in the Piloty-Robinson synthesis. Also created by the Hantzch synthesis, their chemistry was investigated by Hans Fischer, and they are components of biological macromolecules including chlorophyll and heme. It is very similar in structure to thiophene and furan, except that its non-carbon atom is not sulfur or oxygen, but rather nitrogen. FTP, name this heterocyclic aromatic compound, a five-membered ring with two double bonds containing four carbons and one nitrogen atom.
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These compounds can be formed in the McFadyen-Stevens reaction from the decomposition of acyl-sulfonyl-hydrazides, while asymmetric ones are formed in the Meyers synthesis from the hydrolysis of an oxazine. Reactions in which their defining functional group is introduced, such as the Sommelet reaction that uses water and hexamine, are known as formylation reactions. They can also be formed in the Rosemund reduction of an acid chloride or through oxidation of a primary alcohol. For 10 points, name these compounds detected via the formation of a silver mirror in the Tollens test, defined by the presence of a terminal carbonyl group.
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These compounds dehydrate to give alkenes or ethers, and react with acids to give esters. The primary type have two hydrogen atoms on the carbon joined to the central group, secondary ones have one hydrogen atom on the carbon, and tertiary ones have no hydrogen on the carbon. Methanol and ethanol are examples of, FTP, what organic compounds containing the OH group?
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These correspond to first-order saddle points on reaction coordinate-potential surfaces, so they can be located by optimizing the potential energy of the corresponding quantum system. Positronium acts as one of these for the annihilation reaction of anti-electrons. For an Arrhenius reaction, the rate is proportional to the negative exponential of the enthalpy required to form it, which is known as the activation energy. Often denoted with a star to indicate that it is energetic, ideal irreversible reactions always go to completion on reaching it, and its structure resembles that of the reaction species closest to it in free energy according to the Hammond postulate. FTP, name this point in a reaction, the structure of which is the activated complex.
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These elements can be prepared through the reduction of AcF3 or AcF4 with lithium, calcium, or magnesium at temperatures of 1100 to 1400 degrees Celsius. Known for their self-heating, extreme explosiveness, and short lifetimes, all of their isotopes tend to be unstable and most undergo radioactive alpha decay, and the Aufbau principal dictates that they are constructed by adding electrons to the 5f subshell. Characterized by a 7s2 configuration FTP, what is the collective name for chemical elements 89-103?
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These entities can be described using Kröger-Vink notation. The Howie-Whelan theory was developed to account for them, and Kikuchi lines are used to select conditions under which to image them. The Brouwer diagram plots the log of the change in their concentration against temperature or partial pressure of oxygen. Wadsley ones occur due to randomly spaced shear planes, and linear ones can be classified using Volterra's method. The most common ones are named after Frenkel, in which an ion migrates to an interstitial site, and Schottky, in which both cations and anions are missing completely. Divided into stoichiometric and non-stoichiometric varieties, for 10 points, name these places in a lattice that contain misplaced atoms.
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These form above the Krafft temperature and above a critical concentration that is associated with a discontinuity in the molar conductivity. In some solutions they can stack to form a lyotropic mesomorph and the lamellar variety provide useful models of biological membranes. They are also useful as detergent and drug carriers due to their solubilizing function, allowing transport by water, and are typically configured as spheres with molecular hydrophobic tails pointing inwards. FTP, name these colloid-sized clusters of surfactant molecules.
Y-Rn. If X is a saturated atom from the first row of the periodic table, then this type of compound is represented by a charge-separable form, but if X is an unsaturated atom doubly bonded to another first row element Z, the negative charge on Y may be stabilized by a pi conjugation. Defined as compounds in which an anionic site Y- is attached directly to a heteroatom X+ carrying a formal positive charge these are, FTP, what compounds whose phosphonium variety is also known as the Wittig reagent?
They are 1,2-dipolar species of the type RmX+
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They are most commonly made in completely dry conditions in which the necessary ingredients are added in a flask containing diethyl ether, and the flask is fitted with a reflux condenser and heated over a warm water bath. They produce an inorganic "basic bromide" when reacted with water and, in a two-step process, result in carboxylic acids when reacted with carbon dioxide. Also used to produce alcohols from carbonyls, FTP, identify these organometallic compounds produced from a haloalkane and magnesium.
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They can be formed from the reaction of a Gilman reagent with an acyl chloride and from the cleavage of a 1,2 diol with periodic acid. The presence of the methyl variety of these organic compounds can be discovered with the iodoform test, and they can undergo the mixed Claisen condensation with an ester or have their alpha-carbon halogenated or alkylated, both of which are examples of the nucleophilic addition reactions they frequently undergo. FTP, name these compounds with a carbonyl attached to two alkyl groups, whose simplest example is acetone.
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They can be made from the reaction of organolithium reagents with aldehydes and ketones; the acid-catalyzed hydration of alkenes, ozymercuration-demecuration of alkenes, the reaction of Grignard reagents with aldehydes, esters, or ketones, or by the hydrolysis of alkyl halides. They can be converted to dialkyl ethers and are combined with carboxylic acids to undergo Fischer esterification. FTP name this group of organic compounds, composed of an OH group attached to a hydrocarbon group and symbolized as R-OH.
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They have recently been used to control the size distribution in zinc-phosphorus nanoparticle preparation and when doped with potassium they have been shown to exhibit the properties of a Mott insulator. More mundane uses include their application in ion-exchange beds for water purification systems. Natural examples form as diagenetic alteration products of volcanic ash and glass or basalt by reaction with alkaline or highly saline groundwater, which introduces calcium and sodium ions, creating varieties like natrolite, stilbite, chabazite, and analcime. FTP, identify these hydrous aluminum tectosilicate minerals whose small, porous channels are best known for their ability to absorb water.
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They include coedine as well as the gasoline additive MTBE. They readily form azeotropes, their salts are oxonium compounds, and they can be made by the hydration of olefins or dehydration of alcohols. The best known form of what class of organic compounds consists of two ethyl groups bound to an oxygen that, FTP, was once used as an anesthetic?
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They normally have association energies between -12 and -40 kilojoules per mole. The bifurcated type occurs when each donor interacts with two acceptors and vice versa. They tend to be linear, with the donor group pointing along the acceptor's lone pair orbital, though deviations often occur, particularly within the secondary structure of proteins. With approximately 10% covalent character, they are predominantly electrostatic interactions between electronegative atoms, such as fluorine, nitrogen, or oxygen, and their namesake. FTP name these bonds that explain the unusual physical characteristics of water, named for the presence of the first element on the periodic table.
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They were first declared in an attempt to verify that regular stoichiometric rules apply during the namesake reaction. One states that the charge, Q, required to deposit or liberate a mass, m, is proportional to the charge, z, of the involved ion and inversely proportional to the relative ionic mass. The other states that the amount of chemical change during the namesake process is proportional to the charge passed. FTP, identify these two laws of electrolysis, named for a British physicist.
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This chemical can cause irritation to the skin, ironic in that one of its first notable uses was as the favored antiseptic of Joseph Lister. It is produced by the cumene process, and with chlorobenzene it is the product of the Raschig process. It is an important industrial chemical that can be combined with formaldehyde to produce Bakelite, and is used in the production of explosives, pharmaceuticals, resins, and Nylon. Also known as benzenol and carbolic acid, FTP, what is this chemical with formula C6H5OH, the simplest member of a group of organic compounds characterized by a hydroxyl group attached to a carbon on an aromatic ring?
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This chemical phenomenon was first modeled by Longuet-Higgens, who devised a loop method to represent it. One formulation of it says that if a given type of polyatomic system has two or more branches that intersect at one point, then at least one has no extemum at that point. The dynamic version of this phenomenon is enhanced by decreasing the Debye temperature and happens where the time frame is short. It is comparatively weak in tetrahedral complexes since the ligands are out of alignment with the appropriate orbitals, whereas it is strong in octahedral crystal fields; it's best attested in Copper(II) complexes with 3 electrons in the E-sub-g level. It happens when the lowest energy level of a non-linear molecular system spontaneously attempts to remove degeneracy and form a system of lower symmetry. FTP, name this doubly-eponymous effect, a distortion in chemical geometry to lower energy.
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This chemist coined the term "catalysis" while proposing the existence of what he called a "catalytic force" in some substances, but he was unable to provide an explanation for it. During his work on elements found in sea-water he coined the term "halogens", and also named the concepts of "isomerism" and "protein". He provided invaluable evidence for many laws of stoichiometry by determining the relative atomic and molecular masses of more than 2,000 substances. For ten points, identify this Swedish chemist, discoverer of cerium, thorium, and selenium.
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This chemist coined the terms protein, allotropy, isomerism, and halogen, was the first to isolate zirconium, and proposed the system of chemical symbols and formulae now in use. By his observations of platinum's behaviour during some reactions he postulated catalysis, and he was able to estallish the validity of Proust's law of definite proportions and Dalton's atomic theory with the 2,000 relative atomic and molecular masses he determined. FTP, who was this Swedish chemist, the discoveror of the elements thorium, selenium, and cerium?
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This chemist's explanation of electrolysis laid the foundation of the modern electrochhemical series, and while working as a laboratory assistant discovered the respiratory effects of laughing gas. Among his practical inventions was a safety lamp usable in the presence of methane, and he is also famous for employing Michael Faraday as his assistant. FTP, who was this English chemist who used electrolysis to discover sodium, potassium, calcium, boron, magnesium, strontium, and barium?
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This class of substances was first discovered in 1889 by the Austrian botanist Friedrich Reinitzer, who studied them along with Otto Lehmann. The nematic forms have long molecules all aligned in the same direction, but otherwise randomly arranged, while the cholesteric and smectic phases also have aligned molecules. Identify these substances sometimes called mesophases that blend the properties of two different states of matter, which, FTP, are often used in the displays of portable computers, calculators, and wristwatches.
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This compound and its more complicated relatives often form spontaneously when chemicals like butadiene and diethyl ether are left exposed for long periods of time, and it often forms mild oxidizing agents like sodium perborate. An extremely weak acid, it can be made in large quantities by electrolysis of KHSO4/H2SO4 solutions. It is a strong oxidizing agent, leading to its use as a bleaching agent and as a mild antiseptic. FTP, what is this compound with formula H2O2?
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This compound has chemical formula CH3COCOOH and is the simplest of the keto acids. Microorganisms use it in the synthesis of leucine, valine, phenylalanine, and alanine, and, in the absence of vitamin B1, it accumulates in tissues along with lactic acid, causing some of the symptoms of beriberi. FTP, name this compound whose ionized form is converted into acetyl coenzyme A if oxygen is present after it has been produced as the end product of glycolysis.
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This compound is the starting ingredient in an industrial process where it complexes with palladium tetrachloride and is attacked by a water molecule to form an alcohol intermediate; that process gives acetaldehyde from this compound and is called the Wacker process. The catalytic activity of a titanium-aluminum complex in promoting the polymerization of this compound was discovered by Karl Ziegler, and the simplest cyclic ether is a derivative of this compound called oxirane. The diol of this compound is commonly used as an antifreeze agent and is known at its namesake glycol. For 10 points, identify this chemical, the simplest alkene with formula C2H4.
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This compound participates in the Griesenbaum reaction along with pentane, which results in a tetra-substitution in a five member ring. Indigo trisulfonate can be used to quantitatively assess the presence of this compound in water. It participates in a reaction that follows the Criegee mechanism, and is a 1,3 dipolar cycloaddition reaction occurring in the presence of dichloromethane that creates ketones or aldehydes from alkenes. Having a blue color, it is formed during lightning, while its name comes from its foul smell and halocarbons are able to catalyze the degradation of this compound in the atmosphere. For 10 points, identify this allotrope of oxygen with three atoms.
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This compound reacts with sodium chloride to create an industrial reagent in the Mannheim process, and it is used to produce a nitronium ion by protonating nitric acid, which catalyzes the addition of nitro groups to aromatic compounds. Usually used to work up intermediates in the Nef reaction, a common lab demonstration relies on its ability to dehydrate sucrose into pure carbon. This compound and its generating gas is called oleum when found in solution, and it is produced in a process whose central oxidation step is catalyzed by a Vanadium oxide catalyst in the contact process. For 10 points, identify this diprotic acid with formula H2SO4
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This compound was discovered in 1867 by German chemist August Wilhem von Hofman, who investigated its structure though he never managed to isolated it in pure form. Produced principally by the vapour-phase oxidation of methanol, it may be dehydrated to trioxane, and it is used in the tanning industry, as a disinfectant, and a soil sterilant. FTP, name this compound also called Methanal, consisting of formulated HCHO the simplest of the aldehydes most famous for its use as an embalming agent
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This compound was discovered in 1867 by the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofman, who never managed to isolated it in pure form. When combined with ammonia, it is used as a urinary antiseptic that can be nitrated to then form the explosive RDX. It can be dehydrated to trioxane, and when chemically combined with phenol, it forms bakelite. Produced principally by the vapor-phase oxidation of methanol, it is not surprisingly also known as methanal. FTP, name this compound with formula H-C-H-O, the simplest of the aldehydes, which is most famous for its use as an embalming agent
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This compound was initially synthesized via a Dieckmann condensation of pimelic acid followed by complete reduction of the product. It is typically produced by incubating benzene with a rhodium catalyst or under very acidic conditions at high temperatures, resulting in complete hydrogenation of the benzene ring and thus production of this compound. Its substituents are deemed axial or equatorial depending on position relative to the plane, and steric hindrance is minimized in its partially twisted chair conformation, as opposed to the boat isomer. For 10 points identify this saturated hydrocarbon, a cycloalkane which consists of a ring of six carbons with formula C6H12.
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This constant appears in the denominator of the variable that multiples the square of the quantity one minus the ratio of solubility parameters to give the enthalpic component of the Flory-Huggins interaction parameter. This constant equals the molar mass times the difference in specific heat for a compound at constant pressure and that compound at constant volume. It also equals negative activation energy over temperature, times the natural log of the ratio of the equilibrium constant to the pre-exponential factor, by the Arrhenius equation. Boltzmann's constant equals this constant divided by Avogadro's number. For 10 points, name this constant that also equals the product of pressure and volume divided by the product of moles and temperature by the law after which it is named.
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This device is an essential part of the Linde process, in which compressed gas is passed through a copper coil to an expansion nozzle inside one of them. Cryostats are often formed by nesting two of them in each other. The walls of the vessel are composed of two thin layers of glass or steel, separated by a vacuum, with the inner surface silvered to reduce radiation. FTP, identify this vessel designed for storing hot or cold liquids, named for its Scottish inventor.
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This effect is behind the arrangement of polystyrene nanoparticles in hexagonal lattices and straight lines on silicon dioxide, and it can occur in layers that are too thin to exhibit Rayleigh-Bénard convection. It also leads to instability in Langmuir monolayers, and, according to Pearson, those instabilities occur when its namesake's number is greater than eighty. This effect is responsible for the unusual deposition of solutes at the center of an evaporating drop of liquid, and for the stability of soap films. James Thompson first described this effect in a paper explaining that a gradient in alcohol content causes droplets to form above the surface making tears of wine. For 10 points, name this effect in which liquid flows according to differences in surface tension.
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This effect is present in purines and pyrimidines, a fact which initially confused Watson and Crick; for example, adenine can base pair with cytosine if adenine is present as a lactim. It occurs very rarely in DNA, because hydrogen bonds and the attachment to the sugar prevent access to the acid or base which catalyzes it through protonation or deprotonation. Due to aromatic stability, it can only be induced in phenols with great difficulty. This is in sharp contrast to ketones and aldehydes, where contact with a glass surface can catalyze interconversion between keto and enol forms. The result of a migration of a proton and a double bond, FTP, name this type of isomerism which involves a chemical equilibrium between two forms.
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This element can be detected in a test that uses strips of paper sensitized with mercuric chloride placed in a bottle containing granulated zinc, water, and hydrochloric acid. Another test for this element precipitates metallic silver out of a silver nitrate solution after a compound containing this element is reacted with nascent hydrogen. Those tests, named respectively for Gutzeit and Marsh, are used to distinguish this element from antimony. Paul Erlich developed syphilis-treating drugs containing this element, such as atoxyl and Salvarsan. More modern drugs containing it include Mel B, which is used to treat trypanosomiasis, or sleeping sickness. People who were given it tended to have brick red-colored mucosa on the post-mortem. For 10 points, name this element famed as a poison.
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This element can be prepared commercially by reducing its pentoxide with calcium or its pentachloride with magnesium. Used extensively in the steel industry, it has good structural strength and a low fission neutron cross-section, making it useful in nuclear applications. Its atomic mass is about 51 grams per mole, and its common oxidation states are plus-2, plus-3, plus-4, and plus-5. It is often alloyed with titanium, its neighbor on the periodic table. Discovered by Nils Stenstrom, FTP, name this transition metal with atomic number 23, whose symbol is the fifth-to-last letter of the alphabet.
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This element forms a passive oxide coating in air, and is obtained by heating its oxide with carbon and chlorine and then reducing the product by the Kroll process. Discovered by Gregor in 1789, its main sources are ilmenite and rutile. A white metallic transition element, its main use is in a large number of strong, light, corrosion-resistant alloys used in the construction of such machinery as ships and aircraft. FTP, what is this element with atomic number 22 and symbol Ti?
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This element is bonded to two acetate groups in a reaction in which an alkene forms an alcohol in a Markovnikov process that is free of rearrangements. This element is combined with zinc in a reaction that reduces a ketone to an alkane, an acidic alternative to the Wolff-Kishner reaction called the Clemmensen reduction. An alternative name for thiols reflects their ability to bond strongly to this element. Old vaccines were preserved with a compound of this element called thimerosal. This element is mined mainly in the form of cinnabar. For 10 points, name this metallic element that is liquid at room temperature and can be used in thermometers.
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This element is found in economically important quantities in minerals like spodumene, lepidolite, and petalite, in which it was first discovered in 1817 by Johan Arfwedson. It has the highest specific heat of the metallic elements and produces a crimson color in a flame, providing an important test for its presence. Its compounds alter sodium transport and interfere with ion exchange and nerve conduction, but despite being a poison at moderately high levels, it is often used to treat manic-depressive disorders. FTP, what is this lightest of the metallic elements, with atomic number 3?
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This element is found with silicon in the mineral pentlandite and with silicon and iron in pyrrhoite. Usually forming compounds in the +2 oxidation state, the +3 state also exists, as seen in its black oxide. It is a highly effective catalyst, especially in a spongy form known as the "Raney" catalyst, and it is often purified by the Mond process. FTP, what is this silvery metallic transition element with atomic number 28 and symbol Ni?
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This element transitions at much lower temperatures in its lighter-isotope liquid form because its nuclei are fermions and must form bosonic [BO-sawn-ik] pairs to condense. As it is cooled past 2.2 K, the lambda point, it becomes a superfluid, called the liquid two form. Oxygen is mixed with this element for high-pressure breathing work, such as deep diving, because it is inert and less soluble in blood than nitrogen. FTP, name this element, the simplest of the noble gases with atomic number 2
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This element's dioxide exhibits superhydrophilicity, and it has one of the highest refractive indexes. Compounds of this metal are used in the McMurry coupling, and along with aluminum it is found in Tebbe's reagent. Like magnesium, it can burn in pure nitrogen. It is found in the mineral rutile. The tetrachloride of this metal is important in its purification and in some versions of an alkene polymerization named for Ziegler and Natta. This transition metal is highly corrosion resistant and many of its properties are similar to Hafnium and Zirconium. For 10 points, name this metal whose alloys are often used in aircraft, symbolized Ti.
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This element's only oxidation state is -1, and it is impossible to free from its compounds by chemical means. It is prepared commercially be the same method which Henri Moisson used to isolate it in 1886, and is also found in the mineral cryolite. Its only isotope is the stabe 19 version, and in its gaseous form takes on a pale yellow color. The most electronegative and reactive of the elements, FTP, what is this lightest of the halogens with atomic number 9 and symbol F?
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This element's pure form, which is not found in nature, is used to remove trace gases from vacuum tubes. Combined with sulfate it is used as a filter for rubber, plastics and resins and since it does not dissolve in water can be ingested to produce X-rays of digestive tract. It is present in witherite and its salts give a characteristic green color in the flame test. FTP, name this alkaline earth metal with atomic number 56 and chemical symbol Ba [B-A].
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This equation is used in clinical cases to determine the extent to which pH affects the blood. It requires knowledge of the concentrations of a weak acid and its conjugate base in solution, as well as the pKa, or dissociation factor, of the acid in question. Applying mostly to systems with pHs between 6 and 8, this equation can be used to deduce the composition of a weak acid/weak base solution. FTP, identify this chemistry equation used for the calculation of pH of a buffer solution named after its two developers.
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This equation is used to determine slopes of a phase diagram, and can also be applied to solids as well as liquids. One form neglects the volume of the liquid and assumes the ideal gas law, while its more common form is derived from the first law of thermodynamics and assumes that the change in Gibbs Free Energy is zero. This form is expressed as the derivative of pressure with respect to temperature equals the heat absorbed divided by the temperature times the change in volume. FTP, name this equation that describes transitions from one phase to another, named for two scientists?
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This equation plays a role in the debate on climate change because its solution predicts exponential behavior of saturation of water vapor pressure as a function of temperature. A modification of it uses a restricted temperature range and a three-parameter fit with Antione coefficients. It is derived from the Gibbs-Duhem relation of chemical potential, and equates the slope of the phase coexistence curve to latent heat, temperature and change in volume. FTP, identify this equation that characterizes the phase transition between two states of matter, which is named after its two discoverers.
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This functional group can be oxidized by peroxycarboxylic acids to form oxiranes, or epoxides. The addition of cold, dilute, aqueous potassium permanganate also oxidizes them, to produce 1,2 diols, while hot, basic potassium permanganate causes cleavage to two molar equivalents of carboxylic acids. Under acidic conditions, adding water to them yields an alcohol, whereas alcohols or alkyl halides can undergo elimination reactions to form them. FTP, identify this hydrocarbon, also known as an olefin, which is characterized by a carbon-carbon double bond.
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This functional group can chelate with metals such as cadmium in ectomycorrhizal fungi to increase metal tolerance. One of these will be created by treating a carbonyl compound with Lawesson's reagent and then reducing, and the Barton-Kellogg reaction uses the ketone variety of them to synthesize olefins. Aqueous work-up following the Herz reaction places one of them on an aromatic ring, as does the Leuckart reaction. They can be oxidized with agents like bromine, and compounds which interfere with that process are often used to denature proteins. A major component of skunk spray, they tend to form strong complexes with heavy metal cations like arsenic and mercury, which led them to be called mercaptans. FTP, name this functional group which consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.
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This functional group can prove toxic by inhibiting the function of cytochrome c oxidase and binding irreversibly to the heme cofactor. In the Schmidt reaction, this group reacts with an alkene to form a compound that can rearrange to form an imine ("IM-een"). Both the Staudinger ligation and the Curtius rearrangement take advantage of this group's propensity to extrude diatomic nitrogen. FTP, name this functional group consisting of three nitrogen atoms connected by double bonds and represented as N-3-minus.
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This functional group is reduced in the Luche reaction. The Burgi-Dunitz angle is important in Anh's modification of the Felkin model, which involves the minimization of torsional strain of a transition state when molecules containing this functional group are nucleophilically attacked. If the desired product of a Meerwein-Pondorf-Verley reduction contains this functional group, then that reaction is known as the Oppenheimer oxidation. Molecules containing two of these functional groups are condensed in the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and one of its bonds is broken to form a betaine in the Wittig reaction. For 10 points, name this functional group that is attacked by a hydroxide ion in the Cannizzaro reaction and can be reduced to a hydroxyl group.
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This functional group is the product of the Petasis reaction, which combines a carbonyl compound with one of these to create a more complicated one. The Kabachnik-Fields reaction combines one of these with a carbonyl and a hydro-phosphoryl in a reaction that is often the first step in creating peptidomimetic compounds. The Mannich reaction creates a secondary or tertiary one, while the product of the Strecker synthesis includes one of these and a carboxylic acid. Often created by the reaction of an imine and sodium cyano-borohydride, this is, FTP, what functional group that consists of three hydrogen or carbon atoms singly bonded to one nitrogen atom?
both of these reactions usually use osmium tetroxide as a catalyst. In both of the above methods, these molecules are being formed from alkenes by way of dihydroxylation. Chloral hydrate is an example of one of these, the geminal type, which tend to quickly lose water and become carbonyl compounds, while the vicinal or 1,2-type of these includes pinacol. FTP, name these chemical compounds also known as glycols, so named because they contain two hydroxyl groups.
This functional group is the result of the Woodward Modification, which features substitution by a benzoate anion followed by hydrolysis. That reaction modifies the Prévost Reaction, which also produces these compounds from alkenes by way of adding iodine. The Upjohn method for producing them is similar to the Sharpless asymmetric method
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This has the advantage that it can successfully explain why helium gas is not diatomic and why liquid oxygen is paramagnetic unlike the hybridization valence bond model. Its fundamental process is the creation of a Schrödinger wavefunction for an electron bound to a molecule: spatial distribution of the square of that wavefunction is then this theory's namesake construct. For ten points, name the bonding model whose namesake diagrams allow elucidation of the spin-pairing of electrons bound in a molecule and the existence of bonding and anti-bonding orbitals.
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This ion plays an important role in the structure of coccolithophores, and it is stored in oxalate crystals in plastids. Its presence in living tissue can be detected due to its ability to bind with BAPTA. The uptake of this element is regulated by its namesake receptor in the parathyroid's chief cells, and it is used as a regulator in secreting renin by the kidneys' juxtaglomerular cells. Widely used as a second messenger in signal transduction, it can also bind to proteins such as troponin-C and calmodulin. Stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and important in muscle contraction, FTP, identify this ion found most commonly in teeth and bones.
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This isotope is relatively enriched in the Martian atmosphere, probably as a result of thermal Jeans escape of its lighter counterpart. The primordial abundance of this isotope produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis provides an important constraint on the density of ordinary baryonic matter. Stellar neutrinos are generated in a reaction which produces nuclei of this isotope through a weak interaction as the second step in the proton-proton chain. That weak interaction involves changing one of two fused protons into a neutron. Found in heavy water, FTP, name this isotope of hydrogen that contains one neutron.
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This law explains why the theory of Berthelot and Thomsen was incorrect, and Loschmidt's Paradox pointed out that a problem with another scientist's H-theorem could lead to a situation in which this was violated. Using the Stirling approximation solved another potential violation of this law, in which a partition is removed between two identical samples of gas, known as the Gibbs Paradox. An imaginary creature sorting particles based on energy, Maxwell's Demon, could not violate it even though it was designed to. Originally stated by both Kelvin and Clausius, who said that heat could not flow from a cold object to a hot one spontaneously, FTP name this law of thermodynamics commonly stated as for any spontaneous process, the entropy of the universe increases.
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This man invented a ceramic-filament light bulb, as well as a namesake "glower" used in IR spectroscopy. His namesake effect describes the production of a mutually perpendicular electromotive force when heat flows across a magnetic field. He won the Nobel Prize for his heat theorem, which says that a crystalline substance at absolute zero has zero entropy, now known as the third law of thermodynamics. Perhaps his most famous work was modified by Goldman to govern electrical properties of cell membranes, and it came from his theory of a "pressure of dissolution" that forced ions into a solution and off of electrodes. FTP name this man whose eponymous equation provides the potential of an electrolytic cell.
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This man names a modification of the Pschorr synthesis and the Sandmeier reaction that is used to synthesize biaryls, and with Hoesch this man names a flavonoid synthesis method that uses an iminium ion. With Skita, this chemist names a method of synthesizing pyridines using a malonic ester derivative. A procedure named for him reacts hydrocyanic acid with an aromatic compound. He is also the first namesake of a reaction that uses carbon monoxide at high pressure, which must be used to synthesize aromatic aldehydes because formyl chloride is unstable. For 10 points, name this German organic chemist, who names a modification of the Friedel-Crafts reaction that uses copper iodide to synthesize benzaldehyde with Koch.
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This man was an enthusiastic angler, and he always wore a completely green outfit when fishing. Born in Penzance, he worked as an assistant at the Pneumatic Institute in Bristol, where he showed that heat could be transmitted through a vacuum. His 1813 Elements of Agricultural Chemistry was the first book to apply chemical principles systematically to farming, and two years later, he invented a safety arc lamp for miners. FTP, identify this chemist who showed that diamond is a form of carbon, and discovered the elements boron, strontium, calcium, and sodium.
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This man's eponymous rule relates acidity to enolisation, and a dye precursor is formed from silver cyanide and ortho-nitro-benzoyl chloride in his eponymous isatin synthesis. Another reaction named for him has modifications named for Bellus, Eschenmoser, and Ireland, and it requires heat to form an o-allyl-phenol from an allyl vinyl ether via a pericyclic mechanism. In addition to that rearrangement, another eponymous reaction forms a tetrahedral intermediate before expelling an alkoxide group to leave an acyl substitution product. For 10 points, identify the namesake of the reaction that forms beta-keto esters from two ester molecules, which is known as his condensation.
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This man's namesake differential transform can sometimes reduce the one-space unsteady heat conduction PDE to an ODE, but is generally degenerate. Decoupling the spatial dependence of the diffusion equation yields this man's namesake PDE, of which the Laplace equation is a homogeneous special case. His namesake theorem states that all properties of a vector field can be derived from its divergence and curl. The change in his namesake function for a process is the amount of reversible work by that process; that function is the thermodynamic potential in a closed system. FTP, name the German physicist for whom the internal energy minus the product of entropy and temperature is his namesake free energy.
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This man's namesake elasticity describes surface tension resistance when a surface is stretched, and can be applied to surface-tension-related mass transfer in an effect named for this man and Marangoni. For a mixture at constant temperature and pressure, the change in the chemical potential of the system can be obtained using an equation named for this man and Duhem. Another equation named for this man is used to calculate the degrees of freedom of a system depending in part on its number of components. For 10 points, name this man with a namesake phase rule and a thermodynamic quantity useful in predicting the spontaneity of a chemical reaction, his free energy.
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This man's work inspired Albert Eschenmoser to use an allylic alcohol to make a gamma-delta unsaturated amide. He described namesake syntheses of isatins and cinnamates, and the Chen-Mapp reaction is sometimes named after him and Stuadinger. LDA can be reacted with allylic acetate in a rearrangement named for this man and Ireland. Also known for his rearrangement of allyl phenyl ether, the reaction named for himself and Schmidt will react aryl ketones with benzaldehyde derivatives. He's best known for a reaction which produces a beta-keto ester or a beta-diketone from two esters or an ester and a carbonyl compound; that reaction has an intramolecular variety named for Dieckmann. FTP, give this German namesake of a famed condensation.
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This material has the lowest coefficient of friction of any known solid material, and is thus used industrially in gears and bearings to increase efficiency. Also an excellent electrical insulator, it was known as K146 during its use on the Manhattan Project. Accidentally discovered by Roy Plunkett in 1938, this material actually emits fumes upon heating, which probably makes it bad for its best-known use. FTP, name this polymer alternatively known as PTFE, known for containing relatively unreactive carbon-fluorine bonds, which make it effective as a non-stick coating for cookware.
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This metal is coordinated to four ammonia groups and two water molecules in a reagent that is used to dissolve cellulose and is named of Schweizer, while another solution containing it is an alternative to Tollen's reagent that tests for only alipathic aldehydes. One solution that contains this metal is used to find monosaccharides and reducing sugars in solution by creating a brick-red precipitate. In addition to Fehling's solution and Benedict's reagent, this metal is the central atom in a reagent used to make 1-4 additions to unsaturated ketones named for Gilman. Its also found in azurin and cytochrome c proteins. FTP, name this metal often found in wire and whose +2 ion appears blue in solution, with atomic number 29 and symbol Cu.
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This model was proposed to account for gases with particle interactions. One coefficient accounts for long-range particle attractions and effectively increases the pressure, while the second accounts for the finite volume of the atoms and decreases the effective volume. For ten points, name this correction to the ideal gas law.
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This molecule has uniform bond lengths of 140 picometers. A strong Lewis acid catalyst can be used to alkylate or acylate this molecule. Alternating carbon-carbon single and double bonds characterize this molecule's two resonance structures, which represent its six delocalized pi electrons. Huckel's rule describes this molecule's structure, which was first discovered by August Kekulé. Adding an -OH group to this molecule produces phenol, while adding a CH3 group to it makes toluene. For 10 points, name this aromatic compound with formula C6H6.
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This molecule reacts with alpha,beta unsaturated carbonyl compounds to form cyclopropane compounds. A fifty percent solution of this molecule and water produces a lower <100> to <111> etch rate than KOH or EDP, but produces sharply defined corners. It is produced in acetone by the Bayer process, and from urea via the Hoffman process. Methyl ethyl ketone and hydrogen peroxide are two of the reactants used in the Atofina/PCUK process for its production, and it is produced when a hypochlorite ion oxidizes ammonia in the Raschig process. For 10 points, name this molecule that attacks a carbonyl compound in the Wolff-Kishner reaction, a component of rocket fuel with formula N2H4.
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This molecule's receptor, which is degraded by PCSK9, contains three EGF-like domains sandwiched around a beta-propeller domain. The gene for that receptor is activated by the bHLH fragment of SREBP. Endocytosis of this molecule can induce macrophages to become foam cells. ASPs can inhibit a reaction in which copper ions oxidize this molecule; an important step in that reaction is the modification of apoprotein B-100. Ezitimibe is one drug that reduces the amount of this molecule in the body; however, it is much more effective when used with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, or statins. For 10 points, name this molecule responsible for depositing cholesterol on artery walls, sometimes referred to as the "bad" cholesterol.
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This parameter's change with temperature is given by the difference in the molar enthalpy of the pure substance and its partial specific enthalpy in solution divided by the square of the kinetic temperature. For solutions of high ionic strength, expressions like the Pitzer and Meissner equations may be used to estimate the values of the namesake coefficient that enables its calculation, though at lower concentrations the Debye-Hückel equation is more useful. For ideal gases, it is defined as the exponential of the standard-reference potential divided by the kinetic temperature, and for pure condensed phases it is unity. FTP, name this dimensionless value, a thermodynamic correction for mole fraction, symbolized a.
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This pathway has a vanishing small reaction rate for tertiary halides due to steric hindrance so an alternative carbocation pathway is strongly preferred. During reactions of this type, a complete inversion of configuration takes place and, in them, the substituent concertedly attacks opposite the leaving group. One example of them is the reaction of n-butyl bromide with iodide to produce a bromide and n-butyl iodide, while another example is the reaction of chloromethane and sodium hydroxide to produce methanol and sodium chloride. FTP, identify this type of chemical reaction initiated by the approach of an electron donor species and entailing a nucleophilic substitution with two species.
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This person claimed to have inspired the Woodward-Hoffmann rules while accepting the 2004 Priestley Prize. This scientist's namesake method for the asymmetric reduction of ketones to secondary alcohols using borane is widely used. The developer of PCC, which is used for the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes, he is most renowned for the total synthesis of prostaglandins achieved by his lab in 1969. FTP, name this author of The Logic of Chemical Synthesis; a chemist who won the Nobel Prize for application of retrosynthetic analysis to organic synthesis in 1992 and who is the namesake of a molecular model with Pauling.
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This phenomenon reduces the resolution of detectors doped with cerium three at room temperature, because cerium three creates shallow traps in the phase space at which thermally activated electron-hole recombination occurs. In an organic molecule with pi-structure, intersystem crossing can allow radiation-free electron transfer from an excited singlet state to an excited triplet state, eventually resulting in this. This process is generally undesirable in a scintillation detector, as it places significant restrictions on the maximum count rate and results in "afterglow" due to its long duration. FTP name this form of electronic de-excitation through spontaneous photon emission, a term first used to describe the persistent luminescence of its namesake.
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This procedure replaced the inefficient Birkeland-Eyde method, which involved air passing through a special zone generated by an electric arc. Its formulator worked with assistant Eberhard Brauer and Friedrich Uhde, who later developed the dual-pressure method for this, which involves cooling in a heat exchanger train resulting in preheating tail gas. It was actually first discovered by Karl Frederic Kuhlmann of Lille, who obtained a patent sixty years earlier. But its namesake developed a more efficient catalyst; the catalyst used today is most often a platinum-rhodium metal gauze heated to about 900 degrees Celsius. This method was greatly improved by the introduction of the work of Haber and Bosch, since it requires the combustion of ammonia followed by absorption in water. FTP, name this premiere way to make nitric acid.
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This procedure was first published with Claparede in 1881 in two forms, the second for a hydroxyl-substituted benzene. As performed today, it usually requires an initial acylation but, even with this, the relevant methanoate derivatives are notably unable to carry out the self- form of this reaction. One of the reactants contains a hydrogen alpha to a carbonyl; a deprotonation occurs at this site in the first step and the resulting conjugated system attacks the other reactant, an ester. It requires a strong base catalysis, so the relevant alkoxide is often added to the system. FTP, name this reaction of two esters to yield a beta-keto ester; a condensation named for a German chemist.
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This procedure was introduced by its namesake, along with Foster and Towle, in the Journal of the American Chemical Society 1949. No anti- selectivity has been found for it and, when multiple products are possible, there is little preference except when one product involves a double bond conjugated to an aromatic ring. This reaction is spontaneous between one hundred and one hundred fifty degrees Celsius and, unlike the Hofmann elimination, its mechanism involves a cyclic flow of six electrons. FTP, identify this elimination reaction in which an amine oxide decomposes into a dialkylhydroxylamine and an amine.
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This process can by begun by addition of Collins reagent or its namesake's reagent; both contain the hexavalent metal central to it. That metal can be activated in the presence of pyridinium hydrochloride under anhydrous conditions, but a sulfuric acid medium is generally used to increase the rate. Discovered by Bowden, not its namesake, in 1946, this reaction requires care as it is highly exothermic and leaves an extremely toxic residue. The steric bulk of tertiary alcohols precludes their participation in this reaction, and it is usually carried out in acetone. FTP, name this organic reaction in which primary alcohols are transformed into carboxylic acids and secondary alcohols to ketones under catalysis by chromium oxide.
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This process involves the so-called "oxygen paradox." A diazotrophic actinomycete called "frankia" can do it, as can the blue-green algae Azolla in paddy rice. Lightning does it to the tune of 10 million tons per year. Rhizobium does it in legumes. And humans do it with the Haber-Bosch process. FTP, what is this necessary activity, defined as the conversion of a certain atmospheric gas into compounds for plant growth, such as ammonia.
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This process is typically accomplished by the hydrolysis of a glycerol ester, such as the heating of a fat with an alkali. The molecule formed thereby is a long hydrocarbon chain with an ionic salt at one end, which is water-soluble, and a fatty acid on the other, which is not. For ten points, name the process by which soap is formed.
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This process proceeds via the Cossee-Arlman mechanism, that is, by complexation of reactants to adsorbed transition metals, so it can produce stereoregular compounds. In the case of olefins, the catalysts for this reaction are a transition metal halide and an alkyl aluminum compound. Having isotactic and syndiotactic varieties, it has numerous advantages over free radical methods, including the ability to synthesize straight chain compounds. FTP, name this type of polymerization, named for a German and an Italian chemist, the former of whom won the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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This property ensures complete separation when dividing hydroxides of group III cations because it causes Zinc 2+ and Aluminum 3+ to immediately redissolve into NaOH. Isoelectric focusing can be used to separate molecules with this property, such as proteins, by applying a potential difference across a pH gradient and allowing the small molecules to move towards the anode or cathode. One notable compound displaying it reacts with ammonia to form a hydroxide ion and with hydrogen choride to form a hydronium ion. FTP, name this property of substances such as water that can react as either acids or bases.
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This quantity can be calculated for water with the Arden Buck equation, which is a recent improvement over the Goff-Gratch equation. Thermogravimetry can be used to calculate this value for solids, and it is related to the molar volume, surface tension, and droplet radius in the Kelvin equation. Another equation relates two values of this quantity to the enthalpy of vaporization and temperature, and is named for Clausius and Clayperon, while this value is modified by mole fractions of species in solution in Raoult's Law. For 10 points, name this measure of a liquid's tendency to evaporate, which, when it exceeds atmospheric pressure, results in boiling.
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This quantity can be defined as minus the temperature times the derivative of entropy with respect to particle number. The Gibbs factor is a generalization of the Boltzmann factor that takes this quantity into account. Usually defined as the derivative of the Helmholtz free energy with respect to particle number, FTP name this quantity which governs particle flow, as particles flow from systems with higher values to systems with lower values.
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This quantity can be defined as the derivative of internal energy with respect to volume at constant entropy. It can be measured by Kiel probes, and structures sensitive to it in the body include Ruffini endings and Pascinian Corpuscles. The radiation variety is calculated as one over c times the energy flux, and it was recently found that the absolute form of this quantity can be negative, explaining transpirational pull. Gay-Lussac's Law says that, at constant volume, it is directly proportional to temperature, and Boyle's Law deals with its relation to volume. FTP name this state function often measured in Pascals, defined as force per unit area.
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This quantity is conserved as a constant in the throttling process, and it is often convenient to express the energy that can be extracted from a turbine in terms of the change in this quantity across the turbine. If the only work done in a system is a change of volume at constant pressure, then the change in this quantity is exactly equal to the heat transferred to the system, leading it to sometimes be called "heat content" or "total heat". The term that differentiates Gibbs free energy from Helmholtz free energy, FTP, what is this quantity symbolized H, defined as the product of pressure and volume added to a system's internal energy?
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This reaction fails if tertiary halides are used, and works poorly with secondary halides since a competing E2 reaction may result. Sodium metal is typically used as the base to generate the alkoxide before treating with the alkyl halide. Resulting in an SN2 reaction, the first step involves the production of the alkoxide, a nucleophile that an alkyl halide in order to produce the namesake compound. FTP, identify this organic chemistry reaction that produces ethers.
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This reaction features a short-lived four-membered ring intermediate, which forms during the spontaneous decomposition of the initial intermediate, a neutral, dipolar compound known as a betaine [BAY-ta-een]. The essential reagent for this reaction, a neutral compound with adjacent positive and negative charges, possesses a strongly nucleophilic carbon that attacks the carbon of a carbonyl to form the desired product plus a triphenylphosphine oxide. Used to create an alkene from a ketone or aldehyde, FTP name this reaction that requires the use of a phosphorus-stabilized carbanion known as an ylide [ILL-id], named for the winner of the 1979 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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This reaction generally cannot be used for alpha-hydroxy-ketones and sterically hindered ketones, since a reaction involving these would likely form significant side products, such as pinacols. An important reaction intermediate involves a carbon-zinc bond at a metal surface, which avoids reaction between zinc and chloride. Overcoming the limitations of Freidel-Crafts alkylations, it takes the result from a Freidel-Crafts acylation and treats it in mercury-amalgamated zinc and excess aqueous hydrochloric acid, resulting in a reduced end product. FTP, name this organic chemistry reaction that is used to reduce acylbenzenes to alkylbenzenes.
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This reaction involves a tetrahedral alkoxide intermediate which is created by a nucleophilic addition of a hydroxide to a carbonyl group. The intermediate becomes a carboxylate ion which is protanated by addition of aqueous mineral acid to yield a carboxylic acid. Completed in a basic solution, its namesake constant indicates the amount of lye required to facilitate the breaking of ester linkages. That constant is 0.1330 for avocado and sesame seed; the relative amount of potassium hydroxide needed for them to undergo this process. FTP, name this triglyercide hydrolysis which takes its name from its use in the manufacture of soap.
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This reaction is often used to determine the structure of complex amines by converting them to simpler amines. In violation of Zaitsev's rule, the major product in this reaction is the least substituted alkene, while the minor product is known as the Zaitsev product. In this E2 reaction, a quaternary ammonium salt is treated with an excess of methyl iodide and with silver oxide to give an ammonium hydroxide, which is heated to give the final product. FTP, identify this elimination reaction which converts a quaternary ammonium salt to an alkene and an amide.
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This relation is extended by Randall-Wilkins theory and the substitution of Marcus theory into it will produce DeVault-type control coefficients. It can be used as an electronic model to predict failure mechanisms including void formation and metal migration, and is very similar to the Eyring Equation which also applies to mixed phase and condensed situations. The namesake pre-exponential factor assumes the constancy of the collision frequency and the steric factor. Its basic formulation states that the rate is equal to a constant times the exponential of negative E sub a over RT. FTP, name this equation of chemical kinetics including a term for activation energy, named for a noted Swedish chemist.
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This rule holds valid if the following approximations are made: all overlap integrals are set equal to zero, all resonance integrals between non-neighboring atoms are set equal to zero, and all remaining resonance integrals are set equal to each other. Essentially, all the Coulomb integrals for the atomic orbitals that contribute to the pi orbitals are set equal. This rule states that pi electrons undergo delocalization if there are 4n+2 pi electrons in a given molecule. FTP, identify this rule that determines a molecule's planarity and aromaticity.
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This scientific work is a long dialogue between Eleutherius, an interested bystander; Philoponus, who advocates the three-principle system of Paracelsus; Themistius, who represents the four-element system of Aristotle; and Carneades, whom the author uses as a mouthpiece for his belief that matter is composed of corpuscles. FTP, name this 1661 dialogue concerning the nature and number of elements, written by Robert Boyle.
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This scientist determined the geometry of a 777 atom molecule by replacing zinc with lead, uranium, and mercury in insulin obtained from pigs. The winner of the Lenin Peace Prize in 1987 for work as President of the Pugwash Conference, this X-ray crystallographer determined that the first known organometallic compound was a porphyrin. For ten points, name this scientist honored with a Nobel Prize for her work on vitamin B-12.
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This scientist discovered butylene and the correct formula for ether. The son of a weaver who took charge of a Quaker school at age 12, much of his early work focused on studies of the atmosphere, where he developed his characteristic distrust of other scientists' work and obsession with detailed record-keeping by means of a scientific diary. Determining that rain is due to changes in temperature, his interest in the atmosphere led to his studies in chemistry, detailed in his work "New System of Chemical Philosophy", where he deduced what would become known as Charles' Law, as well as the laws of multiple proportions and the law of partial pressures. FTP, who was this English chemist who proposed the theory of atoms?
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This scientist gained fame for his improvements on the street-lighting system in Paris, and by 1775 he was put in charge of gunpowder production for the whole of France, where he made a fortune. He also made agricultural improvements in France and discovered new fertilising techniques, but he is best known for naming oxygen and for discovering the role it plays in combustion, which ended the phlogiston theory. For 10 points name this chemist, whose many accomplishments did not save him from being guillotined in 1794.
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This scientist graduated from Montana State in 1917, and during World War II, he directed a research program at Columbia that became an important part of the Manhattan project. He believed that the Moon had a separate origin from the Earth, and thought that the earth had not been molten at the time when its materials accumulated, which led to a famous experiment conducted with Stanley Miller. FTP, identify this chemist who also managed to isolate heavy water and discover deuterium.
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This scientist's namesake rule for nucleation from a vapor states that nucleation of the metastable phase is preferred to the direct transformation to the stable phase near the transition temperature and at high supersaturation. The Kelvin equation gives the increased solubility of a substance bounded by a curved interface that produces his eponymous ripening in foams and solid dispersions. With de Izaguirre, this scientist developed a composite isotherm for the adsorption of components of a solution. The square of the degree of dissociation time the electrolyte concentration equals a constant according to his dilution law, which only holds for weak electrolytes. A process developed by this scientist, which replaced the Birdeland-Eyde process, employs a platinum-rhodium alloy catalyst to oxidize ammonia to a tri-atomic gas that is subsequently passed through water. For 10 points, name this Latvian-born German scientist, who developed a namesake process for the synthesis of nitric acid.
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This state was mathematically modeled by Peter Waage and Cato Maximilian Guldberg in the law of mass action. The constant representing it is related to temperature change and enthalpy change by the van' t Hoff equation. This state is achieved when a system minimizes its Gibbs free energy. This state shifts when temperature, pressure, volume, or concentration changes according to Le Chatelier's principle. For 10 points, name this chemical state in which the forward and reverse reaction rates are the same, which results in a stable chemical process.
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Boranes are uncommonly used to reduce members of this class of organic compounds to primary alcohols, while bromination can done using the Hunsdiecker reaction. With alcohols, they undergo the Fischer esterification. Their most reactive products are the acyl halides, which are often used in Friedel-Crafts reactions, while their second most reactive products are the anhydrides, which form from two members of this class of organic compounds. FTP, name this class of organic compounds which contain an alcohol connected to a ketone, members of which include formic acid and acetic acid.
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By the Third Law of Thermodynamics and a magnetic equivalent of this law, the critical magnetic field for a superconductor approaches a constant as temperature approaches absolute zero. This equation can be derived by showing that a Carnot engine run between two phases at two close temperatures has the same thermal efficiency. It can also be derived by finding the infinitesimal change in chemical potential for each of two phases in equilibrium with each other; that form of this equation says that the derivative of vapor pressure with respect to temperature equals the change in entropy over the change in volume. For 10 points, name this doubly-eponymous equation which gives the slope of the coexistence line in a pressure versus temperature plot.
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5,6-secosterol is a signature product of this reaction within atherosclerotic plaque. Scavenger compounds like 2-butanol increase the yield of secondary organic aerosols when pinene is subjected to this reaction. In this reaction, which is a series of three reversible 1,3-dipolar addition reactions, one of the more stable intermediates involves the reversion of a cyclic compound to a carbonyl and a carbonyl oxide, the latter of which is sometimes called the Criegee intermediate. This reaction catalyzes the opposite conversion of the Wittig reaction, and harsher alternatives to this reaction involve the use of osmium tetroxide or permanganate. For 10 points, name this reaction, a useful tool in locating double bonds in organic molecules, in which alkenes or alkynes are converted to carbonyl compounds by a triatomic allotrope of oxygen.
Claisen condensation
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Clausius Clapeyron equation
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Clausius-Clapeyron equation
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Diels-Alder Reaction (accept diene synthesis before it is mentioned)
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Diels-Alder Reaction [accept nitroso Diels-Alder, aza Diels-Alder, etc.]
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Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
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Downs process
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E2 [accept bimolecular elimination (either order)]
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E2 or bimolecular elimination
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E2 or elimination bimolecular (accept second-order elimination before it's mentioned; prompt on "elimination")
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Elias James Corey
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Entropy
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Faraday's laws of electrolysis (just Faraday is enough after "electrolysis" is mentioned)
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Ferromagnetism
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Fick's Law
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Fick's Law(s) of Diffusion
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Fick's law(s)
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Fick's laws
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Fischer (Franz and Emil)
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Fischer Esterification
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Flory-Huggins theory
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Fluorine
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Formaldehyde (accept methanal (not "methanol"))
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Grignard reagent
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Grignard reagents
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HOMO or highest occupied molecular orbital
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HPLC [or high performance liquid chromatography; or high pressure liquid chromatography; prompt on chromatography; prompt on column chromatography; prompt on liquid chromatography or LC, since as far as I know the first clue only applies to HPLC and not other forms of LC; do not accept "gas chromatography"]
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Haber-Bosch process
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Hall-Heroult cell
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Hall-Heroult process
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Hampson-Linde cycle
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Harold Urey
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Helmholtz free energy
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Helmholtz free energy or function
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Henry's law
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Hermann Emil Fischer
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Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz
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Hermann Walther Nernst
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Hoffmann reaction (do not accept Hoffman rearrangement)
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Hofmann elimination
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Hofmann elimination (prompt on "exhaustive methylation" before it's mentioned)
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Huckel's Rule
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Humphry Davy
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IR Spectroscopy [or Infrared Spectroscopy]
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IR or infrared spectroscopy
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Jacobus H. van't Hoff
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Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff
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Jahn-Teller Effect/Distortion
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Jahn-Teller effect
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Jahn-Teller effect or distortion
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Jones oxidation (prompt on oxidation)
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Jons Jakob Berzelius
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Joseph Black
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Julia-Lythgoe Olefination [accept Julia-Kocienski Olefination before "second," but do not accept or prompt afterwards]
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Jöns Jakob Berzelius
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K(arl) Barry Sharpless
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Kary Mullis
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Krypton
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LDL [or low-density lipoprotein; prompt on cholesterol until mentioned]
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Le Châtelier's principle
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Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution or law
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Monsanto Process
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Mossbauer Effect (accept Mossbauer Spectroscopy on early buzz)
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Robert Bunsen
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Rudolph Julius Emanuel Clausius
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SN1 (accept unimolecular nucleophilic substitution or first-order nucleophilic substitution before the end)
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SN1 or first-order nucleophilic substitution
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SN2 (accept bimolecular nucleophilic substitution before "nucleophilic;" prompt on it afterwards)
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Trouton's Rule
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calcium
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carboxylic acids [prompt on just 'acid']
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catalytic contact process
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disproportionation [accept dismutation; on the Banks/Bailey clue, accept metathesis]
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distillation
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equilibrium constant or K eq before mentioned
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equipartition principle
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esters
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ethene or ethylene
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ethers
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formaldehyde
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lactic acid (accept 2-hydroxypropanoic acid before it is mentioned)
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lanthanide contraction
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lanthanide series or lanthanoid series
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lanthanides or lanthanoids
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laser
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lattice energy
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lattice energy or lattice enthalpy
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ligand
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liquid crystal
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liquid crystal (accept mesophase on an early buzz)
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liquid crystals
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lithium
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nitrogen
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nitrogen fixation
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nitroglycerin or glyceryl trinitrate (do not accept dynamite)
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ozone
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ozone [accept: O3]
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ozonolysis
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palladium
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phenol-chloroform extraction [prompt on extraction or phenol extraction, accept TRIzol extraction or PCIA extraction or phenol-chloroform-isoamyl alcohol extraction, accept organic extraction before the word "organic"]
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phenolphthalein
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thiols [accept mercaptan before mention, prompt on "sulfhydryl"]
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thiols or thioalcohols (accept mercaptan before it is mentioned)
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 Hess' law of constant heat summation [prompt on “law of enthalpyâ€]
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 Huckel's rule
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 Raney nickel
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 Titanium [or Ti before read]
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 mass spectrometry [or mass spectroscopy; or MS]
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One equation used to calculate this quantity multiplies two terms with a sum of radii in their denominators, and is known as the Kapustinskii equation. A rough approximation of it can be found with a modified form of Coulomb's Law featuring a single distance, while a constant that is proportional to this quantity can be determined with the Evjen method or calculated by expanding cubes, and is named for Madelung. Another method used to determine it ends with gaseous ions in the Born-Haber cycle. For 10 points, name this quantity, like internal energy symbolized U, defined as the amount of energy needed to completely ionize a solid compound.
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One example of this type of chemical reaction is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley procedure, which is carried out with isopropanol, and is the opposite of the Oppenauer Reaction. This type of reaction will convert camphor into borneol. Another example is the CBS reaction, though a more famous one of these creates 1,4 cyclohexadienes and is named for Birch. Another one involves heating with amalgamated zinc in hydrochloric acid, or it can be done with Raney nickel by hydrogenation. FTP, name this type of organic reaction including the Clemmensen, the opposite of oxidation.
(Hermann) Emil Fischer
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(Landau-)Jahn-Teller effect
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2,4,6-trinitrotoluene or 2,4,6-trinitromethylbenzene (accept TNT on early buzz)
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Actinides or Actinide series or Actinoids
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Agent Orange
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Clausius-Clapeyron equation (accept Clapeyron-Clausius equation)
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Clausius-Clapeyron equation [or Clausius-Clapeyron equation before "vaporization"]
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Clemmensen reduction
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Clemmensen reduction (accept Wolf-Kishner until *)
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Cobalt [accept Co before the end]
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Fractional Distillation or Differential Distillation
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Franck-Condon principle
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Frasch process (prompt on "sulfur" before it is mentioned)
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Friedel-Crafts reactions
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Mössbauer effect
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promethium
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pyrrole
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surfactants (accept detergents before mentioned, accept micelles before "cationic type")
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tautomerism
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terpenes or isoprenoids
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vapor pressure
...
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A calorimeter being used for the NA48 experiments at CERN contains 27 tons of this element in liquid form. Often used in photography due the white light it gives off when ionized, between 1960 and 1983 the orange-red spectral line of one of its isotopes was used to define the length of the meter. Along with barium-141, the 92 isotope of this element is one of the products of uranium-235 fission, and although it is generally inert, it forms compounds with fluorine. FTP, name this element with a Greek name meaning "hidden thing," the fourth noble gas.
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A colorless, flammable liquid that boils at 133 degrees Fahrenheit, it is capable of dissolving many fats and resins, as well as cellulose ethers and esters. This solvent is also used extensively in the manufacture of artificial fabrics (like rayon) and explosives. For 10 points, name this organic solvent with formula C-H-3-C-O-C-H-3, the simplest of the aliphatic ketones.
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A series of accurate measurements of the rate of this process for different combinations of substances was made in 1870 by Loschmidt using his namesake tube. It occurs roughly 100,000 times faster in gases than liquids, as indicated by Fick's Law, while the best-known law concerning it holds that the rate at which it occurs for gases is inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities, a relationship known as Graham's law. FTP, what is this chemical process in which different substances mix as a result of the random motions of their components?
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A similar reaction to this uses a tetrafluoroborate salt to substitute fluorine onto an aryl amine; this is known as the Schiemann reaction. Other variations of this reaction include the use of cuprous cyanide to form benzonitriles, a thiol to create thioethers, or water to generate phenols. Often requiring heat to be driven to completion, it involves treating with nitrous acid to produce a diazonium ion, and allows the replacement of amine groups of an aromatic amine with substituents of choice. FTP, name this reaction which is most commonly used to synthesize aryl halides from aryl amines by proceeding through a diazonium salt.
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After fleeing a death sentence, he helped prepare cyanamide in the laboratory of Michel-Eugene Chevreul. He later showed that the atomic weights of the elements in the molecules of a volatile compound can be calculated by applying Avogadro's principle concerning gases, work which greatly influenced his colleague, Mendeleev. In addition, he discovered that the treatment of benzaldehyde with a concentrated alcoholic hydroxide produced equal amounts of benzyl alcohol and the salt of benzoic acid. FTP, identify this Italian chemist, best known for his namesake organic chemistry reaction.
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An ester modification of these is the Fries rearrangement, and it was first published in Comptes rendus in 1884. One form of them is strongly inhibited by the presence of electron acceptors and carbocation rearrangement decreases its useful yield. The reactivity of one of their constituents increases with the polarity of the C-X bond. Both forms are limited to fairly reactive arenas and use a Lewis acid catalyst, typically aluminum tri-chloride. FTP, identify these electrophilic aromatic substitutions that synthesize either an acyl or an alkyl from benzene, named for their French and American discoverers.
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Carbon tetrachloride can be used to dissolve grease stains in cloth. This is because carbon tetrachloride, like most waxes, lipids, cooking oils and gasoline, is a linear, planar, or symmetrical compound with more than two atoms. Such compounds are not miscible with water, nor do they exhibit hydrogen bonding. For 10 points, what eight-letter word distinguishes them from water, ammonia and alcohols?
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Closely linked to the compounds theobromine and theophylline, this odorless compound occurs naturally as a white powder or as silky needles, and is characterized by a bitter taste. Scientifically called tri-methyl-xanthine, it is very soluble in hot water, and upon cooling deposits crystals of its namesake monohydrate. A member of the alkaloid group, its toxic oral dosage is 10 grams, and more than half of American adults consume over 3% of that dose daily. A cardiac stimulant and a mild diuretic having formula C8H10N4O2, FTP name this substance commonly found in guarana, maté, tea, and coffee.
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Combined with thorium, this element is used in lamps for wavelength calibration. Researchers at the University of Helsinki have gotten it to form a compound with hydrogen and fluorine, and it was discovered in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay. Its unreactivity is due to the 6 electrons that fill its 3p subshell, and it is an alternative to nitrogen because it will not conduct heat as well from tungsten filaments in light bulbs. FTP, name this noble gas with atomic number 18 and chemical symbol Ar.
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Data obtained from this equation can be correlated with the Reidel Equation; another alternative to it is the Wagner Equation which works over a wide range of temperatures. This statement can be derived from the Gibbs-Duhem relation assuming phases are in equilibrium contact and chemical potential is equal. It only applies when a gas is one phase of the transition, and its formulation can be derived given one point on the coexistance line. Using two approximations, it assumes the change in Gibbs free energy is zero and its common form is derived from the First Law of Thermodynamics. Modified by the Antoine Equation, it states that the derivative of pressure with respect to temperature is equivalent to the heat absorbed over the temperature and volume. FTP, identify this equation used to model phase transitions.
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Dehydrating this compound forms an oxazole in the Robinson-Gabriel synthesis, and zinc compounds are used to generate them from thioesters in the Fukuyama coupling. Another reaction used to generate them uses thorium oxide to cyclize a dicarboxylic acid. Another method to create them uses a Lewis acid to create an acyl cloride, which undergoes an electrophilic aromatic substitution. In addition to the Ruzicka cyclization and the Friedel-Crafts reaction, these compounds can be created from secondary alcohols using the Jones reagent. They exist in an equilibrium with enols in a simple form of tautomerism. For 10 points, name these carbonyls that contain a carbon double bonded to an oxygen bound to two R groups.
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Examples include photochemical reactions, the decay of gaseous hydrogen iodide into hydrogen and iodine gases, and "saturation kinetics" reactions where substrate access to the surface area of a catalyst is limited. This type of reaction is often used to determine the catalytic activity of enzymes, because the formation of product proceeds at a rate which is linear with time and the addition of more substrate does not serve to increase the rate. FTP, name this type of reaction where the rate is independent of the concentration of reactants.
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For Langmuir isotherms the isosteric enthalpy of adsorption can be determined using an equation named after this man. That equation can be derived using the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, and relates the rate of change of the equilibrium constant as a function of temperature. The fact that the chemical potential of a solvent must be equal on each side of a membrane is used to derive another equation named after this man, used to calculate the osmotic pressure of dilute solutions. FTP, name this Dutch scientist, whose namesake factor describes the dissociation of solutes that are important in colligative properties, and who in 1901 was the winner of the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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For water this constant is approximately 80, larger than most liquids. Since it gives a measure of a solvent's insulating ability, the greater this chemical property, the greater a solvent's ability to separate opposite charges from each other. FTP, give the chemistry term that gives a rough indication of a solvent's polarity and ability to store electric fields.
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Like GABA and glutamic acid, this nonessential amino acid can inhibit neurotransmitter signals in the central nervous system. Though it is sometimes found in alpha helices, it is more common in triple helical molecules, such as collagen. It is the only amino acid which is not optically active, due to its lack of a chiral center. For 10 points-name this amino acid whose possession of a single hydrogen as its R-component makes it the simplest amino acid.
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Mathematically it can be stated as "P sub i equals x sub i times P sub i for a pure substance," where the pure "P sub i" can be calculated using the Antoine equation. Bubble curves and dew point curves may be derived from it for an ideal mixture at fixed pressure. Qualitatively, it explains that the addition of a solute to a liquid lessens the tendency for the liquid to become a solid or gas, primarily due to reasons of freezing point depression and vapor pressure reduction. Quantitatively, it relates that vapor pressure of components to a solution's composition. FTP, name this law that states that the vapor pressure of a substance varies linearly with its mole fraction in the solution, a law named for its French discoverer.
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Most famously measured by the Pauling scale, it is defined as the "power of an atom when in a molecule to attract electrons to itself". In practice it is used to find which molecule will be a better electron donor, or whether ionic or covalent bonds will form. For ten points, name this quantity for which Pauling arbitrarily set fluorine equal to 4.
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Most magnetic resonance contrast agents such as gadolinium-DTPA and technetium 99m DTPA fall into this class of molecules. They are often formed in solution by sequestration agents just as in alkaline soils where the blue color of hydrangeas can be retained by using iron compounds. From the Greek for "crab claw", other examples include EDTA and chlorophyll, which has a magnesium center, though its most famous example might be hemoglobin. FTP, identify this type of molecule that forms two or more bonds to a central metal ion.
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Not easily oxidized, these compounds can be synthesized by using an organolithium reagent on a nitrile, followed by hydrolysis of the product. Useful as solvents and flavorings, they can also be made by oxidizing a secondary alcohol. They do not affect Fehling's solution and do not react with the Tollens reagent, which differentiates them from aldehydes. FTP, name this class of compounds with a carbonyl group between two aryl groups, the simplest of which is acetone.
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Polymer samples can be prepared for use in this procedure by dissolution, then deposition on an ionic substrate, then evaporation in a technique known as cast film. More usual preparation techniques include mulling with a heavy paraffin like Nujol and spreading between salt plates; salt is used as a medium for this analytic technique since it is transparent to the probe used. That probe radiation can be understood as inducing motion corresponding to normal modes in the analyte molecular Hamiltonian, so the lines that this techniques produces are, to first order, characteristic of the types of bonds present. For 10 points, name this chemical technique that analyzes bonds by probing absorption and emission of light with wavelengths longer than the visible but shorter than the microwave.
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Richard Zsigmondy won a Nobel Prize in chemistry for his development of a special type of microscope to observe these substances. Arne Tiselius' first use of electrophoresis was to separate them and John Tyndall observed their unique dispersion of light in the effect named for him. Common types include gels, emulsions, and sols. FTP, what are these types of mixtures composed of a suspended and mobile phase?
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Synthesis of quadrigemine via double Heck cyclation requires the removal of the central property of these compounds in the substrate. For most substrates, that removal may be achieved via one of several Sharpless asymmetric methods. In Cahn-Ingold-Prelog theory, a lowercase r or s configuration notation is used in labeling their pseudoasymmetric central carbon atoms, which are so named because their trans isomers are enantiomer pairs, while their cis isomers are separated by a plane of symmetry Examples include tartaric acid and glycerol. FTP, what are these optically inactive compounds characterized by multiple chiral centers that produce an internal symmetry, and therefore no net chirality?
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The extent of their effect is often calculated with the van't Hoff factor, and a particular calculation for one of them is dependent on molarity and temperature. A decrease in another of them results in an increased boiling point, while two others have associated constants denoted k-sub-f and k-sub-b, which determine temperature change when multiplied by molality. Osmotic pressure, vapor-pressure lowering, boiling-point elevation, and freezing-point depression are all examples of it. FTP, give the term for these properties, dependent only on the concentration of solute in a solution.
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This element is commonly used to reduce benzophenone to the diphenylketyl radical used in hydrocarbon purification, and either it or lithium, along with alcohol in ammonia, provides electrons necessary for a Birch reduction. The Solvay process produces soda ash, this element's carbonate salt, which is used in water softeners. First isolated by electrolysis of lye, which is this metal's hydroxide, this element burns yellow in a flame test, and baking soda is its bicarbonate. For 10 points, name this element whose chloride forms simple table salt and which is symbolized Na.
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The formation of a carbocation intermediate is involved in the addition of hydrogen bromide to propene in the presence of peroxides, which explains the violation of this concept. First empirically observed in 1869, identify this rule, which, FTP, states that when an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give an alkyl halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents
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This compound can be made by the dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol or with phenol in the cumene hydroperoxide process. Its 56 degree Celsius boiling point and infinite solubility in water has made this simplest aliphatic ketone industrially important. For ten points, name this solvent, also called 2-propanone, having formula CH3 COCH3.
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This concept is often illustrated using a circle to represent the effective area, treating all targets as point masses. This method, known as Serway's approach, suffers from the flaw that the target molecules are at rest when their average velocity is actually high. Thus a refinement is added using the velocity of the average speed distribution. Usually signified by a lower case lambda, FTP, identify this concept from physical chemistry that measures the average distance between collisions for a gas molecule.
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This device operates at a temperature of 850°C, and its temperature is maintained by the current generated. This device is operated first by purifying the sample by dissolving it in sodium hydroxide and filtering the insoluble constituents. The hydroxide is precipitated by adding carbon dioxide, and the resulting oxide is mixed with cryolite and made molten using graphite anodes. Named for the two discoverers who determined how to extract the product from bauxite, FTP, identify this electrolytic cell used for the industrial preparation of aluminum.
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Gilli's studies of the transition state forms of these entities employed their resonance-assisted versions in 1-(X-phenylazo)-2-naphthols. The migration of a proton along one of these provides one step in Grotthuss diffusion, which helps explain why they are grouped with related oscillating ion interactions. These interactions can form clathrate-like cages to separate two types of molecules. They occur over a range of 2.2 to 2.5 Angstroms in their short-strong or low-barrier forms, and these interactions occur between i and i+4 positions on alpha helices. Stabilization via these interactions explains the low density of ice. For 10 points, name these strong covalent interactions typically occurring between fluorine, nitrogen, or oxygen and the namesake element.
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It often results in complete or partial racemization of the product. It cannot take place in an aprotic solvent, and it involves carbocation rearrangement. Favored by the absence of a good nucleophile, it occurs most easily in the presence of tertiary alkyl halides. FTP, name this reaction whose rate law is governed by the presence of only one species, a substitution reaction that is carried out in two distinct steps.
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It only holds for dilute solutions, although some mixtures of liquids obey it over a whole range of concentrations and are called perfect solutions, which occur when the intermolecular forces of the pure substances are similar to the forces between molecules of one and the other. A solution that obeys this law is said to be an ideal solution. Deviations in this law result in azeotropes. First proposed by a French chemist, FTP, identify this law of chemistry which relates the vapor pressure of a solvent with its mole fraction.
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A student at the University of Berlin under Emil Fischer, in 1906 this man discovered carbon suboxide, and determined its properties and chemical composition. He also devised an easily controlled method of removing some of the hydrogen atoms from certain organic molecules by the use of metallic selenium, but his most important work concerned the diene synthesis, and in 1928 he discovered the reaction of an activated olefin with a diene to give a cyclic structure. FTP name this chemist, who won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1950 with his student, Kurt Alder.
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Most of its n, or normal, isomer is converted to its diene analog for use in synthetic rubber. It has only one constitutional isomer, and their boiling points differ by an amazing 10 degrees. That isomer, prefixed with an iso, exhibits a methyl group at either the second or third carbon. The first of the alkanes that can exist as other than straight chain, its cyclic variety can simple be represented by a square. FTP, name this four-carbon alkane that follows propane and is commonly used as a household fuel and in lighters.
Ludwig Gattermann
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Madelung Constant
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Markovnikoff's rule
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Markovnikov's Rule or Markovnikov Addition
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Markovnikov's rule
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Maxwell's demon
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Robinson Annulation
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A 2005 paper by van Milligen asserted that the Fokker-Planck law should be used over this law in inhomogeneous systems. Its coefficient, dependent on temperature, fluid viscosity, and particle size, can be determined via the Stokes-Einstein relation. Generalized by the Onsager reciprocal relations, the second one describes changes in volume over time, while the first one describes steady-state volumes. FTP, identify this set of laws named after a German scientist which describe the process of diffusion.
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A common way to analyze these substances is Epton's two-phase titration method. For high temperatures and pressures, their effects can be measured by a captive drop method. By including diffusion, Morris et al. expanded on the model for these substances using pulsating bubble systems; that computational model of them is named for Otis. SP-A is the most common protein with this characteristic and is used in the immune system, and DPPC is the active part of another biological type. These substances have a radically lessened effect below the CMC. They are frequently made up of molecules with hydrophobic and hydrophilic components, which adsorb at the liquid-liquid interfaces. For 10 points, what are these substances that lower a solution's surface tension?
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A derivative of phthalic anhydride, this compound was freqently used in laxatives until it was discovered that it might be carcinogenic. It is insoluble in water but soluble in most basic solutions or acetone, and for its primary use is most frequently found in a 1% alcohol solution. For 10 points, identify this crystalline organic compound with formula C20 H14 O4, an indicator which turns red above a pH of 9.6.
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A method of preparing samples for this technique without significantly altering their environment is DART. Samples are usually prepared either via adding a sample to a crystal and then firing a laser at it, or by dispersion in aerosol form and subsequent evaporation. Most analyzers in this technique can rely on a quadrupole ion trap or use a reflectron to measure the time of flight. A tandem version of it is commonly used to sequence proteins, and the aforementioned techniques are used to ionize the sample before it is fragmented. It is often preceded by gas or liquid chromatography. For 10 points, name this technique in which a sample is separated into pieces and analyzed via their mass to charge ratio.Â
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A modification accounting for Brownian motion was made to this equation by Lars Onsager in 1925, earning him an assistantship with one of its namesakes. The Bronstead-Bjerrum formula is derived from its underlying assumptions, and the Pitzer equation is used instead of it for solutions of concentration greater than 0.1 molar. It makes the assumption that the chemical potential of an ion is dependent on the ions surrounding it, and it is used when solutions do not follow ideal behavior. FTP, name this equation developed by two chemists which is used to find an ion's activity.
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Along with Eduardo Martinez, this man developed the first large-scale process to synthesize the anti-cancer drug Ecteinascidin. A lactone named for him is the precursor to several prostaglandins for which he developed total-synthetic routes. This man's namesake ylide is used in a reaction converting a carbonyl to an epoxide, which is co-named for this man and Michael Chaykovsky. A reaction in which terminal alkynes can be produced by the homologation of an aldehyde through a triphenylphosphine is co-named for this American chemist of Lebanese descent and Philip Fuchs. For 10 points, name this 1990 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry, a professor at Harvard best known for his contributions to retrosynthetic analysis.Â
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Although Georg Geissler was the second author on the paper introducing this reaction, he is never referred to as a namesake of this reaction. One alternative to this reaction uses a compound obtained in the Arbuzov rearrangement; that alternative transforms carbanions into olefins with E-selectivity and is named after Emmons, Wadsworth, and Horner. Another modification to this reaction adds lithium salts to create the threo version of the betaine intermediate, which again creates E-selectivity, instead of the usual Z-selectivity, in the product of that Schlosser modification. For 10 points, what is this reaction that forms olefins from ketones and phosphonium ylides, named after a German chemist?
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Among this element's ores are garnierite and pentlandite, and it can be isolated by reacting its oxides with syngas (sin-GASS) to produce its tetracarbonyl. In a type I supernova, the peak and early decrease of the light curve are set by the total mass and decay of a doubly-magic isotope of this element. Leaching aluminum from an alloy with this element activates a high-surface area catalyst used in hydrogenation reactions. The 62 isotope of this ferromagnetic element has the highest binding energy per nucleon, and a fused target made of this element produced electron diffraction in the Davisson-Germer experiment. FTP, name this element produced in the Mond process, the primary constituent of Raney catalysts, which has atomic number 28 and symbol Ni.
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Born in Belfast, this Irish physicist was a professor at Owens College for over 30 years beginning in 1868. In one study he made a model of the mouth of the river Mersey, and he also worked on the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat in multi-stage steam turbines. Using dye, he determined that the flow of a liquid will be turbulent unless it has high viscosity, low density, and an open surface. FTP, name the physicist whose namesake number determines whether fluid flow will be smooth or turbulent.
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Both endo- and exo-attack occur in the LUMO during this reaction, in which one of the reactants must be able to take on the cisoid conformation; if it remains stuck in the transoid conformation, the reaction cannot occur. Resulting from sigma-overlap of two pi orbitals, it can be viewed more generally as a [4+2] reaction because one reactant has 4 pi electrons and the other has 2 pi electrons. In its first use, its discoverers produced 1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydrophthalic anhydride by reacting maleic anhydride with butadiene. FTP, name this reaction in which a certain kind of diene is reacted with a dienophile to produce an unsaturated six-membered ring, which earned its namesakes the 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
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Both methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase and MTR, an enzyme used in methionine synthesis, require compounds that contain this metal. A landmark study in coordination chemistry performed by Gibbs and Genth synthesized thirty-five complexes of ammonia and this element. An experiment involving the beta decay of one of this element's radioactive isotopes led Chien-Shiung Wu to first develop the idea of charge-parity violation. In addition, it is found in a compound whose deficiency can lead to pernicious anemia and which, along with folic acid, is used in DNA synthesis. For 10 points, name this transition metal found in vitamin B12 that is between iron and nickel on the periodic table, with chemical symbol Co.
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Drill a hole down to the beds. 3 concentric pipes are lowered down the borehole. Superheated steam passed down the outermost pipe melts the desired substance. Compressed air passed down the central pipe forms a froth, and pressure pushes it up the third pipe to the surface, where it runs into molds and hardens. FTP identify this process for extracting sulfur named after a German-born US chemist.
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First discovered in rocks in the United States by Harris and Hopkins, and then independently in Italy by Rolla and Fernando, this radioactive metal was synthesized in 1941. It was only positively identified in 1945 at Oak Ridge by Marinsky, and even today, its 18-year lifespan makes it rare enough that it is, for the most part, used for small batteries. For 10 points, identify this lanthanide, named for the titan who stole fire.
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He translated and popularized the work of Josiah Gibbs and proposed the use of the oxyacetylene torch for cutting and welding steel. To measure very high temperatures he devised both a platinum/rhodium thermocouple and an optical pyrometer. In 1884 he stated that a change in pressure on an equilibrium system results in a movement of the equilibrium in the direction that opposes the pressure change. FTP name this physical chemist, who later generalized his principle to apply to any constant applied to a chemical system.
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Hildebrand gives his name to a parameter that characterizes this which is property and which is used in a theory co-named with Scatchard. For polymers this property can be modeled using Flory-Huggins theory. A compound with different values of this property for different phases will see the difference reflected in the partition ratio. The equilibrium constant for this property and the product can be used to find the related molar version. Compounds of group one and nitrates have this property in water, which are a part of the namesake rules of it. For 10 points, name this property that relates how well one substance will dissolve in another.
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His rule of greatest simplicity postulated that if two elements form only one compound, than the compound has the simplest composition: one atom of each element. His most famous theory includes Lavoisier's postulate of the conservation of mass and explains Proust's law of definite proportions. His law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures. FTP, name this English chemist who proposed the atomic theory of matter.
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His sister died in early 1937 which added to his depression, and in April of that year he committed suicide by drinking a mixture of cyanide and lemon juice. In 1928, he had been lured from Harvard with the promise of heading a division to pursue his own research without the burden of teaching. His team first looked into the acetylene family of chemicals, which resulted in more than 20 papers and patents. FTP, identify this American industrial chemist whose successes for DuPont included neoprene and nylon.
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If it were always true, fractional distillation would never work since all mixtures would be azeotropes. Instead, it usually only holds for dilute solutions of nonelectrolytes where the partial pressures are not too large. For ten points, name this law stating that the partial pressure of a component in a liquid mixture is proportional to its mole fraction.
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If one parameter from this theory is considered to be temperature dependent, then the miscibility gaps in the G-phi diagrams are easily characterized. In this theory, molecules are said to become unperturbed at the theta temperature as they cannot feel the presence of other segments. Staverman's name is sometimes appended to this theory, and central to this theory is a quantity that approaches 1/2 for large molecules. That quantity is a function of the coordination number times lattice exchange energy. It assumes that the free energy of mixing can be completely described in entropic terms, as large molecules undergo ideal mixing. It is based on a lattice model in which each spacing is occupied by individual monomers and uses volume fractions rather than mole fractions. For 10 points, identify this theory which gives the thermodynamic properties of polymer solutions, that was developed by two American polymer chemists.
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In the Huang-Minlon modification of this reaction, the process is carried out in a high boiling point solvent and the use of sealed tubes is avoided. This organic reaction entails a base catalyzed double bond migration that involves the loss of nitrogen gas before evolving the final product. In the key step, the original reactant is converted to its corresponding hydrazone before finally being converted to an alkyl group. FTP, identify this reduction reaction named after two scientists that converts ketones into alkanes.
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In the Simmons-Smith reaction, these compounds react with iodomethyl zinc iodide to form cyclopropanes, and the same product can be formed by reacting them with a carbene. Treatment with mercury acetate in aqueous solvent followed by reduction leads to alcohol formation, as does reacting them with borane followed by treatment with hydrogen peroxide, the latter of which leads to the anti-Markovnikov product. Osmium tetraoxide adds to them to form diols, and they can be cleaved by ozone into two carbonyl containing compounds. Commonly formed from the dehydrohalogenation of an alkyl halide or dehydration of an alcohol, FTP name these organic compounds characterized by the presence of a carbon-carbon double bond.
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In the early 1990s, chemists at Yale discovered that five members of this group can be trapped at the center of a buckminsterfullerene molecule. When in a liquid state and pressurized, they are useful as solvents in infrared spectroscopy. They are also used to fill spark chambers. Their name is not wholly accurate, as the hexafluoroplatinate of one was created in 1962. FTP, give the common name for elements of group O such as krypton, argon, and helium.
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In the presence of hydrogen and nickel at 180 degrees Celsius this compound will reduce to cyclohexane. Remarkably resistant to oxidation, the fact that it does not show the properties normally associated with double bonds and the fact that the number of isomeric disubstituted ones is smaller than predicted led Linus Pauling to describe its structure as a hybrid state, which explains the odd distance of 1.39 angstroms between the bonded carbon atoms. This was an improvement on an 1865 proposal that its formula was a hexagon with alternating single and double bonds. FTP, what is this simplest aromatic hydrocarbon with formula C6 H6, whose original structure was proposed by August Kekule after experiencing a dream in which a snake bit its own tail?
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Le Bel and van't Hoff took advantage of this property to help determine the tetrahedral structure of carbon compounds. It is critical in pharmacology as it explains why only some methyl-dopa and ibuprofen molecules are effective. It also occurs in simpler molecules such as 2-butanol. The S and R labels are applied to enantiomers, pairs of molecules that demonstrate this concept. FTP, identify this term that indicates the molecular version of left- and right-handedness.
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Mathematically, it can be expressed as P sub g equals x sub g times k sub H. It is the operative law in explaining how hyperbaric chambers help patients get oxygen, and also explains the mechanism behind Caisson's disease, or "the Bends." It accounts for more carbon dioxide than oxygen being found in blood plasma because carbon dioxide's solubility coefficient is 24 times that of oxygen. FTP, name this law stating that the weight of a gas that dissolves in a liquid is proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas on the liquid.
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New types of these compounds are being synthesized using so-called Gemini structures. As their number increases, their scission energy generally grows as well. They are commonly classified into four groups: non-ionic and anionic types, the cationic type which comprises chains with quaternary amines and halide counterions, and the amphoteric type which have the properties of zwitterions. Beyond the CMC, these compounds form aggregates known as micelles. Usually consisting of a lipophilic tail carrying a hydrophilic head group, they include emulsifying agents and other solubilizers. Sometimes known as detergents, FTP, name these compounds which greatly reduce the surface tension of water when used in low concentration.
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One man with this last name gives his name to some organic reactions including a dithiane addition named for him and Seebach, an oxidation of alcohols with dimethyl sulfide named for him and Kim, and an olefin synthesis named for him and Winter. Another scientist with this last name, along with Pauling and Koltun, gives his name to a color scheme used to model and visualize molecules. In addition to naming a reduction with Bakshi and Shibata, that first man coined the term "retrosynthetic analysis" in his book The Logic of Chemical Synthesis. The other man worked on the theory behind alpha-helices and beta-sheets in devising namesake rules that govern the secondary structure of proteins, along with Pauling. FTP, give this surname shared by American chemists Robert and Elias.
what are these catalysts named for the German and Italian chemists who developed them?
One developer of this class of chemical substances showed how to produce isotactic polypropylene using the variations to the original example that he introduced and these typically consist of a transition metal halide and an organometallic cocatalyst. The first example, a mixture of titanium tetrachloride and an alkyl derivative of aluminum, was used to produce a more rigid version of polyethylene at low temperatures. In general, they are used to effect the polymerization of alkenes to polymers of high molecular weights and highly ordered structures. For 10 points
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One form is the partial derivative of the enthalpy per unit mass with respect to temperature taken at constant pressure. For monatomic ideal gases, the ratio of those at constant pressure and volume is 5/3. For water at 15 degrees Celsius, it is defined as 1 calorie per gram per degree Celsius. What quantity, for ten points, is defined as the heat capacity per mass.
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One form of this functional group is the intermediate product in the Strecker synthesis of alpha-amino acids. They can only be protonated by extremely strong acids, and their low reactivity makes them good solvents as in their aceto- form. Commonly produced by the dehydration of primary amines, they possess many of the double bond features of imines and the triple bond features of alkynes. FTP, name this functional group whose simplest member is cyanide and which consists of a carbon triple bonded to a nitrogen.
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One group of these compounds is based on hydroxamic acid and typically consists of non-ribosomal peptides, known as siderophores. The namesake effect of these compounds describes their increased thermodynamic stability as a result of a more positive entropy, and molecules like DMSA can be used in their namesake therapy to treat certain poison victims. Seen biologically in porphyrins and chlorophyll, a common example of these is the amino acid EDTA. For 10 points, name these coordination compounds in which one or more polydentate ligands bind with and often sequester a central metal ion.
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Recent studies have shown that infectivity of the cytomegalovirus may require this functional group in its free form. It can be qualitatively detected using lead(II) acetate, which produces a yellow solid if this functional group is present. They are oxidized by mild oxidizing agents such as molecular iodine to produce disulfides, and cysteine is unique in that it is the only amino acid to bear this functional group. FTP, identify this functional group from organic chemistry formerly known as mercaptan and consisting of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom.
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Simply put it allows us, given one point on a coexistence line, to discover other points on that line. Formally it can be stated as dP over dT equals delta S over delta V, which gives the P-T trajectory of equilibrium states for a reaction as a function of the entropy and volume changes. FTP, identify this equation that explains the inexact relationship of the temperature of a liquid and its vapor pressure and which is named for its two discoverers.
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Some now-defunct ways to achieve this action include the Rittman process and the Gyro process. The Alchlor process was an alternative to the expensive McAfee batch process to do this, which pioneered the use of aluminum chloride. The once commonly-employed Burton process was modified by the impact route and an innovation by Clark which connected stills in series to form batteries. Those methods were all supplanted by Eugene Houdry, who developed the first fixed-bed method for this, though more common today are fluid-bed or moving-bed procedures. Charles Plank and Edward Rosinski developed the first useful zeolite in this process, and natural and synthetic zeolites often serve as catalysts in the riser-type reactor employed in this process. For 10 points, name this procedure by which complex heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into lighter molecules, important in refining petroleum.
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Some therapies for prostate cancer utilize this effect to grow ice on the prostate gland, thereby freezing the tumor. The entropy change with respect to pressure resulting from this effect is given by minus the volume over the temperature. This effect is used in one of the stages of the Linde cycle, and in order for cooling to occur, the gas undergoing it must be below the inversion temperature. For an ideal gas, its namesake coefficient, which is given by the derivative of temperature with respect to pressure at constant enthalpy, is zero. For ten points, identify this doubly-eponymous isenthalpic process, in which the throttling of a gas results in a temperature change.
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The change in this quantity is equal to the maximum work accompanying a process, and a change in a system at constant temperature and volume is spontaneous if this decreases. FTP, identify this thermodynamic quantity, defined as internal energy minus temperature times entropy, which is similar to the Gibbs free energy of a system.
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The cobalt ion is a competitive inhibitor of the CorA system for transporting this ion across cell membranes. Aminoglycoside antibiotics are thought to work by displacing this ion in the active site of the hammerhead ribozyme. In yeast, a defect in MSR2, which transports this ion into the mitochondria, leads to abnormal RNA splicing. Unlike the AMPA receptor, the NMDA receptor is blocked by this ion, and its voltage-dependent removal allows a similarly-shaped ion to enter the cell. This ion also functions as a cofactor for DNA polymerases, so its chloride salt is added to PCR mixtures. For 10 points, name this divalent cation at the center of the porphyrin ring in chlorophyll.
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The first term in the virial expansion for it is RT times the natural logarithm of pressure. At constant temperature and pressure, chemical equilibrium requires that this quantity is at a minimum. The change in this quantity is proportional to the natural logarithm of the equilibrium constant and it is defined as enthalpy minus temperature multiplied by entropy. FTP, identify this thermodynamic state function named for its American formulator.
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The monomers of this substance are moved to their final destination bound to the carrier bactoprenol. It is resistant to proteases because it contains D-amino acids, but lysozyme can break down its beta-1-4 linkages between repeating units of N-acetyl-muramic acid and N-acetyl-glucosamine. It is the target of some antibiotics, including penicillin, which blocks the action of the enzymes responsible for crosslinking the polysaccharide chains via tetrapeptides. FTP name this polymer that accounts for 90% of the dry weight of Gram-positive bacteria, the primary constituent of bacterial cell walls.
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The surface-stabilized ferroelectric type is widely used in applications today because of its microsecond response times, and the cholesteric type is still used for devices which allow slower optical response. Molecules of this type of material are usually rod-shaped. In the nematic phase, the molecules are aligned but have no translational order, while the smectic phase includes some level of translational order. Having a level of order between that of a random fluid and an ordered solid, FTP, name this class of materials widely used in computer and calculator displays, and often abbreviated LC.
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Their wavevectors can be placed in Brillouin zones in reciprocal space, and their pseudomomentum is defined up to placement in a Brillouin zone. In a gas of them, their chemical potential is zero, so their thermal type can be created or destroyed by random fluctuations. Quantum mechanically, they can be obtained by adding translational symmetry to the Hamiltonian, and the optical variety can interact with infrared light. However, most of these are of the acoustic variety, and their propagation speed is equal to the speed of sound in a solid. For 10 points, name these quantized vibrational modes in a crystal lattice that notably interact with Cooper pairs in BCS theory.
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These compounds can be made by fusing a sulphonic acid salt with sodium hydroxide and adding sulphuric acid to liberate them. Unlike normal alcohols, these compounds are acidic because of the presence of an aromatic ring. Named for a compound with formula C6 H5 OH, FTP, what are these compounds containing a hydroxyl group bound directly to a carbon atom in a benzene ring?
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This compound is extremely similar to sugars containing pyranose rings, the only difference being the presence of an oxygen in the pyranose ring. Its most frequent form consists of six axial carbon-hydrogen bonds and six equatorial carbon-hydrogen bonds that radiate out from the ring. In the "chair" conformation it is more stable than the other major conformation, known as the "boat." FTP, what is this cyclic hydrocarbon with formula C6H12?
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This element forms compounds in which it has oxidation states of 1, 3, 5, and 7. When combined with ethylene it was an important component of leaded gasoline that removed lead deposits, and, like chlorine, it combines with silver to produce a light-sensitive compound important for its use in photographic film, light-sensitive glasses, and fire retardants. Its major commercial source is deep brine wells in Michigan and Arkansas. A dense, dark-red liquid at room temperature, it is named for the Greek for "stench". FTP, what is this halogen with atomic number 35 and symbol Br?
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This man names five rules for determining the structure of complex ionic crystals. He mistakenly assumed that phosphate groups are neutral in his theory that DNA has a triple-helical structure. With Corey and Branson, this man proposed that alpha helices and beta sheets make up the secondary structure of proteins. This scientist created a scale that ranges from zero point seven to four to measure electronegativity, a concept he created. For 10 points, name this author of The Nature of the Chemical Bond, an American chemist who won Nobels in both Chemistry and Peace.
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This type of organic molecule is oxidized in the Swern oxidation. They can also be oxidized by Pyridinium chlorochromate, which is abbreviated PCC. Tosyl chloride converts these into tosylates, and thionyl chloride reacts with them to form alkyl chlorides. They react with carboxylic acids in the Fischer esterification. Reacting aldehydes with an organomagnesium halide reagent creates these. Sulfuric acid can be used to dehydrate these in elimination reactions governed by Zaitsev's rule. Tertiary ones are reactive with hydrogen halides in the SN1 reaction. For 10 points, name these organic compounds that have a hydroxyl group, an example of which is ethanol.
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This value can be calculated by the Evjen method, which is a direct summation of Coulombic potentials, or by the Ewald method, which uses integral transforms to validly calculate the Coulomb potential at any mathematical point. When this value cannot be obtained, one can still use the Kapustinskii Equation in order to make a reasonable estimate of energy. A term must be added to this value to account for the electron-electron repulsion of closed shells. Often represented by a capital or lower-case "A", for example in the Born-Mayer Equation, it is often calculated for sodium chloride to demonstrate its rapidly converging series. It depends on the relative distribution of cations and anions in a structure, and unlike lattice energy, it describes the energy of a single ion in a crystal. FTP, name this constant which depends on geometric arrangement of ions in a crystal, named for a German chemist.
amide
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Lewis acids [or Lewis bases until "aldols"; prompt on Lewis; prompt on acids]
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Lineweaver-Burk plot
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Linus Carl Pauling
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Linus Pauling
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Markovnikov rule
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NMR or nuclear magnetic resonance
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Neoprene (accept early polychloroprene)
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Nernst Equation
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Nernst equation [accept Butler-Volmer equation before “Butlerâ€]
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Niobium
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Osborne Reynolds
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Ostwald Process
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Otto Diels
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Paul Louis Toussaint Heroult
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Pauli Exclusion Principle
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Pressure
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Pyruvic acid (accept pyruvate)
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Rackett equation or correlation
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Rainer Ludwig Claisen
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Ramachandran diagram
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Raoult's Law
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Raoult's law
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Raoult's law ("Rah-OOH")
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Rauolt's [ra-OO-lz] Law
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Robert Boyle
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SN2 (accept bimolecular nucleophilic substitution on early buzz, prompt on "nucleophilic substitution" or "SN")
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SN2 or substitution nucleophilic second order or bimolecular nucleophilic substitution
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Sandmeyer reaction
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Seaborgium (or unnilhexium) (prompt on element-106 after *)
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
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Technetium
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Teflon (Prompt on early buzzes of "PTFE" or "Polytetrafluoroethylene")
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Teflon (prompt on polytetrafluoroethene or PTFE)
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The Sceptical Chymist
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Thomas Graham
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Uric acid
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VSEPR or Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
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Van der Waals Forces
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Walther Nernst
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Wilhelm Ostwald
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Williamson ether synthesis
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Wittig reaction
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Wittig reaction [or Wittig olefination]
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Wolff-Kishner Reduction
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Wolff-Kishner reduction
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X-ray diffraction or X-ray crystallography
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Zaitsev's Rule
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Zaitsev's rule
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Zero Order Reactions
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Ziegler-Natta catalyst or reagent
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Ziegler-Natta catalysts
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Ziegler-Natta polymerization
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acetic acid or ethanoic acid
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acetone
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acetone (accept early answer of 2-propanone)
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acetone [accept dimethyl ketone or 2-propanone]
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hexagonal close-packed (or close-packed hexagonal; prompt on "hexagonal")
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hexagonal crystal system
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histidine
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ideal (or universal) molar gas constant (prompt on R)
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alcohols
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aldehydes
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aldehydes [prompt on "formyls" or "methanoyls"]
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aldol condensation
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alkynes [grudgingly accept acetylenes until mentioned]
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A 2001 J.C. Alvarez study investigated properties of aromatic polyamides containing this class of elements, and they are reacted with carboxylic acids in the Hunsdiecker reaction. The Finkelstein reaction involves the exchange of two atoms of these elements, and the enrichment of uranium via gaseous diffusion is accomplished using a molecule containing the simplest of these elements, whose synthesis won Henri Moissan the 1906 Nobel in Chemistry. Another member of this group is used as a mordant in Gram staining and has an important role in the thyroid gland. For 10 points, identify these highly reactive Group 17 elements that include iodine and fluorine.
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A 2008 paper from Ishihara et al found that anhydrous phenylglyoxal is a solution to the problem of low reactivity of an asymmetric variety of this reaction with alcohols. A similar reaction to this one involves using aluminum alkoxide catalysts and instead of its normal products produces ethers and is named after Tischenko and Claisen. The first step of this process involves the nucleophilic addition of a base to a carbonyl group to give an alkoxide which is then deprotonated to create a namesake di-anion intermediate. One version of this reaction utilizes formaldehyde as a reducing agent to yield a higher output of an alcohol product and is known as the crossed version. Producing both an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, FTP, identify this disproportionation reaction discovered in 1853 by an Italian chemist.
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A carbony complexed with this element was the original catalyst in the Pauson-Khand reaction, although Wilkinson's catalyst, which uses iridium, is now more common. Along with iron, this element is the most common catalyst used in the Fischer-Tropsch process. Ingestion of this element represents a poisoning threat since this element can decrease synthesis of enzymes such as cytochrome P450 while inhibiting aminolevulinic acid synthase, and its sulfate is widely used in electroplating. C.S. Wu's parity-violation experiments used this element's isotope 60, and its isotope 57 is widely employed in Mossbauer spectroscopy, though most of this element is used up in magnetic alloys such as Alnico. For ten points, identify this element with atomic number 27, which takes its name from the German word for "goblin."
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A compound containing this functional group vicinal to an amino group can be synthesized from an alkene in one reaction named for Sharpless. A reaction which uses triphenylphosphine and DEAD to convert these compounds to azides or esters is named for Mitsunobu, while serine and threonie contain this functional group on their beta carbons. One of these reacts with a carboxylic acid to give an ester in the Fischer synthesis, and these functional groups can be produced by the reduction of aldehydes and ketones into their primary and tertiary types respectively. For 10 points, identify this functional groups exemplified by methanol and propanol.
this is the Jones reagent. FTP, name this silvery metal found in stainless steel with atomic number 24 and symbol Cr.
A compound of this element is found is Cornforth's reagent, and the first carbene characterized by Fischer contained this metal, as did the first carbyne. The Takai olefination uses a compound with this metal bound to two halogen groups. This metal is found in the active compounds of the Corey-Suggs Reagent and the Collins reagent, where it is mixed with pyridine. This metal is able to create a quintuple bond with itself, and another reagent that contains two atoms of it and seven oxygen atoms is used to oxidize alcohols when mixed with sulfuric acid
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A consequence of this law is decompression sickness in divers. Its namesake constant can be expressed in at least four sets of units, two of which are always dimensionless and other two of which are usually shown in atmospheres and cubic meter-atmospheres per mole. Mathematically it is stated as "p sub a equals x sub a times K sub a," where "K sub a" is that namesake constant. Also used to explain the pressurization of soda cans to maintain carbonation, FTP, name this law that states when the temperature is kept constant, the weight of a dissolved gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure exerted by the gas on the liquid.
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A paper co-authored by GKS Prakash showed that this acid in combination with chlorotrimethylsilane could be used to for oxidative chlorination of thiols. The reaction of this acid with tyrosine allows one to measure protein concentration by measuring changes at 358 nm. The deprotonated component of this acid can be attached to benzene using a mixture of this acid and sulfuric acid. High concentrations of this acid are referred to as fuming. This acid tends to stain human skin yellow. Along with hydrochloric acid, it is found in aqua regia, and it is produced by the Ostwald process. For 10 points, name this acid with formula HNO3.
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A similar reaction to it sees the addition of an R group at the alpha carbon of an ester and is named for Horner and this reaction's namesake. One variation of this reaction uses a proton donor to reduce a carbon-lithium bond formed due to excess lithium to selectively yielding of the E type of product, and is called the Schlosser modification. It sees the formation of the zwitterionic betaines which undergo an oxaphosphetane intermediate, and phosphine oxide is a by-product of this reaction which usually yields Z alkenes. For 10 points, name this reaction that uses an aldehyde or ketone and a phosphorus ylide to produce alkenes and is named after a German chemist.
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Along with Ostwald, this man established the first journal of physical chemistry, and independently of Le Bel, he proposed that the bonds of carbon can adopt a tetrahedral geometry, which he used to explain the rotation of polarized light. One of his namesake equations relates the equilibrium constants for the same equation at different temperatures to the amount of heat released during the equation and the absolute temperatures. He may be more famous for his factor, which describes how many particles are released into a solution per unit of solute, used to calculate boiling point elevation. FTP name this Dutch chemist who also devised an expression for osmotic pressure analogous to the ideal gas law, the winner of the first Nobel Prize in chemistry.
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Along with reducing sugars, they are detected by Fehling's test. They can be produced by adding a mild reducing agent to an acid chloride, through a Rosenmund reduction, or by the oxidation of a primary alcohol. Adding a Tollens reagent to this type of compound will leave a silver mirror coating on the flask. The lightest one is used in making Bakelite and in preserving specimens. Given names ending in the suffix -al, FTP, name these compounds that have a hydrogen bonded to their carbonyl group, unlike ketones.
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Although likely not the first to do so, he prepared and inhaled nitrous oxide to prove that it didn't cause disease, and thus discovered its respiratory effects, but later nearly died from inhaling water gas. Later, he conducted work on electrolysis, laying the foundation for the modern electrochemical series, leading to his discoveries of sodium, potassium, barium, and calcium. Mentor to Michael Faraday, FTP, name this 19th century British scientist, exponent of the scientific method and inventor of the miner's safety lamp.
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Although not the most economical synthesis, this molecule can be produced by introducing dichromate crystals and sulfuric acid into a bottle of rubbing alcohol. Its enol form is exceedingly rare under typical conditions, but its six alpha hydrogen atoms are some 30 orders of magnitude more acidic than those of typical alkanes, permitting intermolecular aldol condensation reactions to proceed in the presence of a moderate base. Often used as a cleanser of nonpolar compounds in organic chemistry labs, it is typically formed by the oxidation of 2-propanol. FTP name this simplest ketone, the major component of nail polish remover.
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Among his discoveries were glycerine and the toxic gases hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen cyanide, and hydrogen fluoride. Perhaps it was one of these that killed him, since he had a penchant for tasting his discoveries. A pharmacist in Koping, he wrote the 1777 work Chemical Observations and Experiments on Air and Fire. FTP, name this man, the first to isolate tartaric acid, who probably discovered oxygen two years before Priestley.
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An approximate conformation of the state with this energy is given by the Hammond postulate. The value of the energy at a first-order point of inflection on the potential energy surface, it is classically proportional to the logarithm of the frequency factor. It appears in the numerator of the exponent in the Arrhenius equation and is the maximum of the vertical reaction coordinate in general. Catalysis speeds reactions by lowering it, since it is the energy of the most energetic intermediary in a chemical reaction. FTP, name this quantity from chemistry, roughly the amount of energy input required to turn the mechanism of a chemical reaction on.
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Ancient forms of this material have been found to contain tetravalent uranium. Glendonite is an example of this material which retains the shape of ikatite, which is itself a hydrated form of this mineral. Vaterite and aragonite are polymorphs of this substance, which is used as the standard for 3 on Mohs hardness scale, and exhibits perfect rhombohedral cleavage along 3 planes. A special example of it found in standing waters in caves is called Dogtooth spar, and it is also found in marble and limestone. For 10 points, identify this mineral that is mostly made of calcium carbonate.
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Ball milling with magnesium chloride in the presence of ethyl benzoate is part of the Chien-Wu-Kuo method for synthesis of this reagent, and the Patat-Sinn mechanism describes it partially bonding reactants between two metal atoms. Octahedral coordinative vacancies on its surface are formed by chlorine ligands and an alkyl group in the Cossee-Arlman mechanism. This reagent allows for control of tacticity, and comes in multiple "generations." The reaction series it catalyzes typically ends in beta-H and beta-methyl elimination. For 10 points, name this type of catalyst important in olefin metathesis and polymer synthesis, which usually contains aluminum or titanium and is named for German and Italian chemists.
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Building on the kinetic theory of gases, it was originally formulated by J.J. Hood, although its namesake later provided a true theoretical basis for it. The collision frequency Z is only weakly dependent on temperature, while the steric factor P is always less than one. Taking the logarithm of both sides allows it to be put in a linear form, which proves to clearly illustrate the dependence of the rate constant on temperature and, of course, on activation energy. FTP, name this equation of chemical kinetics, named for a Swedish scientist.
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Chesworth and Dejou applied this simple equation to work in soil chemistry, as a basis for the Hume-Rothery rules. It can be extended to flow systems with the introduction of feed streams and extensive variables, and is sometimes used in conjunction with DePriester charts to tabulate data. It can be quickly transformed into Euler's formula for simple polyhedra and arises out of an equation of its namesake and Duhem. Its mathematical formulation for a system at equilibrium equates the number of components plus 2 to the degrees of freedom plus the number of distinct states. FTP, name this basic rule of thermodynamics named for a guy who also has a certain free energy.
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Cockroft and Walton used it as the target metal in transmitting nuclei by artificially accelerated molecules. When combined with paraffin and oil under high pressure, it first yielded artificial diamonds. Its aluminum hydride works excellently in the reduction of ketones and aldehydes to alcohols, and along with magnesium it is the most common metal used in organometallic reagents. Also of note is that its lightest isotope, when bomarded with slow neutrons, yields a tritium and helium. FTP, name this first of the alkali metals, whose carbonate is often used in treating manic depression.
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Common catalysts for it include citrate synthase and malate synthase. It is often followed by a conjugate addition to alpha-beta-unsaturated carbonyls, or Michael addition. It begins with an acid-base reaction, where an alkoxide functions as base and removes an acidic alpha-hydrogen, followed by a nucleophilic substitution with a tetrahedral intermediate, and finally the formation of the product, a beta ketoester. For 10 points -- name this reaction of an ester enolate with another molecule of the ester, the ester analogue of aldol condensation.
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Diethyl malonate adds to these compounds in the presence of a base in the Bingel reaction, and pure solutions of them exhibit a deep purple color. Complexes of them with helium have been found in meteorites, and when complexed with alkali or alkali earth metals, they display superconductivity at relatively high temperatures. All of their atoms are sp2 hybridized, though one bond angle is strained to 108 degrees. Discovered when Kroto, Smalley, and Curl used a high power laser to vaporize an allotrope of them, nanotubes are essentially stretched versions of them. FTP name these compounds, the first example of which was C60, named for the creator of the shape they resemble, geodesic domes.
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Eclampsia is treated with this element's sulfate, and the bioluminescence reaction in fireflies utilizes ions of this element. Liquid titanium tetrachloride is dropped on this element's molten form to make metallic titanium in the Kroll process. Its blockage of NMDA receptors allows for sodium and potassium ion flux in cells, and this element is commonly found in certain chemical reagents existing in a Schlenck equilibrium. In its divalent cationic form, it acts to stabilize the grooves of DNA, and its sulfate form is also known as Epsom salt. This cation is also found coordinated to the porphyrin ring of chlorophyll. For 10 points, name this metal with symbol Mg.
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Electron paramagnetic spectroscopy showed that the simplest compound of this group forms an electron-deficient tetrahedral aggregate in solution. Researchers at the University of Waterloo reported that solutions of this class of compounds can be accurately titrated using a stock solution of N-benzylbenzamide indicator, which turns deep blue at the endpoint. Reactions involving these compounds, such as ketone alkylation, must be carried out in a polar aprotic solvent because they are very strong bases. In addition, TMEDA is often added to solution to increase the reactivity of these compounds by lowering the coordination number at the metal atoms. For 10 points, name this class of organometallic compounds defined by bonds between atoms of a hydrocarbon chain and a certain metal element which is number 3 on the periodic table.
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Ellman's reagent can be used to measure the amount of this functional group in substances, while the Saville reaction uses mercury to replace a nitrosyl from them. Reducing the product of treating a carbonyl compound with Lawesson's reagent results in the creation in one of these functional groups, the free form of which may be necessary for infection by the cytomegalovirus. This functional group, which can be alkylated by bromobimane, can only be found on one amino acid, cysteine. Capable of being formed via heating a halogenoalkane in a sodium hydrosulfide solution, these are, FTP, which functional group, previously known as mercaptains, which is composed of a hydrogen atom bonded to a sulfur atom?
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Escobedo and de Pablo modified a type of "integration" introduced by Kofke that is derived from this equation. The Lewis-Randall rule can be used to relate Henry's Law to this statement, while it itself is derived by differentiating the Euler equation. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation follows directly from this relation. At constant temperature and pressure, its states that given multiple species in solution, the products of the number of moles of a species in solution and the derivative of that species' chemical potential will sum to zero. For 10 points, name this equation that shows that the intensive variables of a system are not independent, named after a man with an eponymous phase rule and a French scientist-philosopher.
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Examples of argentometric types include the Mohr version, which creates silver chromate. Dyes attracted to a charged precipitate are used in the Fajans version of this procedure, and the Kjeldahl determination uses another type of this analysis. The acid dissociation constant can be found using the slope of the Gran plot of this process, while it is done in nonaqueous solutions for very weak acids and bases because, due to the leveling effect, they do not have a distinct potentiometric end point Also known as volumetric analysis, for 10 points, this is what chemical analytical method that, in the acid-base variety, finds the equivalence point of a reaction by using an indicator, thus determining the concentration of a reagent?
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Ficarro developed a "methyl-" version of this reaction for tagging peptides, and Schlater and Ziemnik's microwave catalysis was developed to accelerate the rate of this reaction. The use of KSF or a Dean-Stark apparatus may speed this reaction by eliminating water, driving the final step towards the products. In its final step, an oxonium atom loses water to produce the namesake product. Benzocain is a notable product of this reaction, in which a carboxylic acid and an alcohol are refluxed in the presence of an acid catalyst. FTP, name this esterification reaction named for a German chemist.
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First characterized in 1963, this hormone consists of a sesquiterpenoid partially produced through the mevalonic acid pathway. Its active form is produced by oxidation of a product of violaxanthin breakdown, ABA aldehyde. Its production is stimulated by stresses and its transport occurs in a non-polar manner through both xylem and phloem with translocation through parenchymal cells. Major effects include inhibiting shoot growth with a minimal effect on root growth, inducing seeds to synthesize storage proteins, and inducing gene transcription for proteinase inhibitors in response to wounding. FTP, name this plant hormone once known as dormin for its induction and maintenance of dormancy and best known for its role in the dehiscence of fruits and the falling of leaves.
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First proposed by Gilbert Lewis, it was largely overshadowed by his work on electron structure and bonding in atoms. Related logarithmically to the Gibbs free energy divided by the temperature, this quantity is generally used in the place of more difficult to compute chemical potentials when working in non-ideal situations. Name this quantity relating the tendency of a substance to escape from its current phase via some chemical process and equal to the pressure for an ideal gas, symbolized, FTP, by a lowercase f.
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For an ideal gas, this quantity is equal to the number of moles times Boltzmann's constant, times the sum of five halves and the natural log of the quantity one over moles times volume divided by the cube of the thermal wavelength. For molecules in a solid, this quantity can be expressed as one over temperature times the difference between internal energy and zero point energy, plus the natural log of the rotational partition function times the product of moles and Boltzmann's constant. This quantity is also equal to the enthalpy minus Gibbs free energy, all over temperature. It is always increasing by the Second Law of Thermodynamics. For 10 points, give this thermodynamic quantity symbolized S, which measures the amount of disorder in a system.
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For nuclear reactor fuel, uranium is converted to its hexaflouride species and the 235 isotope enriched using this law. It can determine the vapor pressure of some materials, as well as find the rate of evaporation from a surface. What law named for a British scientist states, for ten points, that the square root of the inverse ratio of the molecular masses of two gases equals their rate of effusion?
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For two harmonic oscillators it has a value of n plus 1 at the nth energy level. It has a very sharp maximum about the most probable energy configuration, and serves as the basis for definition of thermal equilibrium values. Entropy can be defined as Boltzmann's constant times the natural logarithm of this function. FTP, identify this function which describes the number of quantum states with a particular energy.
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Fullerene cations have exhibited this effect, which results in the distortion of their symmetry. The static variety occurs when the lowest energy level of a molecule is degenerate, in which case it distorts spontaneously so as to remove the degeneracy and make one energy level more stable. The more famous variety is the spontaneous, in which the overall energy of a system is reduced by splitting the energy levels in an electronically excited state. FTP, identify this effect that results in the elongation of one axis of a supposedly symmetrical complex inorganic ion.
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Giving the same products as the Peterson reaction, unlike the Knoevenagel and aldol reactions, it is stereoselective and regiospecific. Beta-carotene is synthesized from vitamin A using this reaction in which an aldehyde or ketone reacts with a phosphonium ylide to form an alkene. For ten points, name this eponymous reaction which won its German discoverer a share of a Nobel Prize.
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Gravitational redshift was measured by Pound, Rebka, and Snider in Harvard's Jefferson Tower using this technique to detect a frequency shift of order one part in ten to the 14th. It can be used for precise studies of the Zeeman effect in nuclei. Iron 57 and tin 119 are two of the isotopes used in this type of spectroscopy due to narrow linewidths in their transitions. Before this technique, the large size of Doppler shifts relative to transition widths made nuclear spectroscopy problematic. It was discovered by its namesake when he was a graduate student at the Munich University of Technology. FTP, what is this effect in which a crystal lattice reduces recoil energy?
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He played a major role in his country's adoption of the metric system. His wife Marie-Anne translated his scientific works into English for him while he worked as a gunpowder administrator. The coiner of the term "oxygen", he also worked as a tax collector prior to his debunking of the phlogiston theory. The empirically-derived law of conservation of mass is often known as his law, and he wrote the first general textbook on chemistry in 1789. FTP, name this "father of chemistry" who was guillotined during the French Revolution.
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He postulated that the four carbon valences of a carbon atom are directed towards the corners of a regular tetrahedron and showed that optical isomers are mirror images of the same molecule. This man's namesake isochore defines the connection between the equilibrium constant and temperature. Along with Ostwald, he founded a scientific journal in 1887, three years after he consolidated his ideas in Etudes de dynamique chimique. Name this chemist who defined the concept of chemical affinity as the maximum work obtainable from a reaction, and who, FTP, received the first Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1901.
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If a palladium catalyst is not used, allyl esters rearrange to gamma-delta unsaturated compounds through this intermediate in the Carroll rearrangement, while beta-gamma unsaturated compounds equilibrate when possible with alpha-beta unsaturated compounds with this species as the intermediate. Alkylation of ions of these molecules by an alkyl halide or a tosylate forms carbon-carbon single bonds, and stereochemical information is lost over time in ethylacetoacetate because of the formation of one. While forming one with acid can lead to single halogenation, using base leads to the haloform reaction and the generation of a carboxylate. Enamines may be used as equivalents to this functional group, and they are essential to the Robinson annulation and the Claisen condensation. Malonic acid derivatives form particularly stable ones due to conjugation. For 10 points, identify this functional group, the tautomer of many carbonyl compounds.
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If one uses halides that are sterically hindered with accessible protons in the beta position, the alkoxide in this reaction with act as a base, especially if it's bulky, and an elimination side product will result. If this happens, the hydroxyl group on the alkoxide will just reform and a useless separate alkene will form. The goal is to have the deprotonated oxygen attack the halide in nucleophilic substitution, kicking off the halogen, and attaching itself to a new carbon chain. FTP, name this reaction that prepares molecules of formula R-O-R, known as ethers.
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In 2009, Brown et. Al showed that a naphthalene-derived structure catalyzed one type of this reaction, yielding the highest enantioselectivity to date induced by the chiral cavity of a supramolecular assembly. Degenerate forms of this reaction are responsible for the single peak at 4.2 ppm of the fluxional molecule bullvalene. This observation is due to diradical transition state that preserves orbital symmetry. Proceeding only when surpafacial on all components of the reaction, this reaction also occurs in aza and oxy varieties, the latter of which produces an enol or enolate product that does not equilibrate to the regioisomer. Its diradical mechanism is both concerted and pericyclic, explaining the 300 Celsius reaction conditions needed for this process to occur. For 10 points, name this [3,3] sigmatropic thermal isomerization of a 1,5-diene yielding a regioisomeric 1,5-diene that is not the Claisen rearrangement.
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In cyclic systems, this type of reaction interconverts cis and trans stereochemical relations. Branching at or near the reacting carbon slows it down, because of steric hindrance and the energy required to attain a gauche methyl-halide conformation. It is impeded by solvation and proceeds by the backside attack of an electrophilic carbon, with the nucleophile replacing the weak base for a leaving group. FTP name this stereospecific, concerted, one-step displacement reaction mechanism following a second-order rate law.
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In discussing non-ideal gases, his name is given to the temperature at which the second virial coefficient multiplying the density vanishes. He showed that flames require air, and that sound does not travel in a vacuum. These facts appear in his 1660 work, The Spring of the Air and Its Effects, which discusses his experiments using an air pump he designed with the help of his assistant Robert Hooke. FTP name this Englishman whose law states that for an ideal gas at constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume is constant.
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Salts ofd this acid produced during metabolism can accumulate for form kidney stones, and its accumulation in the synovial fluilds of joints causes gout. The major form in which metabolic nitrogen is execreted from the body, it has formula C3 H4 N4 O3. FTP, what is this acid, the end product of purine breakdown in most mammals?
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In mathematics its use with algorithms results in the Kolmogorov complexity, dealing with a finite sequence of bits. In one definition it is the product of Boltzmann's constant and the natural logarithm of the multiplicity, and another relationship defines temperature as one over the derivative of this quantity with respect to internal energy. Its value at absolute zero is zero according to the third law of thermodynamics, and the Clausius inequality states that its change is always greater than or equal to zero. In addition, the second law of thermodynamics states that it tends to increase. FTP, identify this thermodynamic state function that can be interpreted as the measure of disorder in a system.
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In order to explain this mechanism's normal result, Winstein has proposed that the presence of ion pairs hinders complete racemization from it. Strong leaving groups like tosylates increase the rate of reactions of this type, but nucleophile concentration changes have no effect on it. Proceeding in two steps, it works best with tertiary alkyl halides and proceeds more rapidly in aprotic solutions. Its rate determined by the dissociation of the substrate, which results in the formation of a carbocation and is unimolecular. FTP, identify this reaction mechanism; a first-order nucleophilic substitution.
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In the 1920s this man tried to extract gold from seawater, while earlier he was the first to demonstrate that oxidation and reduction take place at the electrodes. His study of the combustion of hydrocarbons led to the commercial "cracking" of natural oil into its components. Initially professor at Karlsruhe, he served from 1911-33 as director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry, but was forced out by the Nazis, despite having aided the WWI cause with his production of poison gas. FTP, who was this winner of the 1918 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his method of ammonia production that was later modified by Bosch?
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In this pathway, fluoroacetate can form a derivative that permanently binds to a certain enzyme, leading to arrest of this pathway. One step involves a dehydrogenase catalyzing the formation of the anion α-ketoglutarate. That anion is produced in two steps, with a decarboxylation from oxalosuccinate following an oxidation from the iso- form of the first product of this process. Later in this process, flavin adenine dinucleotide or FAD is used to produce malate from fumarate. It is preceded by the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, which combines with oxaloacetate to yield citrate. For 10 points, name this cycle, also called the citric acid cycle, which follows glycolysis in cellular respiration.
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In this process, a small amount of calcium chloride is added to lower the melting point of the compound involved. It occurs in a cylindrical steel cathode surrounding a central graphite anode, with the released chlorine led away by a hood over the anode and the molten element this process is designed to extract collected through another hood around the top of the cylinder. FTP, what is this electrolytic process for extracting sodium from sodium chloride?
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Indirectly, it can provide a ratio of ionized to non-ionized molecules of lysine. Depending on the situation in which it is used, one can invert the quotient used in its more complicated term or merely subtract that term instead. An important application of this relation is its explanation of the effects of increased carbon dioxide levels on possible alkalosis in the plasma. Derivable from the definition of the equilibrium dissociation constant, it is useful for calculating the effect of buffers. FTP, name this simple equation indicating that the logarithm of the quotient of a base and its conjugate acid plus its pKa is equal to its pH.
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It avoids the central problem of the earlier Siemens process by using a throttling process rather than expansion through a turbine, thereby creating a system without moving parts exposed to ultralow temperatures. If the system is modified to send a portion of the vapor in a superheated state through an expander instead of the Joule-Thomson valve, it becomes known as the Claude process. The major breakthrough in this process was to send expanded cooled gas through a heat exchanger to cool incoming compressed gases, allowing for far lower temperatures. FTP, what is this refrigeration process patented in 1895 that is the most common method of liquefying gases?
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It can be produced by the cuprammonium process, in which the raw material used to make it is dissolved in copper oxide and ammonia. It is more resistant to stains and creasing when made by the acetate process, but the most common commercial type is made by the viscose process. First produced by Hilaire de Chardonnet in 1884, it is made using natural cellulose derived from wood pulp. FTP, what is this fiber once known as "artificial silk", the first synthetic fiber?
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It has been used to synthesize such complex molecules as morphine, reserpine, and cortisone as well as other cyclic organic compounds. Take a substance containing two alternate double bonds and link it to a compound containing a pair of doubly or triply bonded carbon atoms. The two compounds will react to form a six-membered ring. In essence, it is the reaction of quinones with dienes and is also known as diene synthesis. FTP, give this reaction, named for the German scientists Otto and Kurt.
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It holds only when the molecular attraction between different components is equal to the attraction of any one component in its pure state. Dealing primarily with changes in colligative properties, it allows for the calculation of molecular weights of dissolved substances and leads to the definition of a solution as ideal. FTP, identify this law that relates the vapor pressure and mole fraction of a solution, a law named for its French discoverer.
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It is most commonly illustrated through reactions with halogenoalkanes, where a reactive species attacks the carbon atom in the carbon-halogen bond. Though it would appear that the extreme polarization of the carbon-fluorine bond would make this mechanism especially reactive with fluorocarbons, the strength of the bond decreases the effectiveness of the mechanism. FTP, what is this reaction mechanism, in which a reactant with lone electrons attacks a region with positive charge?
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It is thought to have properties similar to tungsten. Scientists at Switzerland's Paul Scherrer Institute have been able to create it by bombarding Californium-248 with neon atoms. It was first created in 1974 at the Soviet Joint Institute for Nuclear Research via the bombardment of lead with Chromium-54, and then by Albert Ghiorso at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory via the nuclear fusion of Californium-249 with Oxygen-18. FTP, name this element with atomic number * 106, named after the American co-discoverer of the first 11 trans-uranium elements.
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It manifests when the two partial 3d bands of opposite spin are shifted by exchange interactions, but only when the band width is comparable to the displacement. It is favored when the ratio of half the nuclear separation to the 3d radius is greater than 1.5, though Heusler alloys with manganese also exhibit this as an exception to the rule. Found when the difference in energy between magnetized and unmagnetized states is near a 10th of an electron volt, it is characterized by domain structure and irreversibility upon magnetic field application known as the hysteresis effect. FTP name this condition below the Curie point, the basis for permanent magnets like iron.
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It reacts directly with carbon-carbon double bonds by a 1,3 cycloadditon to form a pentagonal intermediate, after which workup reagents can be added to produce carbonyl end products. Its distinctive smell was specifically noted in 1785, but it was not determined to be a definite chemical compound until 1839. Because of its high oxidation potential and ease of production, it is often used as a disinfectant, particularly in water treatment plants. More famously, it blocks ultraviolet rays, converting them into heat energy in the earth's stratosphere. FTP identify this triatomic compound with a characteristic pale blue color, which is composed entirely of oxygen atoms.
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It was first synthesized by Arnold Collins, building on the work of Father Julius Nieuwland. Production using a free radical process produces a mostly trans polymer, but the use of sulfur or a butadiene can alter its polymer properties. Vulcanized with metallic oxides, its oil and chemical resistance led to its wide use in automotive gaskets and laboratory tubing. Today, because it can be made into a foam of thin sheets, it is used in wetsuits and other scuba gear. FTP, name this "new" type of rubber polymerized from chloroprene at Dupont under Wallace Carothers.
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Its alpha variety is formed when the OH group on carbon 1 is below the plane of the ring of the first molecule, while its beta variety is formed when the OH group lies above the plane. Formed from a condensation reaction between its two members, it is normally formed between the carbon 1 on one sugar molecule and the carbon 4 on another sugar molecule. Cellulose bears the 1-4 beta variety, while starch bears the 1-4 alpha variety. FTP, identify this type of bond that forms between the monomers of a polysaccharide.
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Judd-Ofelt theory is used to predict the luminescent properties in these and characterize their electric-dipole transitions. McCoy's method can be used to separate them, and Axel Crönstedt is believed to have discovered the first of them. All of them, except for two, contain trivalent cations, some of which can interfere with calcium channels in the human body. Most are derived from a tetragonal xenotime or monoclinic monazite. The Sparkle model is a computational chemistry technique to calculate their complexes. All of them follow the Oddo-Harkins Rule, which may help to explain why "lights" can be found in the crust and the "heavies" in the mantle. They're particularly noted for exhibiting poor shielding of nuclear charge, which leads to decreases in their atomic radii, an effect known as their namesake "contraction." Containing a partially-filled 4f electron orbital, this is, FTP what period of elements from atomic number 57 to 71?
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Later corrections to this equation include Trautz and Lewis' collision theory, as well as Wigner and Eyring's transition state theory. It was first proposed by van't Hoff in 1884, and later was justified by its namesake. When expressed in terms of molecular units, the Boltzmann constant is used instead of the universal gas constant. The modified version of this equation makes explicit the temperature dependence of its pre-exponential factor, which accounts for a reaction's rate coefficient. FTP, identify this equation named after a Swedish scientist that calculates a reaction's activation energy.
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Melanie Klein suggested that it was a tendency to repair and restore the good object that is destroyed by destructive instincts. In The Ego and the Id, it is connected to the desexualized libidinal energy of the ego that can be displaced onto other activity. FTP, identify this psychoanalytic concept, which Freud invoked to explain activities like art and intellectual inquiry which have no obvious connection to sexuality but are motivated by it, a term which is used in chemistry to describe a procedure in which a substance moves directly from the solid to the gas state.
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Mercury cadmium telluride is frequently used in its detection because it has a smaller band gap than silicon. Samples are often made into pellets with potassium bromide or deposited on sodium chloride disks. Requiring a net change in a molecule's dipole moment for a vibration to be active, FTP, identify this type of spectroscopy that measures absorbances between 400 and 4000 wave numbers.
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Minerals that contain cationic iron have a characteristic response to this effect which can be used to measure the presence of said ions in amphiboles and pyroxenes, a technique used in the MIMOS modules aboard several Mars rovers. Quadrupole splitting and isomer shift that occurs in this effect can be used to study hyperfine interactions, and when viewing its spectrum a phonon wing can be seen near the zero-energy shift line. Pound and Rebka used it in their general relativity experiments, and it is used along with the Doppler-effect in a namesake spectroscopy known for precise measurements. Occuring because of distribution of energy across an atomic lattice, FTP, identify this effect which explains the recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma rays.
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N-acetylglutamate regulates this compound's production by activating carbamoyl phosphate synthase, which initializes its synthesis. Along with its analog, guanidinium, it is a strong protein denaturant, and other key steps in its synthesis include the conversion of ornithine to citrulline, which is then converted into arginine and this compound in its namesake cycle. Consisting of two amine groups linked by a carbonyl, this non-toxic compound derives from toxic ammonia in the liver and makes up most of the dry weight of urine. For 10 points, name this compound which clears most nitrogenous waste from the body and was first synthesized by Friedrich Wohler.
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Nugent et al. protected these compounds with tert-butoxycarbonyl in a variant of the Henry reaction representing one of the first known chiral proton catalysis reactions discovered outside of proteins. They produce ketenes in the Wolff rearrangement, then react with those ketenes in the Staudinger cycloaddition. Both alkenes and tertiary alcohols yield a product that can rearrange to form them in the Schmidt reaction. Any reaction that uses them is denoted by the prefix "aza." Their namesake functional group is attacked by a cyanide ion in the Strecker synthesis of amino acids, and they are produced intramolecularly via the reduction of azides. Reacting carbonyl compounds with primary amines gives derivatives of these compounds known as Schiff bases. For 10 points, name these compounds characterized by the presence of a carbon-nitrogen double bond.
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One atom of it, when combined with five atoms of silver and four atoms of iodine, has the highest room temperature conductivity of any known ionic crystal. Discovered in 1861 as an impurity associated with samples of the mineral lepidolite, it is used in photocells and vacuum-tube filaments, and made headlines in January 2001 when Harvard physicists slowed light to a stop in a vapor composed of it. Discovered along with cesium by Kirchoff and Bunsen in 1859, what is this alkali metal with atomic number 37, which, FTP, is distinguished by its bright red spectroscopic lines?
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One variation on this reaction proceeds via the Smiles rearrangement. Poly-ß-leucine acts as a catalyst in an epoxidation reaction named after Colonna and this reaction's namesake. Keck et al. demonstrated that when samarium (II) iodide is used in the second step of this reaction, deuterium from a deuterated methanol solvent is not incorporated into the final product, in contrast to the use of a sodium amalgam in that second step. A variant that eliminates that second step is partially named after Kocienski. An alcohol intermediate is formed in its first step via the addition of a phenyl sulfone to an aldehyde or ketone. For 10 points, name this alternative to the Schlosser modification of the Wittig reaction for producing (E)-alkenes.
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Optical purity is maintained as a result of this kind of reaction, which also results in an inversion of configuration arising from trigonal bipyramid transition state, which indicates its concerted mechanism. Its rate is greatly accelerated through the use of polar and aprotic solvents, and this reaction requires the presence of a good leaving group. Nearly impossible to perform with a trisubstituted compound due to steric factors, its mechanism is often an attack by a negatively-charged species on the backside of a carbon attached to a halide. FTP, give the alphanumeric designation for this type of organic reaction, known as a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution.
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Organisms in which this process occurs tend to have elevated levels of ascorbate peroxidase. Members of genus Frankia perform this process, and it is characterized by the occurrence of a pinkish color in leghemoglobin. It occurs in specialized cells called heterocysts in cyanobacteria, and the protein central to this process is inactivated by oxygen, contains an iron-molybdenum complex, and is coded for by the nif gene. The microorganisms most commonly associated with it form root nodules and are called rhizobia. For 10 points, identify this process which results in ammonification of the most common atmospheric gas.
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Other than methane, this colorless, volatile hydrocarbon has the highest organic emission volume because it is emitted by photosynthetic leaves. It yields butyl rubber when combined in small amounts of isobutene, while its polymerization can build-up nerol, citral, and farnesol. It is usually obtained by processing coal tar or petroleum, but can also be obtained by the thermal decomposition of several types of plants containing it, as explained in a namesake rule by Otto Wallach. FTP, name this compound, also known as 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene, the monomer of terpenes with chemical formula C5H8.
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Pattison and Degering prepared a version of this catalyst using an alloy of magnesium and acetic acid to remove inactive portions of its structure, and that catalyst improved significantly on Mozingo's W-2 version. Formaldehyde is entirely disproportionated within seventy minutes in the presence of it, and it catalyzes other Cannizzaro-type pathways effectively. Its preparation involves alloying aluminum and silicon and dissolving using sodium hydroxide. Its industrial applications include complete reduction of benzene and desulfurization processes. For 10 points, name this catalyst whose mesh surface structure allows for high catalytic activity, named for its discoverer and the metal it contains, nickel.
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Pentostam, Repodral, and other drugs containing this compound preceded modern treatments like Praziquantel in the treatment of helminth infections. The trivalent chloride of this element can catalyze the reaction of aromatic amines with meso epoxides to yield beta-amino alcohols. This element's amphoteric trioxide is found in valentinite and senarmontite. This element produces a false positive result in the Marsh assays since, like arsenic, it reacts with zinc and acid to produce a black precipitate. George Olah pioneered the combination of this element's pentafluoride with hydrogen fluoride to yield the strongest known superacid. It is commonly used to enhance the hardness of lead, and this Group Five element's sulfide is the ore stibnite. For ten points, name this metalloid, atomic number 51, with symbol Sb.
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Photolysis or pyrolysis in which a bond is broken without forming ions can produce these by-products of normal metabolism, which play a valuable role in fighting infection. Dr. Denham Harman, a professor emeritus at the University of Nebraska, is considered the father of a theory of aging in which they are key. Their namesake reactions involve covalent single bond changes in which one electron comes from each reactant. FTP, name these molecules with at least one unpaired valence electron, and thus an electrical charge, which can damage cell membranes and cause DNA mutations.
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Prenylated proteins have side chains of these compounds. Since beta-carotene is also a member of this class, its presence helps prevent the proteins from triggering cancer. Found in botanical oils, their structure of branched five-carbon units yields polymers such as gutta-percha and rubber. For ten points, what compound's basic structural unit is C5H8, also known as isoprene.
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Primary ones can be made from phthalimide anions without danger of overalkylation, a convenient synthesis discovered by Siegmund Gabriel. They can also be made by reducing alkyl azides via either catalytic hydrogenation or treatment with lithium aluminum hydride. They can be converted to alkenes via the Hoffmann elimination, or acylated to form amides. Most of their chemistry is due to the reactivity of a lone pair, which makes them function as bases, and the simplest one is ammonia. FTP, name this class of compounds characterized by the presence of a nitrogen atom.
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Recent studies have shown that this type of substance can undergo self-assembly and may also form Langmuir monolayers. A specific meaning of this term is a substance secreted by the Type II alveolar cells in the lung, which maintains the stability of pulmonary tissue, and contains phospholipids and apoproteins. More generally, the term refers to any substance that will lower surface tension, particularly between hydrophilic and hydrophobic phases. Soaps and detergents are typical examples of, FTP, what chemistry term originating from the phrase "surface-active"?
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Scientists have recently discovered that this quantity is in agreement with the Kohler equation, and along with the Yesin-Markov coefficients it has been shown to be dependent on the partial molar volume. Appearing in its namesake's isotherm, this quantity has a value of 1 with non-ionic solids and appears between the observed and ideal osmotic pressures. Given by the osmotic pressure divided by the quantity of the gas constant times the temperature divided by the volume, FTP, identify this factor designated I and named after the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in chemistry.
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Silicon-substituted cyclic compounds have been used as "pumps" to generate this class of chemicals in the formation of block copolymers. Laser flash photolysis of ketoprofenate produces an example of this class of compounds that is unusually unreactive with water. In unimolecular elimination via the conjugate base, the intermediate is one of these compounds. Wittig-Horner and Horner-Emmons reactions use resonance-stabilized phosphonate examples of these in place of the phosphonium ylide, and in the first step of the malonic ester synthesis, diethyl malonate is treated with sodium to generate this type of reactive species. Less substituted examples of these are more stable, and they have the same electron structures as analogous amines, though they are stronger nucleophiles. For 10 points, name these compounds that contain a trivalent carbon atom with a negative charge.
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Similar to the standard practice, the procedure also uses the addition of a column with large glass cylinders or orbs to provide a larger surface area for condensation. This allows only the most volatile material to proceed to the receiver in vapor form; the less volatile material is returned as liquid. The purification the volatile material undergoes is referred to as rectification. This process involves repeated condensation and vaporization processes in an insulated vertical column. FTP, give the name of this technique developed by Fritz Haber and used to separate liquids with similar boiling points.
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Solutions are called perfect is they obey this law over a wide range of concentrations. This law only holds for ideal binary mixtures, with positive or negative deviations occuring depending on whether the activity coefficient is greater than one or less than one. These deviations for mixtures of liquids result in the formation of azeotropes. Stated mathematically as p equals p sub 0 times X, FTP, what is this chemical law stating that the partial pressure of a solvent is proportional to its mole fraction?
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Solutions to the second law of this name are possible when physically meaningful boundary conditions are specified, and it commonly uses the Gaussian error function in the solution. This is because it is expressed as a partial differential equation necessary to describe nonsteady state conditions. Both laws by this name can be described as dependent on the activity gradient. The first law is relatively simple, being applicable in steady state conditions, and states that flux is proportional to the concentration gradient. FTP, name these laws analogous to Graham's law and used to describe diffusion.
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Suzuki coupling requires a palladium metal catalyst and this element to carry an alkyl group for formation of a carbon-carbon bond. In the highly reactive compounds it forms with hydrogen, it adopts structures according to Wade's rules; these bonds were described by Longuet-Higgins. Addition across a carbon-carbon double bond and reaction with basic hydrogen peroxide results in the formation of an anti-Markovnikov product when an alkene is reacted with one of its hydrides. Its nitrides are isoelectronic with carbon; the cubic-bonded form has nearly the hardness of diamond. FTP, name this element whose hydrides are often described as having three-center two-electron bonds, notable for forming Lewis acidic compounds since it has only three valence electrons, which has atomic number 5 and symbol B.
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The "advantage" named for this relation describes the utility of lightly loaded columns in achieving good separation with relatively low retention volumes. It can be used to find the slopes of individual reactions within Schreinemaker's bundles. One assumption used to derive this equation is that the difference in volume between two phases can be approximated by the volume of an ideal gas, and this equation describes a Carnot cycle across a phase transition. An analogue of the more empirical Antoine equation, this equation can be used to find the heat of vaporization. Its theoretical justification is that the change in Gibbs free energy along the coexistence curve is zero. For 10 points, name this doubly eponymous equation that relates the vapor pressure of a liquid to its temperature.
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The Cushman group at Purdue has shown that changes in this value determine drive flow in swelling systems not pressure gradients and external fields. Represented by a capital A, change in it can be defined as the work, in a reversible process, under constant volume and constant temperature. FTP, name this quantity equal to internal energy minus the product of temperature and entropy, a state function named for a German physicist.
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The Vyazovkin MFK technique allows for the calculation of this quantity in terms of the conversion rate. In the rate-process theory for viscosity developed by Eyring, an analogue of this quantity is measures the formation of "holes" which fluid molecules can occupy. For gas phase reactions, this quantity is equal to the enthalpy of formation of the transition state minus 2 RT, and the height of a potential barrier in a reaction profile is analogous to this quantity. It appears in the exponential term of the Arrhenius equation, enzymes and catalysts lower this quantity of a reaction. For 10 points, identify this energy which the reactants must overcome before they can proceed to the products of the reaction.
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The Wadsworth-Emmons-Horner reaction is a commonly used variant of this reaction. Two intermediates are produced during it: a dipolar charge-separated species called a betaine [BAY-tuh-een] and a four-membered heterocycle that breaks down to give the final products. It uses a phosphonate carbanion, but it can be conducted using sulfur ylides, though epoxides result. FTP, name this reaction between a phosphorus ylide [ILL-ide] and a carbonyl, which won its namesake the 1979 Nobel in chemistry.
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The Williams-Landel-Ferry model provides more accurate predictions for viscosity at higher temperatures than this related equation. This equation is similar in form to an equation based on transition state theory named after Polanyi and Eyring. Derived largely from collision theory, it includes one term based partially on the number of collisions in the system, as well as a term equal to e to the negative capital E-sub-a over RT. Preceded by a pre-exponential or steric factor typically symbolized A and used to compute the rate constant in terms of activation energy, for 10 points, name this equation of chemical kinetics, named after a Swedish chemist.
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The antibody Ab38C2 was found to efficiently catalyze both steps of this reaction via an enamine intermediate. That antibody is also highly enantioselective, and is thus useful in synthesis of optically active versions of the Wieland-Miescher compound. One variant of this reaction uses a 1,3-dichloro-2-butenyl derivative and is named for Wichterle, while another variant using sulfones sees the second step replaced by a Dieckmann condensation and is named for Hauser. A generalized version of this reaction sees a ketone and an enone in the presence of triflic acid and methylene chloride form bridged versions of the product. Occurring favorably with methyl vinyl ketones, this reaction is defined as a Michael addition followed by an intromolecular aldol condensation. FTP, name this reaction which results in formation of a ring in polycyclic compounds, an annulation named for a British chemist.
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The change in enthalpy for a certain type of reaction involving these compounds is dependent on their reactance by the Drago equation. Mukaiyama found that these compounds can promote the formation of aldols from acetals and silyl enol ethers. These compounds are used to promote high selectivity of oxidation of ketones to lactones or esters in the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation. They are necessary to remove the chlorine atom from an alkyl or acyl halide in the first step of the Friedel-Crafts reactions. For 10 points, name these compounds that include tin tetrachloride and boron trifluoride, which act as electron pair acceptors in their namesake American chemist's acid-base theory.
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The chemist for whom this relation is named considered it to be a special case of the partition law applying to gases that do not react with their solvent, and it applies only to liquids at a constant temperature. In a vapor pressure diagram of a solution of two volatile liquids, the vapor pressure of each component approaches this model as the mole fraction of the components approaches zero. FTP, name this law of chemistry relating the concentration and the partial pressure of dissolved gases through its namesake constant, k-sub-H.
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The cooperative pseudo- form of this phenomenon has been linked to the vibronic theory of ferroelectricity. A version of this phenomenon arising from mixing of two or more interacting states was studied by Opik and Pryce. The Ham factor is used to simplify calculations of electronic and vibronic properties affected by this phenomenon. It is frequently observed in complexes where the e-sub-g orbitals contain an odd number of electrons, as in compounds of copper(II). For 10 points, name this effect in which nonlinear systems in a degenerate electronic state distort to remove the degeneracy, which can result in the distortion of a coordination compound with octahedral symmetry to tetragonal geometry.
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The coupling reaction they enable is extremely versatile, as it can be carried out on aryl, vinyl, and alkyl halides. In alkyl coupling, an alkyl group from this reagent displaces a halide on the other reactant, forming a new carbon-carbon bond. These reagents will react with bromides or iodides, but not fluorides and rarely chlorides. They are prepared by reacting cuprous iodide with an alkyl lithium. FTP, identify this type of reagent with the general formula of R2CuLi, whose chemistry is similar to that of Grignard reagents.
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The defining functional group of these compounds can be protected by reacting it with chlorotrimethylsilane to yield a trimethylsilyl ether. They react with tosyl chlorides to form tosylates and the most highly substituted type reacts with hydrobromic acid to form alkyl halides. They can be formed from alkenes by hydroboration and oxidation, or by oxymercuration and reduction. These compounds are also synthesized by using sodium borohydride to reduce ketones or aldehydes. FTP, name this class of organic compounds defined by the presence of a hydroxyl group bonded to a saturated carbon, a common example of which is ethanol.
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The developer of this process also developed a method for generating straight-chain detergents with a platinum catalyst and was named James Roth. Sunley and Watson developed a variation on this reaction that uses an alternative iridium-based catalyst. It inspired a similar process which takes place under anhydrous conditions and is named after Tennessee Eastman. The catalyst for this compound adopts a d8 configuration during its first step, an oxidative addition, and subsequently participates a reductive elimination step after an insertion reaction involving carbon monoxide. It supplanted the earlier Wacker and BASF methods and, unlike the Cativa process, uses homogeneous rhodium iodide as a catalyst. For 10 points, name this commercial process in which carbon monoxide is combined catalytically with methanol to produce acetic acid, developed by the company that manufactures RoundUp.
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The difunctional aryl type of these compounds is used in the preparation of photoresist, an important chemical for microchip etching. The acyl type undergoes a Curtius rearrangement when heated to yield an isocyanate, and the lead compound is used as a detonating agent for explosives. The sodium compound, formed by passing nitrous oxide over heated sodium amide, is a gas generator in motor vehicles. Nitrenes are formed by when UV light hits, FTP, what compounds that are expressesd as resonance structures and contain the group -N3?
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The elimination mechanism by which the dehydration of its major product occurs necessarily involves the abstraction of an acidic hydrogen and displacement of the leaving group. The catalyst in this reaction itself is regenerated from the deprotonation of water in its final step, which results in the conversion of its intermediate, an alkoxide. An aldehyde or ketone had originally undergone a nucleophilic-addition-type process to produce that alkoxide, which had converted it from a nucleophilic enolate using a hydroxide ion catalyst. Producing a final product known as a beta-hydroxyaldehyde, FTP, name this condensation reaction whose name combines that of its two final products.
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The erroneous idea that the reaction which forms this class of compounds was analogous to neutralization led to their strange naming convention, in which these compounds are named as if they were alkyl salts of carboxylic acids. IR peaks for these compounds appear at both 1750 and 1200 inverse centimeters, and reaction of them with a base to form an alcohol and a salt is known as saponification and is used in making soap. They are of the form RCOOR' (R C O O R prime) where R and R' are alkyl or aryl groups. FTP name these compounds which form from the reaction of an acid and an alcohol, well known for their unique smells.
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The first molecules found to exhibit it were discovered in coal tar in the 1860s, and it is prevented by heavy angle or steric strain. Despite the conjugation of their bonds, linear alkenes do not have this quality because they are not cyclic, and other criteria for it include planarity. 10-annulene has extraordinary stability due to it, although benzene may be the best-known compound displaying it. FTP, name this resonance-derived lack of reactivity in many hydrocarbons, named for the odor arising from the first of said hydrocarbons.
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The flexibility of these molecules can be described by the Kuhn length. Modeling their structure as a random walk results in a Gaussian distribution based on end-to-end distance. Those in solid state exhibit amorphous and semicrystalline morphology and those that are linear or branched can exhibit thermoplasticity. Natural examples include cellulose and chitin, and synthetic examples include Lexan, Kevlar, and Plexiglass. FTP, identify these long chainlike molecules consisting of many repeating subunits.
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The formation of straight gallium nitride nanorods in the presence of ammonium relies upon this phenomenon, and one method of obtaining a heat transfer coefficient involves analyzing this process in naphthalene. In addition to oxidation, this process limits the utility of arsenic as a doping agent in low-resistivity crystal growth. When this technique is used in classroom purifications of caffeine, it is followed by the use of a cold finger to permit the collection of caffeine as it condenses. The enthalpy of this can be determined by adding the enthalpies of vaporization and fusion. For 10 points, name this phase transition in which a solid changes directly into a gas without becoming a liquid.
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The gamma-effects are useful in cases of geometric isomerism and are typically upfield, while further substituent effects are generally negligible. Proton-decoupling shows no splitting at all, while proton-coupling allows one to determine the number of attached hydrogens. Deltas beyond 200 generally indicate aldehydes and ketones, as the chemical shifts are much greater than a similiar technique. FTP, name this spectroscopic technique often used as in conjunction with proton magnetic resonance.
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The levorotary form of this chemical is the endpoint of the shikimate pathway, one branch of which sees this cyclic compound synthesized from 4-hydroxy-phenyl-pyruvate by reduction of L-glutamate to 2-oxoglutarate. DOPA is biologically synthesized by the action of this chemical's namesake hydrolase on it as it is the precursor of the catecholamines. This amino acid's side chain contains a phenyl group, so it can be made from the hydroxylation of phenylalanine. FTP, name this amino acid symbolized Y and named from the Greek for the substance in which it was first found, cheese.
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The long relaxation times observed in forbidden transitions from a triplet degeneracy for this quantity to a singlet state results in phosphorescence. For an electron, the gyromagnetic ratio relates this quantity to magnetic dipole moment, and operators for this observable can be expressed using Pauli matrices. The two beams of silver atoms observed in the Stern-Gerlach experiment correspond to opposite values of this quantity, and electrons in the same orbital must have opposite signs for this quantity according to the Pauli exclusion principle. For 10 points, identify this quantity simply defined as the intrinsic angular momentum of a particle, which can be plus or minus one-half for an electron.
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The major commercial use of this gas is in the production of azelaic acid, and it is frequently produced commercially by the silent discharge method. Typically measured in Dobson units, in its pure form it is an unstable, faintly bluish gas with a characteristically penetrating odor. It can be formed by lightning and by some electric motors and generators, but more frequently, it is made by the action of ultraviolet light on oxygen. FTP, what is this gas with formula O3 that composes a protective layer of the atmosphere?
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The measurements for it use a nondispersive infrared gas analyzer. Short-term measurements preceding it were taken in Pasadena and Big Sur, but this curve gives continuous observations since 1958. It shows a dip each year in summer, due to drawdown by photosynthesis, with annual variation of about 5 parts per million by volume. Observations for it are taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. Initially it showed a concentration of about 315 ppmv, but the newest points on the curve are above 390 ppmv. The main cause of this rising trend is the burning of fossil fuels. It is discussed in An Inconvenient Truth as evidence for global warming. For 10 points, what is this graph, named for a scientist from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, that shows atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide?
identify this method for synthesizing cyclic organic compounds, named for its German co-discoverers.
The mechanism for this reaction is concerted and stereospecific, as two pi bonds are converted into two sigma bonds simultaneously. Used to produce morphine, cortisone, and other steroids, the simplest reaction of this type is the reaction of 1,3-butadiene and ethylene to from cyclohexene. For 10 points
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The most recent scale that assigns values to this property is the Allred-Rochow Scale. Another method for measuring it was developed by Robert Mulliken, who stated that it is equal to one-half times ionization energy minus electron affinity. A more useful method of its determination was made by Linus Pauling in 1932. Pauling set Lithium as the baseline and gave the highest value to Fluorine. FTP, name this measure of a bonded atom's ability to attract shared electrons.
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The natural version of this process begins when two catalysts are anaerobically mixed with MgATP resulting in hydrolysis, and is often caused by microorganisms like spirillum lipoferum and rhizobium. The industrial version combines, at high temperatures and pressures, hydrogen and nitrogen, producing ammonia. For ten points, name the process where free nitrogen is converted into more reactive compounds.
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The normal mechanism of the formation of these is altered in Chevrel and A15 phases. Generally, their constituents are not physically near each other, but are closely related in momentum space. A proposed method of splitting them is to send them through a carbon nanotube to form a Luttinger liquid. Evidence of their existence was supplied by the isotope effect, and the exchange of phonons results from their coupling. For 10 points -- name these groups that explain charge-carrier tunneling effects, paired electrons that form the basis of the BCS theory.
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The number for these compounds was proposed by Alfred Werner, with the value of 6 corresponding to an octahedral structure. Those containing polydentate ligands are called chelates and examples include vitamin B12, chlorophyll, and hemoglobin. For ten points, a central metal atom is surrounded by non-metal groups in what class of compounds?
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The original Thomsen-Berthelot principle, also known as the principle of maximum work, was shown to violate this law because it failed to incorporate irreversibility. The Kelvin-Planck statement is one component of this law, and a flaw in Boltzmann's H-theorem concerning this law and time reversal symmetry is Loschmidt's paradox. A thought experiment in which an imaginary creature guards a trapdoor between a two-part gas container was proposed to try to violate this law. Clausius stated it as heat cannot flow from a hot object to a cold one spontaneously. For 10 points, name this law which says that the entropy of a system increases until it reaches equilibrium.
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The paper that introduced this concept extended the work of Morse and Frazer in measuring osmotic pressure. The activity of a species is equal to this value divided by a reference value, and one way of defining it takes the exponent of the chemical potential divided by Boltzman's constant times temperature. It is related to the mole fraction of a given species in solution by the Lewis-Randall rule. The phase with the lowest value of this quantity is the most favored, and this quantity is used to correct for non-ideality by correcting for intramolecular forces. Also defined as pressure multiplied by its namesake coefficient, for 10 points, name this quantity that describes the escaping tendency of a gas, symbolized f.
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The phenyl type of these compounds can be reacted with a Lewis acid to form a hydroxy aryl ketone via the Fries rearrangement. They can be made from Pinner salts and water, or in the Favorskii rearrangement by reacting an alpha-halo ketone with an alkoxide. Cyclic beta-keto ones are formed from a molecule with two of its defining functional groups in the Dieckmann cyclization, and the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of their namesake linkages, especially in fat, is known as saponification. For 10 points, name these often fruity smelling compounds formed in a process named for Fisher in which an alkyl group replaces the acidic hydrogen in carboxylic acids.
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The primary use of this principle is in making band assignments and deducing the relative shapes of two different electronic states. It allows the prediction of vertical transitions from classical turning points, and assumes that nuclear locations do not change until after their electrons have adopted their final distributions. An extension of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, FTP, name this principle which states that in fast reactions such as transitions of electron states, there is no time for geometry to change.
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The propensity of nitroso compounds to participate in a variant of this reaction has been used to synthesize oxazine derivatives. Another variant of this reaction yields 2,3-dihydro-4-pyridones and uses a compound named for Danishefsky. In addition to that 'aza' variation, this reaction is usually thermodynamically favorable since it sees the formation two sigma bonds from pi bonds. Under kinetic control, it preferentially yields an endo product, and one component must be in the s-cis conformation for the reaction to occur. For 10 points, name this cycloaddition reaction in which a diene reacts with a dienophile to produce a ring and is named after two German chemists.
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The strength of this property is often measured in units of Newtons per meter at 20 degrees Celsius, giving values like .028 for toluene, .425 for mercury, and .0728 for water. Symbolized gamma, it is usually weak in organic liquids like benzene and alcohols. It results from intermolecular forces, in that a molecule on the interior of a liquid experiences interactions with other molecules equally from all sides, whereas a molecule on the outside is only affected by those below it. FTP, what is this property of a liquid responsible for capillary action and the formation of liquid drops and meniscuses?
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The three most important factors influencing this test are the masses of the atoms involved in the bond, the strength of the bond, and the type of vibration being observed. Although the absorptions in the wavenumber range from 1000-1600 inverse centimeters are not analyzed in detail, they provide information that helps in identifying the molecule and is thus called the fingerprint region. FTP, identify this type of spectroscopy which uses light longer in wavelength than that of visible light.
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This equation, based upon work that barely secured a doctoral degree five years earlier, was first proposed in 1889. It describes the requirements for the spontaneous starting of a reaction by relating the natural logarithm of the reaction rate constant to the ratio of the activation energy and thermal energy. FTP, name this equation central to studies of combustion, first proposed its namesake Swedish chemist?
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This man showed that carbon is tetravalent. A native of Darmstadt, he first studied architecture, but became interested in chemistry when he heard Liebig give evidence in a murder trial. His interest in structure is shown in his study of reaction products, but he never finished his major work, the Lehrbuch der Organischen Chemie. For ten points, name this German chemist famous for his dream concerning the structure of benzene.
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This method's breakdown is the subject of the DeRosier problem. The zone of equilibrium in this technique is known as a "theoretical plate," and one type of this process uses a spinning band of Teflon. One setup for using this technique is called the Perkin triangle, which can be used when air-sensitive compounds are subjected to the "vacuum" type of this. One technique for performing this can use a Vigreaux column, or the cheaper Liebeg condenser. Many types of this process do not work with deviants from Raoult's Law, or azeotropes. For 10 points, name this method of separating mixtures based on differences in volatilities, which has a "fractional" type.
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Today, they are rapidly finding new applications as solvents, particularly where low toxicity is desirable, such as decaffeinating coffee and removing pollutants from water. They make good solvents because they diffuse and permeate like gases, but hold solutes like liquids. Created by heating a closed vessel partially filled with liquid until the boundary between liquid and gas phases disappears, FTP, identify this type of fluid, which exists at temperatures and pressures above the critical point.
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Two examples of this class of compounds are cadaverine and putrescine, which are known for their terrible odors. Members of this class, including codeine, caffeine, and several neurotransmitters, react with acids to form acid salts since they are weak bases. They are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary depending on how many alkyl or aromatic groups are attached to the central nitrogen atom. Created from substituting carbon-nitrogen bonds for one or more of the carbon-nitrogen bonds on a molecule of ammonia, FTP, name these compounds with general formula R3N.
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Unlike compounds of its type with more carbons, it undergoes a severe degree of angular and torsional strain, making it unstable. First synthesized by allowing 1,3-Dibromopropane to react with sodium, its carbon framework is held together by what are called "banana bonds." Derivatives of it can also by synthesized by allowing an alkene to react with a carbene. For ten points, name this simplest of the cycloalkanes.
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When it involves a silyl enol ether, it is known as the Mukaiyama reaction. The first step is an acid-base reaction that removes an alpha-hydrogen from one of the reactants, forming an enolate. When this is followed by an aldol condensation, sometimes the ethoxide can combine with the ketone to form an ether, but generally bicyclic ring systems are formed in a process called Robinson annulation. The reaction donors are usually active methylenes like nitroalkanes and malonates. FTP, name this reaction involving a 1,4-addition of a carbanion to an alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compound, most often used to create carbon-carbon bonds.
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When these materials are modeled as “freely jointed†objects, they behave as rigid rods on the scale of the persistence length. Synthetic condensation, or “step growth,†is one classification of these materials. “Addition†or “chaingrowth†varieties of these structures see no loss or gain of materials. Ziegler-Natta catalysts are useful in syntheses of these materials that use alkenes as a base unit. For 10 points, name these chemical molecules that are large chains of individual molecules, examples of which include polypropylene and polystyrene.
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When this chemical reacts with acetaldehyde and calcium hydroxide, it forms pentaerythritol, a relative of the explosive PETN, while reaction with ammonia yields methenamine, used as a urinary antiseptic. Produced principally by the vapor-phase oxidation of methanol, in its pure form it is a colorless, flammable gas which irritates the mucus membranes, and it is used widely in the tanning industry and as a disinfectant. FTP, name this compound with chemical formula HOCH, also used as an enbalming agent, which is the simplest of the aldehydes.
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When triethylamine is used as a catalyst in it, N-halosuccinimides, cinnamic acids, and propiolic acids can be converted into halostyrenes and haloalkynes. A similar reaction uses lead(IV) tetraacetate and lithium chloride to generate secondary and tertiary products, and is named after Kochi. If alpha-hydroxy and alpha-amino salts are used as substrates, aldehydes and ketones will results, and esters tend to form if iodine is used. It was first developed by Alexander Borodin, but is more often named after the husband-and-wife pair that converted it into a general method. It is similar to Kolbe electrolysis in that an alkane is formed from the decarboxylation of a carboxylic acid, and it usually proceeds via a hypobromite intermediate, eventually resulting in silver bromide. For 10 points, name this reaction that synthesizes alkyl halides from silver salts of carboxylic acids.
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Young and Kim have reported observations of Klein tunneling in heterojunctions of this, made possible by a unique band structure that simulates a relativistic wave equation with a greatly increased fine structure constant. Based on the presence of Dirac fermions, the anomalous quantum hall effect was predicted to occur in this before being observed by groups at Columbia and Manchester. Landau and Peierls argued that it could not exist, as divergent thermal fluctuations would cause it to melt at any temperature. Many groups struggled to produce it by epitaxial growth or intercalation of its quotidian parent compound, but the breakthrough in fabrication depended on 3M Scotch Tape. For 10 points, identify this material first isolated by Geim and Novoselov in 2004 and often touted as the next silicon, a two-dimensional single layer of hexagonally-arrayed carbon atoms.
