CLA 030 Quiz 8

Genitives as Specific Epithets or Names:

-For the most part, Latin genitives are used to name species after people OR to indicate the places they inhabit. -Genitives in Latin commonly end in -i and -ae. -These endings can be added to a modern person's name to create a species name. •To name a species after a man, -i is added to his name. •To name a species after a woman, -ae is added to her name. -Example: •smithi means of Smith or Smith's •Brachypelma smithi = Smith's [smithi] short-soled (creature) [Brachypelma] •Aedes aegypti ?

•The genus name is a noun.

-It is in Latin. •It is either a Latin word •or a Greek word, sometimes altered to conform to Latin grammar, •or a word made up from Greek and Latin roots and combining forms, •or a modern word, usually transformed into a Latin form. -There are rules for converting modern words, like people's names, into genus names. You can easily find such rules by surfing the web for nomenclature codes (codes is the term used for the official rules that govern nomenclature).

•Sometimes combining forms consist of only one morpheme, but not one that is usually thought of as a prefix or suffix. Rather they consist of morphemes that are bases with distinct meaning

-{-phage} ="eat" (microphage) -{-cide} = "kill" (insecticide)

•More often, combining forms consist of a base plus some other morphemes:

-{logy} = {log} + {y} -{psycho} = {psych} + {o}

From {ran} we get ranula, which means 'little frog'

A tumor or swelling located in the floor of the mouth beneath the tongue. So named either because it looks like a frog.

Binomial Nomenclature

Currently several international bodies regulate scientific names of organisms. •The International Botanical Congress has produced the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature [ICBN]. •The International Union of Biological Sciences [IUBS] has produced the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature [ICZN]. •There are also codes for viruses and for bacteria. •Before Linnaeus, species naming practices varied. •Plants and animals were grouped for various reasons, none of them very systematically. •And many biologists gave the species they described long, unwieldy Latin names, which could be altered at will; •a scientist comparing two descriptions of one species might not be able to tell which organism was being described. •For instance, the common wild briar rose was referred to by different botanists as: •Rosa sylvestris inodora seu canina •Rosa sylvestris alba cum rubore, folio glabro. Rosa Canina

Modern Taxonomy

Eukarya (kingdom) Animalia (phylum) Chordata (class) Mammalia (order) Primates (family) Hominidae (genus) Homo sapiens (species)

•Linnaeus established the larger groups of family, order, class, kingdom.

Later taxonomists added phylum and domain.

BiNOMIAL Nomenclature

Linnaeus is credited with establishing modern binomial nomenclature. Nomenclature = "name calling": {nomin/nomen} = name; {cla/cal} = to shout, call {nomin/nomen} = name nominate binomial (two-name as in binomial nomenclature, referring to a two-word system of naming organisms [Homo sapiens]) {cla/cal} = to shout, call uclaim, proclaim, ucalendar (from Latin kalendarium, an account book, from kalendae, first day of month when loan payments were due) ²

{omn(i)}

all, every (omnivore, omnipotent, omniscient)

•Combining vowels are only used before consonants

and not before vowels or h, so they are sometimes missing, they are sometimes written in parentheses like so: {psych(o)}, {pisc(i)}

•Any unit of classification is a taxon (< Greek {tax} =

arrangement + {on} = thing/unit; a taxon is an arrangement unit) -"Mammals" (Mammalia) is a taxon. -"Homanids" (Hominidae) is a taxon.

{etym(o)}

basic meaning of a word (etymology)

{magn(i)}

big (magnify, magnificent)

{ornith(o)}

bird (ornithologist, ornithomania)

•Frequently, genus names are

compounds of morphemes from Greek or Latin and formed according to Greek and Latin rules. Example: Deiroptyx [= {deir(o)} neck + {ptyx} fold for a genus of anole lizards with neck folds.

{iatr(o)}

doctor, treatment (podiatrist, hippiatry, hippiatrist)

{fuge}

drive away, flee (febrifuge, centrifuge)

{phag(o)}

eat (ornithophagy, phagocytosis)

{vor/vore}

eating (omnivore, carnivore, herbivore, piscivore, detritivore)

{pater/patr(i)}

father (paternal, patricide, patrilineal)

{febr(i)}

fever (febrifuge, febrile)

{ichthy(o)}

fish (ichthyophagous)

{pisc(i)}

fish (piscivorous, pisciform, pescatarian, piscatorian)

Pisces

fishes

{pus/pod}

foot (octopus, octopod, podiatrist)

{ran(i)}

frog (ranivorous, raniform, ranine, ranula)

{frug(i)/fruct(i)}

fruit (frugivore, frugiferous, fructiferous)

{herb(i)}

grass (herbicide, herbivore, herbiferous)

{hipp(o)}

horse (hippodrome, hippocampus)

{hor(o)}

hour, time (horologist)

{insect(i)}

insect (insecticide, insectivore)

{cide}

kill (pesticide, regicide)

{ge(o)}

land, earth (geology)

{bi(o)}

life (biology, symbiosis)

{anthrop(o)}

mankind (anthropology, philanthropy)

{carn(i)}

meat, flesh (carnitas, reincarnation, carnivore)

{neur(o)}

nerve (neuritis, neuralgia)

{entom(o)}

notched animal, insect (entomology)

{ger/geront}

old (geriatrician, geriatrics, gerontologist)

{logist}

person who studies (pathologist)

•Examples:

psycho + path = psychopath ({psycho} includes the combining vowel "o") pisci + vorous = piscivorous ({pisci} includes the combining vowel "i")

{ethn(o)}

race or nation of people (ethnography)

{rhiz(o)}

root (rhizotomy, rhizome, rhizophagous)

{sapr(o)}

rotten (saprophagous, saprophyte)

{su(i)}

self (suisection, suicide, sui generis, sui juris)

{psych(o)}

soul, mind (psychiatry, psychosis)

{logy}

study of (ichthyology)

{path(o)}

suffering, disease, feeling (pathology, empath)

•The plural of taxon is .

taxa

•People who classify organisms into taxa are

taxonomists, and they practice taxonomy.

{pest(i)}

troublesome animal or plant (pesticide, pestiferous)

{parthen(o)}

virgin (the Parthenon, parthenogenesis)

{verm(i)}

worm (vermicide, vermifuge, vermin > varmint)

•Example of a word without a combining vowel:

{psych(o)} + {iatrist} = psychiatrist

Taxa Smaller than Species

•As we now know, a unit of biological classification is called a taxon (plural: taxa). •A genus is a taxon; so is a species. •Sometimes, it is desirable to name a taxon smaller than a species -For animals, the only recognized taxon smaller than a species is the subspecies. -For plants, there are number of taxa smaller than a species: subspecies, variety, subvariety, forma, subforma.

Rules for writing binomials

•Binomina are written so that they stand out from their surroundings—often written in Italics—but not necessarily. They just have to stand out. •The Genus is Capitalized but the species name is not. Thus Homo sapiens Examples: I believe that Homo sapiens is the binomen for humans. I believe that Homo sapiens is the binomen for humans.

Taxa above the Level of Genus

•But once we get above the level of genus and species, taxonomy is more and more uncertain. •Major advances have been made with the introduction of genetic research into the field of taxonomy. •But, still, organisms in scientific literature are primarily identified by genus and species.

Combining Forms

•Combining forms frequently include combining vowels •The Latin combining vowel is "i" •The Greek combining vowel is "o"

Adjectives as Specific Epithets or Names

•Examples of specific epithets that are adjectives: -Felis concolor (cougar) = one-colored [concolor] cat [Felis] -Fraxinus angustifolia (narrow-leafed ash) = narrow-leafed [angustifolia] ash [Fraxinus] -Crotalus adamenteus (a diamondback rattlesnake) = diamond[y] [adamanteus] rattle [Crotalus].

Genitives as Specific Epithets or Names

•Genitives. -Latin has special forms of nouns called genitives. -The genitive of a noun means OF or 's = possession. •For instance, taurus means "bull." •Its genitive is tauri, and it means "of a bull," or "belonging to a bull." •puella means "girl." •Its genitive is puellae and means "of a girl." •English possessive forms like "John's" [as in John's hat = the hat of John] correspond to Latin genitives. •Genitives can be used as specific epithets to describe genera.

Adjectives and Participles as Specific Epithets

•Genus names are Latin nouns. •Latin nouns are one of three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. •Adjectives and participles must agree in gender with their nouns. That is, adjectives and participles may need to change their form depending on the gender of the genus. Example: -puer bonus = good boy (bonus, -a, -um). -puella bona = good girl. -puer celer but puella celeris (celer, celeris, celere) -puer stigmatus and puella stigmata (stigmatus, -a, -um)

his Vita

•He was born in the Swedish countryside. •From childhood he had been obsessed with plants. •He attends Lund University, then Uppsala University. •He goes on an expedition to Lapland (1732) •He goes to the Netherlands, where he gains fame for his botanical works. •From this point on, he is constantly publishing works of natural history. •In 1738, he returns to Sweden, where his career went ever upwards. •Note: He spoke fluent Latin and used it to communicate with other scholars.

•If you want to name a genus after a person, you have to Latinize the name. Genus names formed from personal names are always treated as grammatically feminine, which means they will usually end in an -a.

•Here are a few rules: -For names that end in consonants, add -ia: •Movich à Movichia -For names that end in vowels (except -a) add -a: •Brelinski à Brelinskia -For names that end in "-a," add -ia: •Garza à Garzaia

Further Conventions

•In a publication, the full name of an organism is used the first time it is mentioned. •After that, the genus is usually abbreviated. -Drosophila melanogaster -D. melanogaster•In a publication, the full name of an organism is used the first time it is mentioned. •After that, the genus is usually abbreviated. -Drosophila melanogaster -D. melanogaster

Genus Names

•In many cases, genus names are merely Latin or Latinized Greek nouns (gender determined by gender of word in original language): -Canis = dog (m) -Homo = human (m) -Malus = apple tree (f) -Panthera = big cat (f)

Aristotle's logical system influenced biological nomenclature 2

•It is possible to put species into larger groups that unite species with common features. •Aristotle called such a larger grouping a genos, which in Latin is genus. In both Latin and Greek the word means "family," "kin group," or "kind."

Participles as Specific Epithets or Names-

•Latin, too, has participles. And they can be used as specific epithets. -Examples: •Anopheles latens = hiding harmful creature -Anopheles = not beneficial -latens is a present participle = hiding • •Lycaon pictus = painted wolf (our African wild dog) -Lycaon is a mythological wolf man -pictus is a past participle = painted - •Canis latrans Anyone guess? -

Linnaeus (1707-1778)

•Li-NEE-us •or Li-NAY-us •Birth Name: Carl Linnaeus •Latin Name: Carolus Linnaeus •Name after ennoblement in 1761: Carl von Linné •Born in Stenbrohult, Sweden(A on the map)

Linnaeus and the Origins of Modern Binomial Nomenclature

•Linnaeus over his lifetime ambitiously sought to catalog all living things into organized groups. •Linnaeus' great summaries of animal and plant life are the official beginning of modern biological nomenclature. -His Species Plantarum ("Species of Plants," 1753) and his Genera Plantarum ("Genuses of Plants," 1754) have been considered the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature. -His Systema Naturae, 10th ed. ("System of Nature" 1758) is the starting point for modern zoological nomenclature. •If Linnaeus named an organism in these works, the name stands unless there is good reason, confirmed by an international regulatory body, to change it.

Binomial Nomenclature 1

•Linnaeus' system was, then, based on the notions of genus and species, which were taken from Aristotle's theory of definition. •But he got rid of the need for including a description of the species individual characteristics by his ingenious requirement that the species names need only be unique. •cf. again Plantago media

Nouns as Specific Epithets or Names

•Nouns -Nouns that follow other nouns and describe them are called appositives. -Examples: •My brother, a plumber, ... •My sister, a lawyer, ... -Species epithets or names can also be appositives. -Examples: •Canis lupus (wolf) = -Dog [Canis] the wolf [lupus] •Panthera leo (lion) = -Big cat [Panthera] the lion [leo]

Participles as Specific Epithets or Names

•Participles are adjectives made from verbs: -Present participles •Breaking (from break) -a breaking heart. •Baking (from bake) -the baking cookies -Past participles •Broken -a broken heart •Baked -the baked cookies

Specific Epithets (or Names)-

•Remember, the genus is a noun. •There are four types of words that can describe a noun in Latin, and a specific epithet or name must be one of them: -An adjective -A participle (present or past) -A noun in apposition to the genus -A noun in the genitive case

The Simplicity of Linnaeus' System

•So Linnaeus freed nomenclature from the need to be descriptive. •All that was needed, he argued, to define a species within a genus was a unique specific name (called a specific name or specific epithet). -It could be anything. -It might be nice if it were descriptive. -But it didn't have to be. •It could be a person's name. •It could be a nonsense word.

The Simplicity of Linnaeus' System 2

•So today •Plantago foliis ovato-lanceolatis pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti •is merely •Plantago media.

Combining Forms

•Some words from Latin and Greek consist of prefixes, suffixes, and bases. •However, in Greek and Latin, there are often words that are made up of two or more bases. •They are like compound words in English: newspaper, nightlight. •But you can't just slam two words of Latin or Greek origin together. •Instead, Latin and Greek use "combining forms," special forms of bases that allow bases to combine with each other.

Specific Epithets (or Names)

•Specific epithets (or names) are constructed, according to the rules of Latin, to describe the genus, which is a noun. •In Latin, things that describe nouns often come after the noun, so the specific epithet or name, which describes the genus name, comes after the genus. •Thus in Latin it would be normal to say night dark instead of our dark night. • Examples: Homo sapiens (Homo = human; sapiens = wise, a word that describes Homo; the phrase means "wise human") Pithecanthropus erectus (now, Homo erectus)

Aristotle's logical system influenced biological nomenclature

•The Greek word for "form" used by Aristotle is eidos (which etymologically means "visual image") • This translates into the Latin word species, related to words like "spectate"; it too can mean "image" or "appearance." •Jill's species (form) is human.

Taxa Smaller than Species:

•The result is that many organisms have a trinomen (plural: trinomina) or trinomial. Trinomials are used to label taxa smaller than species (subspecies, varieties, etc. ) -Examples: •Homo sapiens sapiens •Homo sapiens neanderthalensis or Homo neanderthalensis •Canis lupus familiaris

One example of his humor

•The sexual basis of Linnaeus's plant classification was controversial in its day; although easy to learn and use, it did not give good results in some cases. •Some critics also attacked it for its sexually explicit nature. •One opponent, botanist Johann Siegesbeck, called it "loathsome harlotry". •"Nine men in the same bride's chamber, with one woman." •Linnaeus wrote this about plants with nine stamens and one pistil. Those plants referred to were one of the classes in Linnaeus' sexual classification system. •Linnaeus had his revenge, however; he named a small, useless European weed Siegesbeckia.

The Complexity of Nomenclature before Linnaeus

•These long specific descriptions could become quite expansive and cumbersome because they had to describe the species. •Linnaeus realized that the desire to have a useful name for the species was IN CONFLICT with the need to describe it.

The Complexity of Nomenclature before Linnaeus

•Thus, before Linnaeus, species names had consisted of a genus name, then a specific description that could be several words long. •Example: Plantago foliis ovato-lanceolatis pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti Plantain with numerous leaves of an ovoid/spear-head shape, a roundish head, and a smooth stem

•Contrast, for instance, the suffix {-ity}, which is not called a combining form—it carries little content, but functions to make nouns

•real > reality, creative > creativity, sublime > sublimity, divine > divinity, etc.