Cities and Urban Land Use Patterns
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A "favela" is a Brazilian term used for slum or shantytown. The Rochinha favela, in Rio De Janeiro, is the largest favela in Brazil and one of the more developed slums in the world. Rocinha is home to about 70,000 residents whose homes are built on a steep mountain slopes prone to landslides and flooding.
Economic Development
A city's economic function will have an impact on urbanization Government: Washington, D.C. Manufacturing and Industry: Houston, TX functions as the center of the oil and energy industry. Tourism: Cancun, Mexico; Miami, FL; Las Vegas, NV Services: Wall St., NYC -> Financial Center
Ghettoization
A process occurring in many inner cities in which they become dilapidated centers of poverty, as affluent whites move out to the suburbs and immigrants and people of color vie for scarce jobs and resources.
Urban Sprawl & Decentralization
Access to automobile = roads and commercial development expanded outward from city core Often unplanned → results in poor infrast. and connections over time Common in US metro. areas Led to new land-use: Suburbs; Edge Cities; Boomburbs; Exurbs
Transportation Oriented Development
Access to public transportation is another aspect of sustainable urban development. Busses Subway Systems Commuter Train Lines Decreases air pollution, reduces traffic congestion and allows for valuable urban land to be used to create mixed-use developments instead of parking lots. 40% of residents in Washington, DC use public transportation to get to work.
Sanitation
Across the world, sanitation issues such as open defecation and lack of sewage systems prevent cities from having access to healthy water. Results in deaths related to infectious disease, childhood stunting, and childhood mortality due to diarrhea. Indonesia - 5% of urban wastewater is safely treated and disposed of.
Air & Water Quality
Air pollution is also caused by industry, power plants and vehicles in urban areas that produce excessive amounts of particulate matter that stays in the air and is inhaled by humans. Usually visible in the form of smog. 7.8% of global deaths are attributed to outdoor air pollution. Other impacts include asthma and lung conditions. Water pollution is caused by poor sewage and sanitation systems, industrial waste, poor infrastructure and agricultural waste. Results in unhealthy drinking water, poisoning of fish in rivers and ponds and major health issues such as diarrhea, cholera, and e. Coli poisoning, cancer, birth defects and heart and lung diseases. Unsafe water is responsible for 1.2 million deaths per year.
Infrastructure & The Environment
All infrastructure is not created equal - As geographers, we must evaluate the sustainability of infrastructure. Does the infrastructure impact the environment negatively? Does the infrastructure take advantage of non-renewable resources? Example: Using coal to generate electricity pollutes the air. Could investments in renewable energy sources be more sustainable for the environment and emit less pollutants Into the air?
Greenbelts
An area of green space such as a park, agricultural land, or forest around an urban area intended to limit urban sprawl. Also sometimes referred to as an urban growth boundary. Protected area that helps limit pollution, protects local wildlife habitats. Historically used in Great Britain, but the idea has widely spread as a characteristic of sustainable urban design.
Slow Growth Cities
Another sustainable urban design policy that intends to decrease the rate that cities grow outward in an attempt to reduce urban sprawl. This can be achieved by implementing greenbelts or by using zoning policies to restrict the development of land. Utilizes urban growth boundaries to place a geographic limit on development surrounding a city.
Inclusionary Zoning
Areas where city governments require that developers must include low and medium income housing options in their projects to obtain building permits. Effort to provide more affordable housing. People who are working in urban areas are often not able to afford to live there due to high prices. Common in the US and similar programs are utilized in London; not likely seen in periphery and semi-periphery locations.
Regional Planning
As the world becomes increasingly more urbanized and globally connected, urban sustainability issues become essential for governments to work together to rectify and address. Planning at a regional scale that seeks to coordinate the development of housing, transportation, urban infrastructure, and economic activities. Share costs, facilities and standards for addressing urban sustainability issues.
Hoyt Sector Model
Based on improving the Concentric Zone Model. Use of sectors/wedges to classify each type of land use pattern. Sectors develop along transportation routes. Low income housing develops surrounding industry and major transportation routes. Middle and high-income housing develops further from the city center and manufacturing so as not to experience heavy traffic, pollution, etc.
Burgess Concentric Zone Mode
Based on the development of Chicago in the 1920s. Concentric rings are used to classify each type of land use pattern. Ring #1. Bid-Rent Theory -> The CBD is the location of major economic activity and the most expensive land. Ring #2: Zone of Transition. Factories and industry with a mix of low income apartments. Ring #3. Another ring of low income housing. High population density, poor living conditions. Rings #4 & 5.As distance from the CBD increases, the cost of land is less expensive -> Larger plots of land -> low population density -> single family homes.
megacity and metacity
Both = very large and densely populated; typically the capital or major city; defined by population, not land size or standard of living. Megacity: Metropolitan areas with more than 10 million people Metacities: Metropolitan areas with populations of more than 20 million people. Where? Primarily in LDCs Result from: Population growth, rural-to-urban migration Results in: unplanned city growth with squatter settlements; pollution; high poverty rates; unequal access to infrast.
Remediation & Redevelopment of Brownfields
Brownfield: Large, abandoned industrial sites in central cities and suburbs, due to the shift from manufacturing to service-based economies.Typically unsafe and polluted. Remediation includes decontamination of the site, which reduces health and safety hazards and then redevelopment can occur. Affordable housing, mixed-use development, green spaces, reduction in zones of abandonment, and revitalization of a tax base.
How does access to transportation routes encourage economic development?
Businesses have a reliable way to transport goods, make $, hire more workers. Employees are able to easily travel to and from work, make $, spend money to stimulate economy.
Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model
CBD remains an important location, however there are other, smaller business districts in various locations. Manufacturing & Industry are located near transportation routes for easier shipping. Similar businesses locate near each other to take advantage of labor pools, suppliers and communication. Middle and high-income housing develops further from the city center and industry so as not to experience heavy traffic, pollution, etc.
African City Model
Characteristized by 3 CBDs, and reflects the influence of colonialism throughout the continent. Traditional CBD: Small shops, narrow streets Colonial CBD: Big streets, straight, often in grid-like patterns, with government buildings with European architectural styles. *Sense of place! Market Zone: Traditional open-air markets. Mostly outdated, but the 3 CBDs can still be seen on the *cultural landscape today in some African countries.
Southeast Asian City Model
Characteristized by a port zone, which was the center of commerce in colonial SE Asia - export oriented, so no CBD. History of Chinese immigrants throughout SE Asia - on the model, there is a secondary commercial zone for Chinese business called the Alien commercial zone. History of colonialism results in a Western commercial zone in which merchants from European countries are located. Market gardening zone is distinctive due to the climate and agricultural land use in SE Asian locations.
Medieval cities
Cities that developed in Europe during the Medieval Period and that contain such unique features as extreme density of development with narrow buildings and winding streets, an ornate church that prominently marks the city center, and high walls surrounding the city center that provided defense against attack.
Environmental Injustice
Communities of color and the poor are more likely to be exposed to environmental burdens such as air and water pollution. Manufacturing and waste disposal Highways and congestion Use of lead in paint or pipes that supply water to homes Prevalence of renters that cannot fix home issues themselves Food deserts
...Edge Cities (related to suburban areas)
Community located on outskirts of a larger city w/ commercial centers, office space, retail complexes, and amenities typically found in an urban center
Exurbs
Community on the outside edge of traditional suburbs. Function like a suburb, but more rural and less connected to the central city core. Low density residential.
Results of Food Deserts
Corner stores, gas stations and fast food restaurants are more abundant. Higher prices, low-quality foods that are unhealthy Results in health issues such as diabetes, heart disease and obesity
Qualitative Data
Data that involves descriptive depictions or characteristics of a research topic - often based on people's perceptions or opinions. Examples include fieldwork (remember this from 1.2?) and narratives, personal interviews, photographs. Open-ended questions about how individuals feel about urban change and conditions such as growth, zoning changes, crime rates, traffic, etc.
Quantitative Data
Data that involves numbers and statistics - can be measured. Examples include the Census (remember from 1.3 & 4.6?) and other surveys as well as population or development statistics. Useful to provide information to city governments about changes in population composition and size of urban areas.
Borchert's Epochs of American Urbanization
First Stage: The Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790-1830) At first cities were clustered within sixty miles of the Atlantic sea coast. Interior cities grew up on rivers with good access to the coast. Second Stage: The Iron Horse Epoch (1830-1870) Steam-driven railroads allowed for the rapid expansion from urban settlements into surrounding regions. Regional rail networks connected cities and resources to industrial sites. Steamboats increased the movement of goods and river cities emerged with significant growth. Third Stage: The Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920) Transcontinental railways emerged. Industrial centers in the Northeast and Midwest continued to grow River cities, such as New Orleans, declined as rail centers such as Chicago, grew. Chicago was the meeting point of railroads from the east and west and became central to the economy. Population & industry grew and thrived due to SITUATIONAL factors! Fourth Stage: Auto-Air- Amenity Epoch (1920 to Present) Railroads decline and cars (through increased highway construction) allowed cities to spread out. Air travel increased and airport hubs emerged. Major urban growth in the Great Lakes region due to the automobile industry and in Sunbelt cities.
What is a sustainable city?
Focus #1 - Reducing the city's impact on the environment. Focus #2 - Livability, high quality of life with opportunity and stability. Education Availability of employment Access to transportation Economic prosperity Entertainment Social Supports
...forward capitals
Forward Capitals: Capital cities that are relocated, mostly occurring in former colonies. In all cases, old capital cities were congested and had limited infrastructure, and the desire to build new, planned administrative centers with improved infrastructure was the driving force. Brazil commissioned a purpose-built and centrally located city, Brasilia to replace Rio de Janeiro as capital in the 1950s.
Conflict over Change
Functional and geographic fragmentation of governments - such as the dispersal between state, county, city, and local governments present challenges in addressing urban issues. School boards, local residents, developers, neighborhood groups, etc. also have opinions on addressing urban challenges and making change as well. Hard to make changes when there are too many perspectives and overlapping government jurisdictions.
Government Policies (influence urbanization)
Governments seek to attract businesses and boost the economy. How? Tax incentives, financial incentives, creation of industrial parks, Land zoning for industrial or commercial uses, Transportation infrastructure, Low crime, Affordable housing, Good schools, Entertainment & leisure
Residential Land Use & Culture
Historically, older international cities (Paris, Toyoko, Amsterdam) developed before advancements in transportation technology... Therefore, land use is organized so that residential areas, areas of work and business, and services are all within walking distance of one another. Results in...More apartment buildings in the city center, higher population densities, less space for the use of cars, families are more likely to gather in public places. Newer cities, such as many in the US were developed around transportation technology that enabled people to travel longer distances from their homes to work or services. Transportation technology impacts residential land use- people can move to suburban areas with larger plots of land due to the availability of the automobile. Results in...development of suburbs, suburban sprawl, economic and ethnic segregation, more air pollution, culture of privacy.
Redlining
Housing discrimination maintained by banks - starting in the 1930s, refusal to grant home loans in certain areas because of the ethnic or racial composition. Government created program in the 1930s that identified areas of "poor investment" which were in neighborhoods that were primarily made up of African-American residents. Black buyers were restricted from obtaining loans to buy or improve homes in those areas - fell into disrepair, poverty, maintained segregation
Blockbusing
Housing discrimination maintained by real estate industry - white families were encouraged to rapidly sell when African-American families moved into neighborhoods. Fear-based, white residents were told that property values would rapidly decrease. So, they sold their homes quickly and at below-market prices. Black families were charged higher rates to buy. Changed the racial composition of neighborhoods, benefitted the real estate agents making the sale.
Establishment of Urban Growth Boundaries (UGB) & Farmland Protection Policies
Intended to limit sprawl and encourage the conservation of agricultural land, forests and other natural areas. Within the UGB, government policy through infrastructure investments, land-use regulations, land acquisitions, and other actions encourages relatively high-density development. UGBs are designed to accommodate growth for a specific period of time (often 20-30 years) and can be implemented on a local or regional scale.
World Cities
Large cities that exert global economic, cultural, and political influence and make up network of economic, social, and information flows Media, Financial, Stock exchanges, Banks Corporate HQ International organizations Fashion, design, entertainment, and cultural industries. causes Diffusion of new ideas, goods, services. Manufacturing and Trading Multinational Corporations Transportation Banking Communication Popular Culture & Tourism Olympics, Fashion Week, Times Square, Buckingham Palace
Primate City
Largest city is extremely large in terms of population size AND econ., cult. and pol. influence Typically indicates relatively uneven development within a state. France and Mexico
Healthy Drinking Water
Lead exposure through underground lead pipes that deliver drinking water contaminate water supplies. Health impacts are mostly observed in low-income, minority communities. Lead poisoning can lead to lower IQ, learning disabilities, increased crime, irritability, mood disorders, developmental delays. Lack of Access to Healthcare
Growth of Disamenity Zones
Locations that are typically physically unsafe with dangerous terrain that are not connected to city services. High crime rates and gang presence High poverty Flood-prone Railines, landfills, or industry Slums or squatter settlements Homelessness Favelas in Brazil - Squatter Settlement located in a disamenity zone
Growth of Zones of Abandonment
Locations that have been abandoned due to a lack of jobs, housing opportunities, decline in land values or falling demand.
Christaller's Central Place Theory
Model that illustrates the hierarchical spatial patterns/order of cities and settlements. Based on economic functions/consumer behavior - the "central place" is the large city that provides the most goods and services for the surrounding areas. Smaller settlements (towns, villages, hamlets) organize around the "central place." Threshold: The number of people needed to support a certain good or service. Range: The distance that someone is willing to travel for a good or service . High-Order Goods & Services: Expensive, desirable or unique - large threshold & range. Typically found in higher-order locations, such as major cities. Examples: Sports arenas, speciality doctors, concerts, universities Low-Order Goods & Services: Inexpensive, common, everyday needs. SMALLER threshold & range. Typically found in lower-order locations, such as towns, villages, and hamlets. Examples: Grocery stores, hair salons, barber shops, gas stations. Check out the almost perfectly even distribution of Starbucks in the Cincinnati area.
Urban Hierarchy
Modern cities operate within an interconnected urban hierarchy. Different cities have different functions within the system, with larger, more influential cities landing higher on the hierarchy, while cities with smaller populations and economies fall lower on the hierarchy. Models & theories were developed by geographers in order to explain the relative sizes and spatial organization of cities.
Galactic City Model (aka Periphery Model)
Most modern; developed in the 1980s. Focuses on the decentralization and suburbanization of urban environments. As suburbanization and the ownership of cars increased starting in the 1950s, urban areas developed differently than in the past. Includes edge cities which are like mini-CBDs, which include shopping, entertainment, and offices and are typically located along transportation routes.
URBAN RENEWAL & GENTRIFICATION
POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES Improved housing and increased property values and tax revenues. Attract new business and investors that stimulate economic growth and jobs. Infrastructure improvements such as sidewalks, schools, parks, wifi, roads, etc. Rehabilitation of historic buildings - maintenance of the city's cultural landscape. Decreased crime rates. NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES Displacement of long-time residents of locations which are typically elderly, minority, and/or impoverished people. Homelessness, social tensions Demolition or alteration of historic buildings by new businesses - may contribute to placelessness and lack of community.
How are urban areas changing?
People of different socioeconomic statuses Division about important issues Patterns of poverty or decay Urban uses are changing - shift from industrial to services. Changing tax bases - rising costs to maintain or update infrastructure City governments try to respond but have many competing interests and perspectives they need to consider.
Negative Effects of Suburbanization & Urban Sprawl
Placelessness Dependence on automobiles = pollution, traffic Economically exclusive - wealthy in Subs., lower econ. in inner-city Gov. invest. in subs. not inner-city
Mixed-Use Development
Planned urban development that includes multiple uses such as retail, residential, educational, recreational and businesses. Different from traditional zoning policies that only allow one type of development - residential, commercial, or industrial. Intended to increase residential density and reduce commute and travel times. Hallmark characteristic of smart growth policies and New Urbanism.
Urban Renewal
Programming funded by federal government grants after WWII intended to redevelop and modernize blighted, abandoned and/or industrial urban areas. After demolition, new housing and infrastructure such as highways, schools, hospitals and business developments were built in an effort to improve urban living conditions.
Infilling
Redevelopment of vacant land to improve the surrounding area. Previous industrial areas can be converted to offices, housing, and entertainment venues. Increases the density of the area and changes the land use pattern. Longworth Hall in Cincinnati, Ohio was built in 1904 originally as a warehouse for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Today, it is a mixed-use development that includes offices, a wedding venue, an escape room, and more.
Positives & Negatives of Sustainable Urban Design
Reduction of sprawl Improved walkability Improved transportation Improved and diverse housing options Improved livability Reduction in the negative environmental impact of cities. Increased housing costs New developments are desirable so real estate prices rise and are not affordable for low income residents. De facto segregation Low income families and people of color can no longer afford to live in the city and are forced to move out. Potential loss of historical or place character. Placelessness.
Squatter Settlements
Residential areas that are situated on undesirable/ abandoned land that are built with found materials and not connected to city services. Also referred to as slums, favelas, barrios, etc. Rapid urbanization has resulted in conflict over land tenure - the legal rights to land. Squatters have no legal rights and can be forcibly evicted by governments. Results in conflicts and further issues with homelessness and affordable housing.
Affordability
Rising mortgage rates, expensive home prices, low inventory and inflation have made it more difficult for the average American family to afford a home. US Department for Housing & Urban Development (HUD) funds low-income public housing primarily located in cities, 60%. Only 19% in suburbs. This results in more economic segregation due to a lack of affordable home ownership across the country.
Population Growth & Migration
Rural-to-Urban Migration Economic and educational opportunities and access to services . In 2017, 55% of the world's population was living in urban areas. By 2050, it's projected that 68 percent of the world's population will live in urban areas. Favelas, Squatter Settlements, Slums: A household that cannot provide one of the following basic living characteristics: Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions. Sufficient living space, which means no more than three people sharing the same room. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people. Develop due to rapid population growth and urbanization in developing countries. Lack of affordable housing Vulnerable to natural disasters - usually built on the outskirts of a city on undesirable land, higher rates of disease and malnutrition, pollution and a variety of social problems.
Access to Services
Services are more difficult to access in urban areas with primarily low-income populations that lack transportation. Food Deserts: Location where residents' access to affordable, healthy food options (especially fresh fruits and vegetables) is restricted or nonexistent due to the absence of grocery stores within convenient traveling distance.
Latin American City Model
Shares basic structures of the Concentric Zone and Sector City Models. Characteristized by the "spine" that runs from the modernized CBD in the center, through wealthy housing and connects to a secondary urban center called the mall. Spine: High-end commercial sector. Market: Traditional market As distance from the CBD increases, housing becomes less expensive due to a lack of critical infrastructure available in those areas Disamenity Zones: Locations that are typically steep, mountainous, and dangerous terrain that are not connected to city services. Squatter Settlements: Also known as "favelas" or "barrios" form on the outskirts of the city and in the disamenity zone. Zone of In Situ Accretion: Mixed-quality housing, a transitional zone from elite housing to squatter settlements. (in situ = in place) (accretion = growth, typically layers)
Gravity Model
Spatial relationship/amount of interaction b/twn locations - flows of people, trade, traffic, comms., etc. Places that are larger and closer together will have greater interaction than places that are smaller and farther away from each other Small cities are drawn to the influence and impact of large cities distance decay taylor swift tour
Rank-Size Rule
Statistical relationship b/twn largest city and next largest - based on popu. nth largest city in any region will be the 1/nth the size of the largest city... 2nd largest city = 1/2 the population 3rd city = 1/3 4th city = 1/4 Germany, USA
Boomburbs
Suburb that has grown rapidly into a large and sprawling city with more than 100,000 residents
...
Technically, both redlining and blockbusting were made illegal with the Fair Housing Act of 1968. However, the residential segregation in cities is still an issue and racial discrimination has legacies that cities and communities are still reckoning with today.
Action Space
The geographical area that contains the space an individual interacts with on a daily basis.
Urban Morphology
The layout of a city, its physical form and structure.
Gentrification
The process by which higher income residents or professional developers buy buildings in abandoned, blighted and/or industrial areas for a low cost and renovate, restore or rebuild the property. Similar intention as urban renewal, however the developers or residents will oftentimes resell after "flipping" the property for a higher price than they paid to purchase.
Suburbanization
The process of population movement from within towns and cities to the rural-urban fringe. Advancements in transportation = allow workers to live further than walking distance from jobs After WWII in America, economic advancements, the GI Bill, the increased production & ownership of automobiles, and the Federal Aid Highway Act resulted in the increase of suburbs. GI Bill provided veterans with low down payment terms and long-term mortgages. Neighborhoods were developed with tract/prefab housing that could be built quickly. catalog homes
bid rent theory
The value of land is influenced by its distance from the market/city center (CBD). Most desirable and accessible land is near the CBD and costs the most money. The least desirable and accessible land is located the furthest from the CBD and costs the least money. Useful to explain the structure of cities Closest to the city center are businesses and stores that make substantial profits and need to be available for customers. Manufacturing, warehouses need space and access to transportation services. Residences
Bid rent theory more
The value of land is influenced by its distance from the market/city center (CBD). The land that is closest to the CBD is accessible so it costs the most money. Therefore residential density will be HIGH Expensive land + small plots of land (building up) = high residential density The land farthest from the CBD is less accessible so it costs less money. Therefore residential density will be lower Less expensive land + availability of larger plots = lower residential density
Beaux Arts
This movement within city planning and urban design that stressed the marriage of older, classical forms with newer, industrial ones. Common characteristics of this period include wide thoroughfares, spacious parks, and civic monuments that stressed progress, freedom, and national unity.
How does access to a strong network of hospitals encourage social development?
Treatment and prevention of disease and illness, less sick people, less spread of illness, healthier population. Available jobs in healthcare settings employ people living around the hospital, less unemployment.
Smart Growth & New Urbanism
Types of sustainable urban design policies - oftentimes used interchangeably. Attempt to reduce urban sprawl and develop urban spaces that are sustainable, efficient and environmentally conscious . Utilization of mixed-use zoning policies in order to increase the use of already existing urban structures, create walkable and liveable cities while maintaining a sense of place and increasing residential housing density.
Climate Change & Energy Consumption
Urban areas consume massive amounts of energy - mostly fossil fuels, which cause the emission of greenhouse gasses that impact the ozone layer and cause climate change. Energy consumption - electricity, transportation and heating. Results in rising sea levels and flooding, heat waves, increased intensity of weather-related disasters such as wildfires and droughts.
Ecological Footprint
Uses land as currency to measure how fast we consume resources and generate waste compared to how fast nature can absorb our waste and generate new resources. Larger ecological footprints indicate that humans are consuming too fast for the natural environment to sustain.
Local Food Movements
Using city-owned land or abandoned areas to plant community, urban gardens to provide fresh fruit and vegetables to people living in food deserts. Residents sometimes are also able to sell and obtain a profit from urban gardens. Creates urban green spaces and generates community and job growth. Farmer's Markets: Informal markets in which farmers bring in fresh food options to sell in urban areas.
Walkability
Walkability provides urban residents with safe, convenient and efficient ways to walk or bicycle to important places . Characteristic of mixed-use developments. Greatly decreases urban sprawl and pollution. Implement infrastructure to safely accommodate and encourage pedestrians and bicyclists - see image for infrastructure in Denmark.
Transportation and communication networks
Waterways, railways, and highways provide a means for raw materials to get to factories, goods to get to markets, and workers to access jobs. Prior to 1850 the location of all major North American cities was related, chiefly, to the presence of navigable waterways. The advancement of transportation technology has impacted the spatial organization of cities. Led to the development of the suburbs, urban sprawl, and decentralization, growth & decline. Streetcars → live by city center Cars → people move to suburbs Highways → businesses can move Landlines → more options Cell phones/Internet → international 5G → limitless Main communication networks are historically the trade networks - information travels ALONG WITH goods. Advancements in communication like telephones, access to computers and the internet result in decreased costs of communication and greater production. New businesses look for locations that provide communication services - typically urban areas. Highly educated people are living in urban areas near telecommunication hubs.
Rising Crime
When people are economically and racially segregated in urban areas, crime increases. Factors that impact this include: Lack of job opportunities Lack of resources and infrastructure Desperation and isolation Criminalization of homelessness and mental health issues (exacerbated by lack of access to healthcare services)
Suburban Sprawl & Ecological Footprint
With greater access to the automobile and roads, commercial and residential developments have expanded outward from the city core. Results in higher levels of traffic congestion and air pollution due to the increased amount of fossil fuels used in cars. Larger ecological footprint - development of farmland or greenbelts - destruction of wildlife habitats.
site factors
climate, landforms, availability of water, soil fertility, and other physical factors ex: Cincinnati is on the north bank of the Ohio River and is a valley surrounded by hills with a temperate climate and fertile soil
Situation factors
connection between sites, the relative location that often dictates the function of the city ex: Cincinnati emerged as a river port after 1811. River commerce reached its height in 1852, stimulated steamboat building and industry, specifically pork.
Zoning
policies created by municipal (local) governments impact residential land use. Zoning is a regulation about what type of development or land use can occur in a specific location. Residential, commercial, or industrial Are you allowed to place a noisy, dirty factory next to a suburban neighborhood? Are you allowed to build skyscraper apartments, or can they only be three floors high? Zoning can impact residential density... Zone can be changed from only allowing the development of single family homes to allowing apartment buildings. This would increase the housing density of a location while also increasing affordable housing and access to infrastructure and high-quality services.
Infrastructure
refers to the basic support systems needed to keep a society and economy running smoothly. Examples include: Transportation systems Power stations & lines Wifi Sewage systems Schools Police and Fire Departments Hospitals The location and quality of a city's infrastructure directly affects its spatial patterns of economic and social development. Locations within a city that have high quality infrastructure are typically more economically and socially developed. Infrastructure is typically funded by the government via tax revenue. So, more economically prosperous areas will have better infrastructure. Where? Capitals, high-income areas of the city, core countries
metropolitan areas
region that includes a central city and its surrounding suburbs
White Flight
working and middle-class white people move away from racial-minority suburbs or inner-city neighborhoods to white suburbs and exurbs in response to black moving in