Child Psychology: Chs 7, 8, 9

What interactions are emphasized in social interactionist theories?

Native capacity combines with rich language environment

What is the environmental cumulative deficit hypothesis?

Negative effects of underprivilege increase the longer it takes Early cognitive deficits lead to more deficits Harder and harder to overcome

What are the memory errors that children make and what makes them susceptible to these errors?

Preschoolers' testimony less reliable than school-age children Less-developed language skills Desire to please Poorer source-monitoring Bias towards specifics; less gist memory Less skill with autobiographical narratives- may leave out detail Suggestibility

What two communicative gestures develop from infant pointing?

Prodeclarative: Baby points to and touches or holds an object while looking at others to make sure they notice Proimperative: Baby gets another person to do something by pointing or reaching

What is the psychometric approach?

Product-oriented, largely concerned with outcomes and results - how many and what kinds of questions children of different ages answer correctly

How do adults use recasting and expansion to inform children about grammar?

Recasts - Restructuring inaccurate speech into correct form Expansion - Elaborating on children's speech to increase its complexity (Ex. I gotted new shoes. Parents responds with Yes you got a pair of new red shoes)

What is episodic memory?

Recollections of personally experienced events that occurred at a specific time and place Later than semantic memory 2 types: Recurring, one-time events

Joint attention

Two people use gestures and gaze to share attention Ex. Give-and-take: Pat-a-cake and peekaboo

What is effective strategy use?

Use strategies consistently and performance improves by mid-elementary school years

How has the definition of gifted been expanded?

Used to be restrictive to only children with high IQ scores Now has expanded to include children with high levels of creativity

Siegler's model of strategy choice

Uses natural selection -When given a problem, kids generate many strategies to solve it -With experience, strategies are selected, become more frequent, and survive

What is semantic memory?

Vast, organized, and hierarchically structured general knowledge system consisting of concepts, language meanings, facts, and rules Ex. Memory strategies and arithmetic procedures

What is referential styles?

Vocabularies consist mainly of words that refer to objects Most toddlers use this

What is semantics?

Vocabulary- words and word combinations for concepts

Reconstruction

We select and interpret info as it is encoded, stored, or retrieved Can happen deliberately or due to fuzzy trace

Illocutionary intent

What a speaker means to say, even if the form of the utterance is not perfectly consistent with it

Examples of scripts

When asking a 3 year old what happens at a restaurant, they say "you go in, get the food, eat, and then pay" At age 5, might say "You go in. You can sit in the booth or table and tell a waitress what you want and if you want dessert you eat it otherwise you go home" - More complex What you do when you go to bed, school, etc.

What is fuzzy trace?

When we first encode info, we reconstruct it automatically creating a vague, fuzzy version

Rehearsal

Repeating the information to yourself to hold info into working memory

What is autobiographical memory?

Representations of one-time events that are long-lasting because they contain personal meaning Develop after age 2 Parents help develop narrative

Sensory register

Represents sights and sounds directly and stores them briefly

What is phonology?

Rules about structure and sequence of speech sounds

Executive function

Set of cognitive operations and strategies necessary for self-initiated, purposeful behavior in novel, challenging situations Improves with age by synaptic pruning and maturing of the prefrontal cortex

Examples of child directed speech

Short sentences, high pitch, distinct pauses

What is crystalized intelligence?

Skills that depend on prior knowledge, experience, good judgment, mastery of social conventions Ex. Vocabulary, arithmetic problems on intelligence tests

Grammatical morphemes

Small markers that change the meaning of sentences Once children form 3 word sentences Ex. John's dog and he is eating

Automatic processes

So well-learned that they require no space in working memory and allow us to focus on other info while performing them

Shading

Speaker initiates a change of topic gradually by modifying the focus of discussion

Turnabout

Speaker not only comments on what has just ben said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again

How is ADHD treated?

Stimulant medication Family intervention

Long-term Memory Storage

Stores info permanently

Store model of human information processing

Stores information in three parts: Sensory register, short term memory, and working memory

What are phonemes?

The smallest sounds units that signal a change in meaning Ex. Pa and Ba

How do children become bilingual?

1) Acquiring both languages at the same time in early childhood 2) Learning a second language after mastering a first

What are the four steps of attentional strategy?

1) Production deficiency 2) Control deficiency 3) Utilization deficiency 4) Effective strategy use

What is telegraphic speech?

2-word combinations focuses on high-content words and omit smaller, less important ones

What is the universal grammar?

A built-in storehouse of rules common to all human languages

Examples of autobiographical memory

A child describing going camping with detail and explaining the event's personal significance

What is infant-directed speech and why do adults use it?

A form of communiation made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, clear gestures, and repetition Arises from adults desire to hold babies attention and ease their task of understanding

What types of resources foster children's creativity?

Cognitive: Problem-finding Personality: Risk-taking Motivational: Task focus Environmental: School support

How can cultural bias be reduced in testing?

Combining tests with assessment of adaptive behavior Using zone of proximal development: Help figure out child's true ability

What is correlational stability?

Comparing how children score relative to age-mates from one time to the next

What interactions are emphasized in information-processing theories?

Connectionist model - Models mental or behavioral processes Statistical learning capacity - Use natural properties of languages like sounds and words to deduce its structure

What is explicit memory?

Conscious, strategic recall

What are babies' first forms of communication?

Cooing - 2 months (Vowel Sounds) Babbling - 6 months (Consonants and vowels, universal timing, range expands)

Heredity and Environment differences in IQ

Correlation between identical twins reared apart is much larger than fraternal twins reared apart - Genetic component Every instance siblings reared together have higher correlations than siblings reared apart - Still environmental factors Early in life, gap between between correlation between identical and fraternal twins is smaller than when adults Heritability of IQ is higher under advantaged than disadvantaged rearing conditions

Elaboration

Creating a relationship or shared meaning between two or more pieces of info that do not belong to the same category

What are absolute scores?

Examines same child's profile profile of scores over repeated testings Most children fluctuate Some either increase or decrease with age

What is utilization deficiency?

Execute strategies consistently, but their performance either does not improve or improves less than that of older children 6 and 7 year olds

What is production deficiency?

Failing to produce strategies when they could be helpful Preschoolers Ex: Opening all doors instead of certain ones to identify certain objects

What is infantile amnesia?

Lack of memory before 3 years old

What are speech registers?

Language adaptions to social expectations - Social routines, polite language Important to social acceptance

Bilingual education in Canada vs. the US

Language immersion is strong in Canada English-only is favored in the US In both countries, immigrant children do not recieve support for their native language in classrooms

Exampes of babling

"babababab" "nananana"

Examples of cooing

"oo"

What is an intelligence quotient?

(Mental age) divided by (chronological age) Allows comparisons with agemates Possible through standardization

What is implicit memory?

A shallower, automatic form of learning that takes place unconsciosly

Gists

A vague, fuzzy version which preserves essential meaning without details and is especially useful for reasoning

What is inhibition?

Ability to control distracting stimuli Improves from infancy on

How does reliance on gists change with age?

Adolescents and adults who are more skilled thinkers not only recall more items correctly than children but also mention more gist-related words not in the list just studied

What are the advantages of being bilingual?

Advanced in detection of errors in grammar, meaning, and conventions of conversation Develop denser neruonal connections in language areas of the left hemisphere Have advantaged cognitive development

Shared environmental influences

Affect all siblings similarly Ex. Home environment qualities, family beliefs about intellectual success, part of town they live in, SES, etc

What are achievement tests?

Aim to assess actual knowledge and skill attainment Ex. Classroom tests

What is the language acquisition device?

An innate system that permits children, once they have acquired sufficient vocabulary, to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to understand the meaning of sentences they hear

What support exists for the nativist theory?

Animal language - attempts to teach language to animals and certain species like gorillas can acquire a vocab and respond to novel sentences

What are underextensions?

Apply words too narrowly Ex. Use the word bear to refer only to a teddy bear to which he has become attached

What are overextensions?

Applying a word to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate Ex. Use the word car for buses, trains, and trucks

What is pragmatics?

Appropriate and effective communication

What are aptitude tests?

Assess an individuals potential to learn a specialized activity Ex. SAT, ACT

What is sustained attention?

Attraction to novelty declines The ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on specific stimuli Ex. Infant focusing on toys with a slower heart rate when engaged

What is a developmental quotient? (DQ)

Because most infant scores do not tap the same dimensions of intelligence assessed in older children, the test performance is labeled this instead of IQ

How do children use planning effectively?

Begins in infancy Improves with age Tools, teaching, and simple tasks help children learn to plan

What are referential communication skills?

Clear verbal messages and recognize when messages we receive are unclear so we can ask for more info

What are the limitations of the nativist perspective?

Can't specify the universal grammar Children make mistakes when talking Doesn't account for pragmatics and cognitive ability

How do children use fast-mapping to acquire language?

Children can connect a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter

What characterizes gifted children?

Children with exceptional intellectual strengths

What is language development like for deaf children with deaf parents?

Deaf children of deaf parents do not have the same difficulty as children with hearing parents Need access to deaf adults and peers to experience natural language learning

What is language development like for deaf children with hearing parents?

Deaf children who have hearing parents who are not fluent in sign language show delays in development of language and make-believe

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to solve problems, create products, and discover new knowledge in a wide range of culturally valued activities Linguistic, Logico-Mathematical, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalist, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal

What is fluid intelligence?

Depends on basic information processing skills Problem solving, analytical speed, working memory

Are IQ scores stable?

Determined by correlational stability or absolute scores Better correlations: When older at first testing and when tests are closer together

Binet

Developed first intelligence test in 1905 Beginning of universal public education Included verbal and nonverbal items Matched item difficulty w/chronological age

What is control deficiency?

Difficulty controlling, or executing strategies effectively Young elementary school children

Central executive

Directs flow of information Selects, applies, and monitors strategies

What is stereotype threat and under what conditions does it impact performance?

Fear of being judged on basis of negative stereotype can cause test anxiety and interfere with test taking Leads to: Test bias, Lower scores

What are the last phonological developments that occur in middle childhood and adolescence?

Few syllable stress patterns signaling subtle diferences in meaning Ex. Greenhouse and green house Changes in syllablic stress (humid, humidity)

What are the earliest types of sound sequences that children produce?

First words - can only pronounce a few sounds related to cognition and emotion Understand more than can say Ex. Mama, Dada

What is selective attention?

Focusing on particular object for a period of time Ex. Crossing the road

What are the Bayley Scales of Infant Development?

For children between 1 month and 3 1/2 years Cognitive scale, language scale, motor scale, social-emotional scale, adaptive behavior scale To measure an infant's intelligence Infant tests are better at making long-term predictions

What are scripts?

General descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation Form of reconstructive memory Helps organize memory for unique events

Recall

Generating a mental representation of an absent stimulus More difficult Ex. Fill in the blank

Organization

Grouping related items

What is the three-statum theory of intelligence?

Having three tiers General Intelligence, broad factors, specific factors and are arranged from left to right in terms of decreasing relationship with g

Short-term Memory Storage

Holds limited amount of information that is worked on to facilitate memory and problem solving

Factor analysis

Identifies sets of test items that cluster together, meaning that test takers who do not well on one item in a cluster tend to do well on the others

How does the speed of memory processing improve with age?

Increases in working-memory capacity reflect gains in processing speed Efficient processing releases working-memory resources to support storage of info With age, children process info more efficiently

How does working memory capacity improve with age?

Increases steadily with age 2 digits at 2 1/2 years, 4 to 5 at 7, 6 to 7 in adolescence, and early adult hood

What is expressive style?

Initially produce many more social formulas and pronouns uttered as compressed phrases (iwantit)

What is ADHD?

Involves inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity resulting in academic and social problems

Development of Narrative Skills

Leapfrog narratives - 4 years (jumping from one event to another in a disorganized fashion) Chronological naratives - 4.5 to 5 years (placing events in temporal sequence and building to a high point) Classical narratives - 6 years (Extending chronological narratives and adding a resolution)

Development of Complex Grammatical Forms

Look at powerpoint slide

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Made up of three broad, interacting intelligences: analytical intelligence (information processing skills), creative intelligence (capacity to solve novel problems), and practical intelligence (application of intellectual skills in everyday situations) Intelligent behavior is balancing all three of these to achieve success in life

Nonshared environmental influences

Make siblings different from one another Ex. Birth order, spacing, sibling relationships, parental favoritism, influences away from home

How does media multitasking impact learning and memory?

Many 8 to 18 year olds regularly media multitask Research indicates reduced learning b/c of difficulty filtering out irrelevant stimuli

Why do most people experience infantile amnesia?

May be because of language learning Brain development Infants processing is largely non-verbal

One-time episodic memories

Memory for significant one-time events that children integrate into their personal life stories

What strategies do children use when learning to pronounce each individual sound within a word?

Minimal words Add ending consonant Adjust vowel length Add unstressed syllables Pronounce full word, correct stress pattern

What is divergent thinking?

Multiple answers to a problem

What is the usual distribution of IQ tests?

Normal distribution; Where most scores cluster around the mean, or average, with progressively fewer falling toward each extreme

Recognition

Noticing that a stimulus is identical or similar to one previously experienced Ex. Multiple choice

What is investment theory of creativity?

Novel (original) project increases chances of arriving at a creative, valuable project

How do children overregularize morphological rules?

Once children apply a regular morphological rule, they extend it to words that are exceptions Ex. My toy breaked and we each have two foots

Recurring episodic memories

Ones that children experience repeatedly in the course of their everyday lives

How do infants use categorical speech perception to detect phonemes?

Organizing sounds into categories leads to ability to distinguish ONLY phonemes of language you are learning

Cultural differences in memory strategies

People in non-Western cultures who lack formal schooling rarely use or benefit from memory strategies and instruction Western children get so much practice with this type of learning that they do not refine techniques that rely on cues in every day life Ex. Guatemalan Mayan 9 year olds do better do better than U.S> at remember placement of objects b/c U.S. children rehearse object names

What is grammar?

Syntax - rules for sentences Morphology - Grammatical markers

Working memory

The number of items that can be briefly held in mind while also engaging in effort to use these items

What is code switching?

The practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation. Might not have the vocab in one language, learned from parents, or better expression

What is convergent thinking?

Thinking of one answer to a problem

What is adaptable attention?

To adapt their attention to changes in their own learning Ex. 3rd graders wanting to know what they missed