China Test

Song Dynasty

*made a number of technological innovations, many of them based on information that had been brought to China from West Asia during the cosmopolitan Tang era. *these innovations include mathematics, astronomy, and calendar making. *In 1088, the engineer Su Song constructed a mechanical clock that told the time and the day of the month, and indicated the movements of the moon and certain stars and planets. also improved the previously invented compass, making it suitable for seafaring. In shipbuilding, the Song introduced the sternpost rudder and watertight bulkheads. These innovations were later adopted in the Persian Gulf. *The Song also had a standing, professionally trained, regularly paid military. Iron and coal were important strategic resources for the Song military. The Song produced large amounts of high-grade iron and steel for weapons, armor, and defensive works. The Song also developed and used gunpowder weapons in their wars. *society was dominated by civilian officials and put higher value on civil pursuits than on military affairs. *developed a sophisticated Neo-Confucian philosophy, while certain Buddhist sects, particularly Chan (Zen) continued to be popular. * The civil service examination system broke the domination of the hereditary aristocracy by allowing men to be chosen for government service on the basis of merit. *men from poor families were unlikely to be able to devote the necessary time and resources to studying for the rigorous examinations. *With the invention of moveable type, the Song government was able to mass-produce authorized preparation texts for examination-takers. *Printing also contributed to the dissemination of new agricultural technology and thus helped to increase agricultural production and spur population growth in South China. *During the Song period, China's population rose to 100 million. *Population growth and economic growth fed the rise of large, crowded, but very well-managed cities like Hangzhou. *The Song period saw the wide use of an interregional credit system called flying money and the introduction of government-issued paper money. *The paper money caused inflation and was later withdrawn. *The Song government was not able to control the market economy as closely as previous governments had done. *Certain government functions, including tax collection, were privatized, and a new merchant elite thrived in the cities, their wealth derived from trade rather than land. *Women's status declined during the Song period. Women were entirely subordinated to men and lost their rights to own and manage property; remarriage was forbidden. Painfully bound feet became a mandatory status symbol for elite women. Working class women and women from non-Han peoples of southern China did not bind their feet and had more independence than elite Han Chinese women did.

Yuan Dynasty

*Khublai Khan constructed a Chinese-style capital at Beijing and a summer capital at Shangdu *When the Mongols came to China, it was politically fragmented, consisting of three states: the Tanggut, the Jin, and the Southern Song. The Mongols unified these states and restored or preserved the characteristic features of Chinese government. 3. The Mongols made innovations in government like tax farming, the use of Western Asian Muslims as officials, and a hierarchical system of legally defined status groups defined in terms of race and function. Under the Yuan hierarchical system, Confucians had a relatively weak role, while the status of merchants and doctors was elevated. Under Mongol rule, China's cities and ports prospered, trade recovered, and merchants flourished. Merchants organized corporations to pool money and share risks . The flourishing mercantile economy led the Chinese gentry elite to move into the cities, where a lively urban culture of popular entertainment, vernacular literature, and the Mandarin dialect of Chinese developed. * In the rural areas, cotton growing, spinning, and weaving were introduced to mainland China from Hainan Island, and the Mongols encouraged the construction of irrigation systems. In general, however, farmers in the Yuan were overtaxed and brutalized, while dams and dikes were neglected. 6. During the Yuan period, China's population declined by perhaps as much as 40 percent, with northern China seeing the greatest loss of population; however, the Yangzi Valley actually saw a significant increase. Possible reasons for this pattern include warfare; the flooding of the Yellow River; north-south migration; and the spread of diseases, including the bubonic plague in the 1300s. Exchange of scientific, technological, and mathematical knowledge was especially common between Iran and China because the Yuan and the Il-khan regimes enjoyed good relations and had similar economic policies and a similar interest in sponsoring intellectual pursuits. China imported Il-khan science and technology; the Il-khans imported Chinese scholars and texts. During this period, Iranian astronomical knowledge, algebra, and trigonometry, and Islamic and Persian medical texts, seeds, and formulas were brought to China. In 1368, the Chinese leader Zhu Yuanzhang brought an end to years of chaos and rebellion when he overthrew the Mongols and established the Ming Empire. The Mongols continued to hold power in Mongolia, Turkestan, and Central Asia, from which they were able to disrupt the overland Eurasian trade and threaten the Ming dynasty.

Tang Dynasty

*The Tang emperors legitimized their control by using the Buddhist idea that kings are spiritual agents who bring their subjects into a Buddhist realm. *Buddhist monasteries were important allies of the early Tang emperors; in return for their assistance, they received tax exemptions, land, and gifts. *Mahayana Buddhism was the most important school of Buddhism in Central Asia and East Asia. *Mahayana beliefs were flexible, encouraged the adaptation of local deities into a Mahayana pantheon, and encouraged the translation of Buddhist texts into local languages. *Buddhism spread through Central and East Asia, following the trade routes that converged on the Tang capital, Chang'an. *These trade routes also brought other peoples and cultural influences to Chang'an, making it a cosmopolitan city. * Tang China combined Central Asian influences, transmitted mostly by Turkic peoples, with Chinese culture, bringing polo, grape wine, tea, and spices. In trade, China lost its monopoly on silk but began to produce its own cotton, tea, and sugar. Tang roads, river transport, and canals facilitated a tremendous growth in trade. Tang China exported far more than it imported, with high-quality silks and porcelain being among its most desired products . As its territory expanded and it faced internal rebellions, the Tang dynasty relied on powerful provincial military governors to maintain peace. In 907, the Tang state ended, and regional military governors established their own kingdoms.

Han Dynasty

1. Gaoz was a peasant who establish the Han dynasty. The Han established a political system that drew on both Confucian philosophy and Legalist techniques Han rulers faced challenges at first from residual resentments of the ruthless rule of the Qin. To ease their transition and help the economy, the Qin reduced taxes and government spending, and collected and stored surplus grain for times of shortage. Gaozu restored the system of feudal grants abolished by the Qin. Bribe Xiongnu with gifts inorder to prevent invasions. The Han went through a period of territorial expansion under Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 B.C.E.) who increased the power of the emperor. During his rule, he expanded the empire into areas as far as northern Vietnam, Manchuria, and North Korea. Instead of appeasing the Xiongnu, he built his military to fight the northern nomads. Wu's reign saw the expansion of Chinese territory into the northwest and the foundations of the Silk Road, which would later affect the economic health of Asia. To pay for the military buildup, government monopolies on high-profit commodities added to the treasury, though not without controversy. The state also adopted Confucianism, using Confucian scholars as officials of the government, who in turn expected exemplary ethical behavior from their rulers. Relied on a complex bureaucracy to help him rule expensive to run. To raise money, the government levied taxes. Chinese peasants owed part of their yearly crops to the government. Merchants also paid taxes. the peasants owed the government a month's worth of labor or military service every year. With this source of labor, the Han emperors built roads and dug canals and irrigation ditches. filled the ranks of China's vast armies and expanded the Great Wall, which stretched across the northern frontier.

Buddhism

Buddhism was introduced to China in the first century C.E., probably spread by merchants on the Silk Road. Because Buddhism called for monks to withdraw from families and abstain from sex, it came into conflict with Confucian beliefs in family and procreation of children to maintain the cult of ancestors, leading to its gradual reshaping for acceptance in Chinese culture.

Confucianism

Confucianism and Daoism had their roots in the chaos of the late Zhou period. Social order, harmony, and good government should be based on family relationships. Respect for parents and elders is important to society Education is important both to the welfare of the individual and to society *Chinese scholars and philosophers developed different solutions to restore these values. Confucius believed that social order, harmony, and good government could be restored in China if society were organized around five basic relationships . These were the relationships between: 1) ruler and subject, 2) father and son, 3) husband and wife, 4) older brother and younger brother, and 5) friend and friend. A code of proper conduct regulated each of these relationships. Three of Confucius's five relationships were based upon the family. Confucius stressed that children should practice filial piety, or respect for their parents and ancestors. Filial piety, according to Confucius, meant devoting oneself to one's parents during their lifetime. It also required honoring their memory after death through the performance of certain rituals. . Confucius said that education could transform a humbly born person into a gentleman. In saying this, he laid the groundwork for the creation of a bureaucracy, a trained civil service, or those who run the government. Education became critically important to career advancement in the bureaucracy. Confucianism was never a religion, but it was an ethical system, a system based on accepted principles of right and wrong. It became the foundation for Chinese government and social order. In addition, the ideas of Confucius spread beyond China and influenced civilizations throughout East Asia.

Han Government

Confucianism, the Road to Success Wudi's government employed more than 130,000 people. The bureaucracy included 18 different ranks of civil service jobs, - government jobs that civilians obtained by taking examinations. -Chinese emperors rewarded loyal followers with government posts. -This method involved testing applicants' to fill government posts's knowledge of Confucianism The early Han emperors had employed some Confucian scholars as court advisers, but it was Wudi who began actively to favor them. Confucius had taught that gentlemen should practice "reverence [respect], generosity, truthfulness, diligence [industriousness], and kindness." Wudi set up a school where hopeful job applicants from all over China could come to study Confucius's works After studies, job applicants took formal examinations in history, law, literature, and Confucianism. - anyone could take the exams. In practice, few peasants could afford to educate their sons. So only sons of wealthy landowners had a chance at a government career. - it continued in China until 1912.

Daoism

Daoism is said to have been founded by Laozi. Daoism assumes that the universe is in constant flux, that there are no absolute moral standards, and that people should take the world as they find it. Daoism developed into a complex system of popular beliefs and magic, and many Chinese have drawn on both traditions, though Daoism might appear at odds with Confucianism. Philosophy that teaches that everything should be left to the natural order; rejects many of the Confucian ideas but coexisted with Confucianism in China Daoists Seek Harmony For a Chinese thinker named Laozi (low•dzuh), who may have lived during the sixth century B.C., only the natural order was important. The natural order involves relations among all living things. His book Dao De Jing (The Way of Virtue) expressed Laozi's belief. He said that a universal force called the Dao (dow), meaning "the Way," guides all things. Of all the creatures of nature, according to Laozi, only humans fail to follow the Dao. They argue about questions of right and wrong, good manners or bad. According to Laozi, such arguments are pointless. The philosophy of Laozi came to be known as Daoism. Its search for knowledge and understanding of nature led Daoism's followers to pursue scientific studies. Daoists made many important contributions to the sciences of alchemy, astronomy, and medicine.

Ming Dynasty

Former monk, soldier, and bandit, Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Empire in 1368. Zhu's regime established its capital in Nanjing and made great efforts to reject the culture of the Mongols, close off trade relations with Central Asia and the Middle East, and reassert the primacy of Confucian ideology. the Ming actually continued many institutions and practices that had been introduced during the Yuan. Areas of continuity include the Yuan provincial structure that maintained closer control over local affairs; the use of hereditary professional categories; the Mongol calendar; and, starting with the reign of the Yongle emperor, the use of Beijing as capital. Military service became a hereditary obligation and, despite anti-Mongol sentiment, Mongols continued to serve in the army. Between 1405 and 1433, the Ming dispatched a series of expeditions to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He. The goals of these missions were to reestablish trade links with the Middle East and bring Southeast Asian countries and their overseas Chinese populations under Chinese control, or at least under its influence. Zheng He's expeditions retraced routes that were largely known to the Chinese already. The voyages imported some luxury goods (including two giraffes) to China and added as many as fifty countries to China's list of tributaries. However, there was no significant increase in long-distance trade and the voyages were, overall, not profitable. It is useful to remember that the Zheng He voyages did not use new technology, were not profitable, were undertaken as the personal project of the Yongle Emperor, and may have been inspired partly by his need to prove his worth. The end of the Zheng He voyages may also be related to the need to use limited resources for other projects, including coastal defense against Japanese pirates and defense of the northern borders against the Mongols. The end of the Zheng He voyages was not the end of Chinese seafaring: it was only the end of the state's organization and funding of such large-scale expeditions.

Legalism

Legalism highly efficient and powerful government is the key to social order. Punishments are useful to maintain social order. Thinkers and their ideas be strictly controlled by the government A school of Chinese philosophy. Prominent during Warring States Period. Had great influence on the policies of the Qin dynasty. Based on a pessimistic view of human nature. Social harmony could only be attained through strong government control and the imposition of strict laws, enforced absolutely. They believed that a highly efficient and powerful government was the key to restoring order in society. They got their name from their belief that government should use the law to end civil disorder and restore harmony. Hanfeizi and Li Si were among the founders of Legalism. The Legalists taught that a ruler should provide rich rewards for people who carried out their duties well. Likewise, the disobedient should be harshly punished. In practice, the Legalists stressed punishment more than rewards. The Legalists believed in controlling ideas as well as actions. They suggested that a ruler burn all writings that might encourage people to criticize government. After all, it was for the prince to govern and the people to obey.

Chinese Dynastic Circle 9/11

Prosperity (mandate of heaven) ↓ Nomadic Raids (can't prevent) ↓ Conscription(draft) into army. Increase taxes, warfare destroy fields ↓ Peasant Revolt - feed them! ↓ Warring States: (Civil War) ↓ Famine and Disease ↓ Natural Disaster (lost mandate of heaven) ↓ Dynasty Falls: New leader emerges - (prob. former war lord) ↓ First thing leader should do to stop civil war is to feed the poor and give them some land ↓ Xia Shang Zhou Warring States Qin Han Three Kingoms Sui Tang Song Yuan Ming Qing

Hang Similarities with Rome 9

agriculture being their fundamental economic activity Both empires received revenue from a percentage of the annual harvests. both empires strengthened their central rule by breaking the power of old aristocratic families, reducing their land holdings. Both empires saw their authority eroding at the end of their reigns by the reversal of this process. Both empires spread out from an ethnically homogeneous core to encompass widespread territories of diverse cultures. Many in the conquered lands adopted the cultural elements of the core, and the core also adopted some of the cultural traditions of their far-flung regions. The extent of their empires forced both empires to create a well-trained bureaucracy and to make use of local officials to administer their interests. Both empires built roads to facilitate military movement that later became routes to spread commerce and culture. While the majority of populations in both empires lived in the countryside, those living in urban centers enjoyed the more cosmopolitan advantages of empire.

Grand Canal

connected Huang He & Chang Jiang; route for trade b/w N & S region of Chang Delta; took 1 million peasants & 5 years to build 1000 mi (½ died & people rebelled)

wudi

emperor under the Han Dynasty that wanted to create a stronger central government by taking land from the lords, raising taxes and places the supply of grain under the government's control

Han Culture/inovations

improvements in education but also great advances in Chinese technology and culture. the centralized government began to exert more control over commerce and manufacturing. Advances in technology influenced all aspects of Chinese life. *Paper was invented, paper is cheaper, so books became more available. This helped spread education in China. The invention of paper also affected Chinese government. Paper is used for record keeping, so Chinese bureaucracy expanded.

Xiongnu

nomadic raiders from the grasslands north of China during the reign of Han dynasty; emperor Wudi fought against them in the mid-100s BC