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A carbonyl group

(>CO) consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond. If the carbonyl group is on the end of the skeleton, the compound is an aldehyde. If the carbonyl group is within the carbon skeleton, then the compound is a ketone. Isomers with aldehydes versus ketones have different properties.

A carboxyl group

(—COOH) consists of a carbon atom with a double bond to an oxygen atom and a single bond to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group. Compounds with carboxyl groups are carboxylic acids. A carboxyl group acts as an acid because the combined electronegativities of the two adjacent oxygen atoms increase the dissociation of hydrogen as an ion (H+).

An amino group

(—NH2) consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton. Organic compounds with amino groups are amines. The amino group acts as a base because the amino group can pick up a hydrogen ion (H+) from the solution. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, have amino and carboxyl groups.

hydroxyl group

(—OH), a hydrogen atom forms a polar covalent bond with an oxygen atom, which forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton. Because of these polar covalent bonds, hydroxyl groups increase the solubility of organic molecules. Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are alcohols, and their names typically end in -ol.

A sulfhydryl group

(—SH) consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone. This group resembles a hydroxyl group in shape. Organic molecules with sulfhydryl groups are thiols. Two sulfhydryl groups can interact to help stabilize the structure of proteins.

solubility

The ability to dissolve in another substance

Carbon, with its four covalent bonds,

is the basic building block in molecular architecture.

phosphate group

consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms.(three with single bonds and one with a double bond). A phosphate group connects to the carbon backbone via one of its oxygen atoms. Phosphate groups are anions with two negative charges, as two protons have dissociated from the oxygen atoms. One function of phosphate groups is to transfer energy between organic molecules. Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is the primary energy-transferring molecule in living cells.

Geometric isomers

re compounds with the same covalent partnerships that differ in the spatial arrangement of atoms around a carbon-carbon double bond. The double bond does not allow atoms to rotate freely around the bond axis. The biochemistry of vision involves a light-induced change in the structure of rhodopsin in the retina from one geometric isomer to another.

If we consider hydrocarbons

to be the simplest organic molecules, we can view functional groups as attachments that replace one or more of the hydrogen atoms bonded to the carbon skeleton of the hydrocarbon.

Isomers

are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structures and, therefore, different chemical propertiesFor example, butane and isobutane have the same molecular formula, C4H10, but butane has a straight skeleton and isobutane has a branched skeleton. The two butanes are structural isomers, molecules that have the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangement of atoms.

Enantiomers

are molecules that are mirror images of each other. Enantiomers are possible when four different atoms or groups of atoms are bonded to a carbon. In this case, the four groups can be arranged in space in two different ways that are mirror images. They are like left-handed and right-handed versions of the molecule. Usually one is biologically active, while the other is inactive. Even subtle structural differences in two enantiomers have important functional significance because of emergent properties from specific arrangements of atoms. One enantiomer of the drug thalidomide reduced morning sickness, the desired effect, but the other isomer caused severe birth defects. The L-dopa isomer is an effective treatment of Parkinson's disease, but the D-dopa isomer is inactive.

Functional groups

are the parts of molecules involved in chemical reactions.The components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions are known as functional groups.Each functional group behaves consistently from one organic molecule to another. The number and arrangement of functional groups help give each molecule its unique properties. As an example, the basic structure of testosterone (a male sex hormone) and estradiol (a female sex hormone) is the same. Both are steroids with four fused carbon rings, but they differ in the functional groups attached to the rings. These functional groups interact with different targets in the body.

The great diversity of organic molecules with their special properties emerges from the unique arrangement of the

carbon skeleton and the functional groups attached to the skeleton.

Living matter consists mainly of

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, with smaller amounts of sulfur and phosphorusThese are the chemical elements of lifeThese elements are linked by strong covalent bonds.

There are six functional groups

that are most important to the chemistry of life: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups.All are hydrophilic and increase the solubility of organic compounds in water.