CLEP Practice
A behaviorist who is studying the link between parenting style and childhood aggression would be most likely to focus on_______ (A) how parents punish their children's aggressive behavior (B) how parents in different communities interpret their children's aggressive behavior (C) what parents believe about their children's aggressive behavior (D) the point at which parents seek professional advice about their children's aggressive behavior (E) whether or not parents emotionally reject aggressive children
(A) how parents punish their children's aggressive behavior
Studies in which the same people are tested at different ages are called (A) longitudinal (B) cross-sectional (C) normative (D) naturalistic (E) experimental
(A) longitudinal
Which of the following should a mother say to her daughter to encourage her to keep doing well (achieving) in school? (A) "You're doing so well; it must be gratifying to you. Keep up your hard work." (B) "You should be grateful to have such good genes." (C) "Your father and I want you to be the best in your class at school." (D) "I don't care about your grades as long as you have a good attitude." (E) "If you keep getting good grades on all your tests, I'll take you shopping."
(A) "You're doing so well; it must be gratifying to you. Keep up your hard work."
According to Janet Werker's research, the oldest age that children can discriminate phonemic differences in all languages is about (A) 6-12 months (B) 18-24 months (C) 3-4 years (D) 7-8 years (E) 12-13 years
(A) 6-12 months
The nativist theory of language development proposes that language acquisition is dependent on which of the following? (A) A language acquisition device (B) Interaction with adults (C) Hearing in the womb (D) Contextual clues (E) Cultural distinctions
(A) A language acquisition device
According to some researchers, what is the most likely reason that the age of menarche has been decreasing from past decades? (A) An increase in young womens' consumption of nutrients and fatty foods (B) An increase in physical activity at earlier ages among young women (C) An increase in the tendency for young women to interact with the opposite sex (D) A decrease in the quality of health care for young women (E) A decrease in exposure to environmental estrogens contained in such things as certain plastics and pesticides
(A) An increase in young womens' consumption of nutrients and fatty foods
Which of the following statements about attachment is most accurate? (A) Childcare is unlikely to impact attachment as long as it is not of poor quality. (B) Fraternal twins are more similar in attachment than identical twins. (C) Only a minority of children are securely attached. (D) Infants with an initial disorganized attachment style typically become securely attached later in life. (E) Infants with an easy temperament are less likely to be securely attached than those with a difficult temperament.
(A) Childcare is unlikely to impact attachment as long as it is not of poor quality.
Proximodistal development is exemplified by which of the following? (A) Control of gross arm movements prior to fine motor control of the fingers (B) Control of the lower extremities prior to control of the head (C) Refinement of perceptual abilities prior to walking (D) Acquisition of differential skills prior to acquisition of complex skills (E) Maturation of neural pathways in the cerebrum prior to maturation of the neural pathways in the midbrain
(A) Control of gross arm movements prior to fine motor control of the fingers
In accounting for the rapid expansion of a child's early vocabulary, Susan Carey argued that a major role must be played by the child's own active cognitive processing. Adults simply cannot teach a child exactly what referent every word picks out. Carey coined which of the following terms to denote this concept? (A) Fast mapping (B) Lexical conventionality (C) Lexical contrast (D) Linguistic empiricism (E) Metacognition
(A) Fast mapping
Which of the following findings is often cited as evidence for the evolutionary perspective? (A) Men's reproductive capabilities last until later in life than women's. (B) Young children engage in trial-and-error learning. (C) Children imitate the behaviors modeled by their parents. (D) Identical twins have more personality traits in common than fraternal twins do. (E) Token economies help maintain order in the classroom.
(A) Men's reproductive capabilities last until later in life than women's.
What two developmental milestones occur around the age of one year? (A) Walking and speaking first words (B) Crawling and gesturing to communicate (C) Running and climbing on furniture (D) Throwing and catching a ball with two hands (E) Smiling and pulling to a stand
(A) Walking and speaking first words
Red-green color blindness is best described as (A) a sex-linked recessive trait (B) a sex-linked dominant trait (C) an autosomal recessive trait (D) an autosomal dominant trait (E) a trait resulting from chromosomal breakage
(A) a sex-linked recessive trait
A researcher compares hobby preferences between people born in the 1950s and people born in the 1970s. The groups of people are called (A) cohorts (B) confounds (C) control groups (D) reference groups (E) independent variables
(A) cohorts
Fifteen-year-old Tabatha sees someone steal something from a convenience store. She decides to tell the clerk because she knows that it is important to uphold the laws of society in order to help maintain social order. According to Lawrence Kohlberg's theory, Tabatha is at a level of moral reasoning known as (A) conventional (B) preconventional (C) postconventional (D) formal operational (E) preoperational
(A) conventional
The visual cliff was developed by Eleanor Gibson and R.D. Walk to study (A) depth perception (B) acuity acuity acuity acuity acuity acuity (C) complex pattern recognition (D) habituation (E) object permanence
(A) depth perception
Amniocentesis is a prenatal test conducted to determine (A) genetic anomalies (B) chorionic villus sampling (C) gender (D) identity of the father (paternity) (E) most likely date of birth
(A) genetic anomalies
A child who has an IQ of 55 to 70 and delayed social development is classified as having a (A) mild intellectual disability (B) moderate intellectual disability (C) severe intellectual disability (D) profound intellectual disability (E) learning disability
(A) mild intellectual disability
An infant who is fed a balanced diet yet is not gaining enough weight would most likely be diagnosed with (A) non-organic failure-to-thrive (B) marasmus (C) kwashiorkor (D) autism spectrum disorder (E) Trisomy 21
(A) non-organic failure-to-thrive
Time out is a disciplinary technique that is based on the principles of (A) operant conditioning (B) classical conditioning (C) observational learning (D) information processing (E) habituation
(A) operant conditioning
Katie, a preschooler, sees a llama at the zoo for the first time and calls it a sheep. This is an example of (A) overextension correct (B) chaining (C) fast mapping (D) divergent thinking (E) an expressive style
(A) overextension correct
With regard to sexual maturity, females generally mature (A) two years earlier than males do (B) four years earlier than males do (C) two years later than males do (D) four years later than males do (E) at approximately the same age as males
(A) two years earlier than males do
According to research on the Big Five model of personality, which personality trait tends to increase for both men and women over their life spans? (A) Aggressiveness (B) Conscientiousness (C) Extraversion (D) Neuroticism (E) Openness
(B) Conscientiousness
Which of the following is the most commonly diagnosed among individuals in very late adulthood? (A) Schizophrenia (B) Dementia (C) Generalized anxiety disorder (D) Somatic symptom disorder (E) Seasonal affective disorder
(B) Dementia
In which of the following stages of development do tissues develop into the endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm germ layers? (A) Germinal (B) Embryonic (C) Fetal (D) Perinatal (E) Neonatal
(B) Embryonic
Paul has been diagnosed as having "hostile aggression." You might see him exhibiting which behaviors? (A) Fighting when challenged (B) Hitting or harassing peers without provocation (C) Sulking and hiding (D) Speaking out of turn (E) Rebelling against conformity, using sarcasm and graffiti
(B) Hitting or harassing peers without provocation
A preschool teacher wants to use behaviorist management strategies. Which of the following is most likely to extinguish annoying (not dangerous) behavior? (A) Warning the child about getting put in "time out." (B) Ignoring it so that the child does not receive any reinforcement for it (C) Punishing the child immediately but not harshly (D) Giving the child a severe look each time the behavior is exhibited (E) Reasoning with the child and explaining why the behavior is wrong
(B) Ignoring it so that the child does not receive any reinforcement for it
Which of the following cues is most useful to an infant in determining which elements go together to form a coherent object? (A) Common movement correct (B) Linear perspective (C) Texture gradient (D) Optical expansion (E) Convergence
(B) Linear perspective
Greer is a child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). She is likely to be rated by peers as which of the following peer status categories? (A) Normal (B) Rejected aggressive (C) Rejected withdrawn (D) Neglected (E) Popular
(B) Rejected aggressive
Over summer vacation, Gwen sees a boy she knows from school, but she has difficulty remembering his name. Which of her memory processes is failing in this situation? (A) Storage (B) Retrieval (C) Encoding (D) Short-term memory (E) Sensory memory
(B) Retrieval
Steve is 63 years old and attends professional meetings and conferences. Though he used to focus on developing his expertise at the meetings, he now directs his energy toward spending time with close colleagues rather than learning about advancements in his field. Which of the following theories best explains Steve's shift in focus? (A) Programmed aging (B) Socioemotional selectivity (C) Psychodynamic (D) Social learning (E) Disengagement
(B) Socioemotional selectivity
A mother nags her son until he cleans his room. A few weeks later, the son spontaneously cleans his room because he does not want to be nagged. The mother's nagging is an example of... (A) a positive reinforcer (B) a negative reinforcer (C) a vicarious reinforcer (D) vicarious punishment (E) negative punishment
(B) a negative reinforcer
Information-processing theorists argue that one of the major changes that takes place from two to five years of age is (A) an increase in the ability to form abstract thoughts and use logical reasoning (B) an increase in the complexity and power of working memory (C) a decrease in the complexity of schemata associated with everyday experiences (D) a decrease in fluid intelligence (E) a decrease in the storage capacity of long-term memory
(B) an increase in the complexity and power of working memory
When there is an extremely weak relationship between two behavioral variables, the correlation coefficient will be (A) much lower than zero (B) close to zero (C) close to +1 (D) close to −1 (E) much higher than +1
(B) close to zero
Charles is a businessman who made a great deal of money over the past 20 years. Throughout his life he has always been self-absorbed and competitive in his business dealings and in social settings. He is now 48 years old and has no spouse or children. Charles has decided to start a charitable foundation for the benefit of needy children. Charles is most likely in Erik Erikson's stage of (A) industry versus inferiority (B) generativity versus stagnation (C) initiative versus guilt (D) trust versus mistrust (E) autonomy versus shame and doubt
(B) generativity versus stagnation
Newborn infants were given either smooth or knobby pacifiers to suck. They were later allowed to look at both types of pacifiers. They looked longer at the type of pacifier they had previously sucked. This finding indicates that newborn infants have (A) categorical perception (B) intermodal perception (C) shape constancy (D) depth perception (E) object permanence
(B) intermodal perception
A community decides to improve its health-care system by creating hospices that provide support to families with terminally ill family members. This type of hospice program is an example of (A) a home health aid program (B) palliative care (C) euthanasia (D) an advance directive (E) a life review
(B) palliative care
Timothy is an 8-year-old who gets into a lot of fights at school, does not do well academically, frequently breaks rules and is self-centered. If Timothy's behavior stems from a particular parenting style, his parents' style of parenting is most likely to be (A) authoritative (B) permissive (C) authoritarian (D) neglectful (E) autonomous
(B) permissive
In Harry Harlow's experiments, infant monkeys raised with only wire or cloth "mothers" were LEAST fearful in strange situations in the presence of (A) the "mother" who had provided food (B) the "mother" who had provided contact comfort (C) the "mother" who had provided primary drive reduction (D) other young monkeys (E) their biological mothers
(B) the "mother" who had provided contact comfort
Teachers who employ Piagetian principles would most likely use which of the following? (A) Lecture and demonstration to learn concepts (B) Drill and repetition to ensure knowledge (C) Active experimentation and exploration of material (D) As much technology as possible (E) Group activities to build social and emotional skills
(C) Active experimentation and exploration of material
Which of the following theorists did NOT develop a stage theory? (A) Sigmund Freud (B) Jean Piaget (C) B. F. Skinner (D) Lawrence Kohlberg (E) Erik Erikson
(C) B. F. Skinner
A cognitive-developmental-stage theorist like Jean Piaget would expect which of the following to be true? (A) Children perform at a higher stage level when novel tasks and materials are used. (B) Children often skip one stage of development when their IQs fall in the gifted range. (C) Children in different cultures go through the same stages in the same order. (D) Children move from one stage to the next stage more quickly in response to intense training. (E) Children move through the stages more quickly when they are rewarded for successful problem solving.
(C) Children in different cultures go through the same stages in the same order.
According to Robert Sternberg's triangular theory, which of the following are the three major components of adult love? (A) Friendship . . compassion . . commitment (B) Commitment . . intimacy . . compassion (C) Intimacy . . commitment . . passion (D) Compassion . . friendship . . passion (E) Compassion . . infatuation . . intimacy
(C) Intimacy . . commitment . . passion
Which of the following is a cause-and-effect pair that could be tested in a research study using an experimental design? (A) Low birth weight . . childhood nutrition (B) Eating disorder in adolescence . . body weight in adulthood (C) Music lessons . . intelligence (D) Food preference . . amount of time exercising (E) Anxiety symptoms . . marijuana use
(C) Music lessons . . intelligence
Which of the following research methods would most likely be used when examining the behavior of a group of children on the playground? (A) Case study (B) Archival (C) Observational (D) Cross-sectional (E) Experimental
(C) Observational
Two young boys sitting next to each other, each drawing a separate picture with his own set of crayons, are engaging in which type of play? (A) Cooperative (B) Independent (C) Parallel (D) Onlooker (E) Associative
(C) Parallel
Hardening of the eye lens will cause which condition? (A) Blindness (B) Cataracts (C) Presbyopia (D) Loss of retinal cells (E) Myopia
(C) Presbyopia
Jimmy saw his favorite candy for sale in the store. He had no money, so he planned to steal it. However, he changed his mind and decided not to do it, because stealing is wrong. According to Sigmund Freud's theory, which part of Jimmy's personality prevented him from stealing? (A) Id (B) Ego (C) Superego (D) Anima (E) Collective unconscious
(C) Superego
Which of the following statements about ethnicity and intelligence test scores is most accurate? (A) No differences in intelligence test scores are observed between ethnic groups in the United States. (B) Accounting for socioeconomic status (SES) does not reduce the ethnic differences in intelligence test scores. (C) There is greater variation in intelligence test scores within ethnic groups than there is between them. (D) Differences in intelligence test scores between ethnic groups are most likely attributable to genetic differences. (E) Inducing stereotype threat reduces the ethnic differences in intelligence test scores.
(C) There is greater variation in intelligence test scores within ethnic groups than there is between them.
Which of the following types of problems should both a three-year-old child and a nine-year-old child show equal mastery? (A) Conservation of quantity (B) Classification by attribute (C) Transformation (D) Object permanence correct (E) Superordinate concepts
(C) Transformation
A researcher is evaluating the effects of three different types of parent-education programs on adolescent mothers' interactions with their toddlers. What is the independent variable in this investigation? (A) Adolescent mothers' interactions with their toddlers (B) Level of parent-child communication (C) Type of parent education program (D) Child's attachment to the mother (E) Child's socioeconomic status
(C) Type of parent education program
In the United States, marital satisfaction is at its lowest at which stage of life? (A) Immediately following the wedding (B) Before children are born (C) When children are very young (D) When children leave home (E) An algorithm
(C) When children are very young
The stage of formal operations is characterized by (A) the application of logical thought to concrete objects and situations (B) intuitive and animistic thought (C) abstract thought and hypothetical problem solving (D) the development of transductive reasoning (E) the ability to conserve
(C) abstract thought and hypothetical problem solving
A child explains a creaking door by saying "It's sad." This is an example of (A) empathy (B) abstract reasoning (C) animism (D) egocentrism (E) logical inference
(C) animism
Two seventh graders spend most of their time together talking about difficulties involving either their parents or their history class. These discussions bring them closer in friendship, but their focus on negative aspects tends to lead to them both being more troubled. These students' behavior is an example of (A) a clique (B) a dominance hierarchy (C) co-rumination (D) scaffolding (E) acculturation
(C) co-rumination
A toddler with a secure attachment to a primary caregiver is most likely to (A) avoid the caregiver when they are reunited after a brief separation (B) stay in the caregiver's lap rather than explore a new environment (C) cry when the caregiver leaves the toddler with a babysitter (D) have a close bond with only one parent or primary caregiver (E) respond equally well to the caregiver and to a strange adult
(C) cry when the caregiver leaves the toddler with a babysitter
A developing organism is most vulnerable to the effects of teratogens during the period of the (A) ovum (B) zygote (C) embryo (D) fetus (E) neonate
(C) embryo
Both stunted growth and delayed menarche are strongly influenced by (A) lower-middle-class status (B) use of day care (C) malnutrition (D) a nuclear family structure (E) high protein intake
(C) malnutrition
Anxiety over performance can positively motivate school achievement in children as long as the degree of anxiety is (A) very high (B) high (C) moderate (D) low (E) very low
(C) moderate
One of the major criticisms of the stages of dying identified by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross is that (A) there are too many stages in her theory (B) there are not enough stages in her theory (C) not everyone goes through the stages in the order she describes (D) she does not adequately suggest how people try to cope with each stage (E) the stages vary by sex
(C) not everyone goes through the stages in the order she describes
Research on newborn infants' hearing shows that they (A) cannot distinguish one sound from another (B) are essentially deaf at birth (C) react most strongly to their mothers' voices (D) enjoy hearing their own voices (E) hear, but do not respond to sounds
(C) react most strongly to their mothers' voices
Bethany stacked several blocks, then they fell. She looked at her mother, who shrugged her shoulders and smiled. Then Bethany shrugged and smiled, too, and started stacking blocks again. Bethany is exhibiting (A) empathy (B) sympathy (C) social referencing (D) zone of proximal development (E) problem-solving
(C) social referencing
Elizabeth's seven-year-old son wants to play in a soccer league and take gymnastics lessons. She insists that he choose one or the other. She explains that he will be too tired to do well in school if he has too many after-school activities. But she promises to respect his choice and even allow him to change his decision once. Diana Baumrind's classification for Elizabeth's parenting style is which of the following? (A) Secure (B) Uninvolved (C) Authoritarian (D) Authoritative (E) Permissive
(D) Authoritative
Which occupation is best suited for an individual with a conventional personality in John Holland's personality-type theory? (A) Poet (B) Scientist (C) Social worker (D) Bank teller (E) Business executive
(D) Bank teller
Research suggests that which of the following types of intelligence may increase throughout the life span? (A) Fluid (B) Performance (C) Mathematical (D) Crystallized (E) Spatial
(D) Crystallized
Which of the following is a basic emotion? (A) Depression (B) Optimism (C) Mania (D) Disgust (E) Empathy
(D) Disgust
Which of the following dimensions of infant temperament has the strongest positive correlation with antisocial behavior later in life? (A) Attention span (B) Activity level (C) Approach (D) Irritable distress (E) Rhythmicity
(D) Irritable distress
Which of the following is the symptom most closely associated with the early stages of Alzheimer's disease? (A) Manic or depressive behavior (B) Sensory impairment (C) Loss of ability to walk (D) Loss of memory (E) Loss of reflexes
(D) Loss of memory
Which of the following is most central to the concept of sensitive period? (A) Growth spurts must occur at specific ages. (B) Children who do not develop at the same time as their peers experience distress. (C) A given function emerges automatically during a particular time period regardless of learning experiences. (D) Particular experiences are especially influential at a certain time in development. (E) Children go through a negativistic stage as a part of their cognitive development.
(D) Particular experiences are especially influential at a certain time in development.
Five-year-old Sophia struggles to pronounce words with complex sounds, such as "play" or "stay," pronouncing them as "pay" and "tay" instead. Sophia's difficulty involves which component of language? (A) Morphology (B) Syntax (C) Pragmatics (D) Phonology (E) Semantics
(D) Phonology
Keisha politely asks her teacher to please pass her the scissors but at home demands that her little brother give them to her immediately. Keisha is demonstrating her understanding of which aspect of knowledge? (A) Phonology (B) Semantics (C) Syntax (D) Pragmatics (E) Overregularization
(D) Pragmatics
A parent who is helping a child with math adjusts the level of support to match the child's growing competence in solving word problems. Which of the following concepts best describes the parent's behavior? (A) Peer support (B) Ego-boosting (C) Metacognition (D) Scaffolding (E) Self-actualization
(D) Scaffolding
According to Jean Piaget, cognitive development begins with which of the following? (A) Preoperations (B) Concrete operations (C) Intuitive thought (D) Sensorimotor activities (E) Formal operations
(D) Sensorimotor activities
Every morning 4-year-old Marta watches her mother put on a suit, pack a lunch, and put her lunch and a briefcase by the front door while preparing for work. One day Marta wakes up, puts on one of her mother's suits, puts snacks in a lunch bag, and puts the lunch bag and a backpack at the front door. She runs to her mother and says, "I'm ready for work!" Marta's behavior can best be explained by which of the following theories? (A) Information processing (B) Humanism (C) Evolutionary (D) Social learning (E) Psychodynamic
(D) Social learning
According to researchers, ethnic identity or a sense of identifying with one's own ethnic group (A) mostly occurs in adolescence (B) mostly occurs in older adulthood (C) stays the same throughout the life span (D) changes throughout the life span (E) is not important to overall positive developmental outcomes
(D) changes throughout the life span
The first negative emotion clearly exhibited during infancy is (A) fear (B) shame (C) guilt (D) distress (E) jealousy
(D) distress
A boy who believes that he will become a girl if he wears his sister's clothes has not achieved the concept of (A) androgyny (B) gender stability (C) gender labeling (D) gender constancy (E) gender schema
(D) gender constancy
The psychodynamic theory describes development as being dependent on (A) the totality of personal temperament, culture, and socioeconomic status (B) the striving for recognition and achievement (C) evolutionary and biological factors (D) the unconscious mind and early experiences with parents (E) role models, especially in younger years
(D) the unconscious mind and early experiences with parents
John tends to be hardworking, ambitious and persevering. He rates high on which of the following Big Five personality dimensions? (A) Agreeableness (B) Neuroticism (C) Extraversion (D) Openness (E) Conscientiousness
(E) Conscientiousness
Order the types of play below from the least cognitively mature to the most cognitively mature. I. Cooperative play II. Pretense/symbolic play III. Constructive play (A) I, II, III (B) II, I, III (C) II, III, I (D) III, I, II (E) III, II, I
(E) III, II, I
Jorge is keenly aware of his friends' and family's emotions and tries to accommodate everyone's shifting moods. Jorge appears to have high levels of which intelligence in Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences? (A) Intrapersonal (B) Existential (C) Bodily-kinesthetic (D) Linguistic (E) Interpersonal
(E) Interpersonal
Which of the following is true of menopause in men? (A) Menopause is purely a physical phenomenon. (B) Menopause may result from a lack of exercise. (C) Menopause may result from work-related stress. (D) Menopause is differentially damaging to the male psyche, depending on age. (E) Menopause is physically impossible because males do not menstruate.
(E) Menopause is physically impossible because males do not menstruate.
Intelligence tests are most appropriately used to answer which of the following questions? (A) Should a student take honors courses? (B) Which approach to education is best to use with a student? (C) Is a student at risk for social rejection because of high intelligence? (D) Does a child have attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder? (E) What are a student's cognitive strengths and weaknesses?
(E) What are a student's cognitive strengths and weaknesses?
According to Lawrence Kohlberg, parents can best foster their children's moral development by (A) setting high expectations for moral behavior, starting as toddlers (B) promptly and consistently punishing their children's misbehavior (C) providing models of correct moral behavior in literature and movies (D) providing positive reinforcement for appropriate moral/ethical decisions (E) exposing their children to advanced moral reasoning by discussing both sides of moral/ethical issues
(E) exposing their children to advanced moral reasoning by discussing both sides of moral/ethical issues
Carlos is currently taking science, literature, sociology, and history courses. He is doing volunteer work to help identify and develop his interests. He thinks about his values and goals but has not chosen a career path. His identity status is referred to as (A) identity fixation (B) identity achievement (C) identity diffusion (D) identity foreclosure (E) identity moratorium
(E) identity moratorium
A man insists on a divorce and buys a red sports car on his 40th birthday. On the same day his teenage son is forced to choose between his "geek" friends and his athletic friends. Which one is going through an identity crisis as proposed by Erikson? (A) both father and son (B) only the father, due to his age (C) the wife/mother in this scenario (D) neither father nor son, since neither is within the age range Erikson described for this (E) only the son, due to his age
(E) only the son, due to his age
If reinforcement is to be most effective in the learning of a new behavior, the reinforcement should be________ (A) provided as sparingly as possible (B) administered on an intermittent schedule (C) used primarily with high achievers (D) delayed until the end of the learning period (E) provided soon after the desired behavior occurs
(E) provided soon after the desired behavior occurs
Eighteen-month-old Michael sees his mother about to put his juice away, and he yells out, "More juice!" Michael's expression is an example of (A) a holophrase (B) receptive language (C) private speech (D) motherese (E) telegraphic speech
(E) telegraphic speech
According to Lev Vygotsky, the range between what a child can do alone and what a child can do with assistance is referred to as (A) higher mental functions (B) scaffolding (C) inner speech (D) egocentric speech (E) the zone of proximal development
(E) the zone of proximal development
Differences in vocabulary development in children result from social-class differences in the amount of (A) maternal anxiety (b) verbal stimulation (C) paternal employment status (D) discretionary spending ability (E) marital stability
(b) verbal stimulation
