Climate Change

And human-made CFCs, now banned due to the influence 03:01 they have on the ozone layer in the stratosphere, have a 03:04 warming potential of between about 4,000 and 15,000 times 03:09 that of CO2, depending on the particular chemical.

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Elastic scattering and reflection spectroscopy

determine how incident radiation is reflected or scattered by a material.

a shift in average temperatures has a

disproportionate effect on extremes.

Crystallography

employs the scattering of high energy radiation, such as x-rays and electrons, to examine the arrangement of atoms in proteins and solid crystals.

We know from the fossil record that in the past species went extinct at about a rate of

one species per 1,000 species per 1,000 years

But the two biggest ones are actually not 00:26 greenhouse gases at all. 00:27 They are nitrogen, which makes up about 78% of the 00:30 atmosphere, and oxygen, which makes up about 21%.

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Carbon dioxide also leaves the atmosphere by either 01:59 dissolving in raindrops on the way to the Earth's surface or 02:03 by dissolving in surface waters of things like lakes 02:06 and oceans.When it does this, it reacts with the water molecules to 02:11 form carbonic acid,

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Carbon dioxide hangs around for somewhere 03:22 between 50 and 200 years. 03:25 Nitrous oxide hangs around also for 03:27 about a hundred years.

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In 2013, the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reached a 02:19 milestone, 400 parts per million.

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In terms of total quantity, the most important greenhouse 00:48 gas is water vapour, which contributes 95% of the volume 00:52 of all the greenhouse gases.

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Methane, by contrast, only hangs around about 12 years.

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Ozone and chlorofluorocarbons, also a human-made chemical, 02:00 are also greenhouse gases, but are present in even smaller 02:04 quantities.

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So at any one time, about 100 million gigatons is present in 02:57 the Earth's crust. 02:59 A bit under 40,000 gigatons is in the oceans. 03:04 About 2,000 gigatons is in the biosphere, which is the plants 03:09 and animals. 03:10 And in the atmosphere, there's only about 750 gigatons.

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The next largest contributor is carbon dioxide, which 01:12 contributes about 3.5% to 4% of the total 01:16 greenhouse gas component. 01:18 Carbon dioxide, or CO2, comes from many sources, including 01:23 volcanic eruptions, fires, and the 01:27 respiration of living things. 01:30 It also comes from the burning of fossil fuels.

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The other main greenhouse gases are methane, which is 01:39 mainly produced by microorganisms, especially 01:42 those in guts of sheep and cows, and from decaying plant 01:45 material; nitrous oxide, which comes from a variety of 01:49 agricultural and industrial processes, as well as natural 01:53 processes in soils.

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he real problem is that when coal is burned, it 01:37 redistributes carbon that used to be in the Earth's crust 01:42 into the Earth's atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide.

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methane is as a greenhouse gas 02:39 over about a hundred year time span, we find it's about 25 02:43 times better at doing its greenhouse job than CO2. 02:48 Nitrous oxide is even more effective, nearly 300 times 02:53 more effective as a greenhouse gas than CO2.

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zooxanthellae

.If they get stressed by water temperatures being too highfor too long, corals throw out the little organisms that live in their tissues that photosynthesize for them, called zooxanthellae. If the hotter temperatures persist for more than say a few days or a few weeks, the corals bleach and die.

Since about the 1980s, the average water vapour content of the atmosphere has been increasing by about

1% or 2% per decade, consistent with a warming atmosphere.

Great Barrier Reef,Is home to more than 1,600 species of fish and

1,400 species of corals, amongst many other species.

Svante August Arrhenius

19 February 1859 - 2 October 1927) was a Swedish scientist, originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, and one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903 and in 1905 became director of the Nobel Institute where he remained until his death.[1] The Arrhenius equation, Arrhenius definition of an acid, lunar crater Arrhenius and the Arrhenius Labs at Stockholm University are named after him.t if the CO2 in 02:46 the atmosphere doubled in concentration, the Earth would 02:50 warm by between 5 and 6 degrees. 02:53 But back in 1896, not very much CO2 was actually going 02:58 into the atmosphere. 02:59 And Arrhenius thought that a doubling would take many, many 03:03 thousands of years.

Great Barrier Reef, the largest coral reef system in theworld, stretching over

2 and 1/2 thousand kilometres and composed of nearly 3,000 individual reefs.

You CO2 does get to double what it was in preindustrial times, global average temperatures could be between about

2 and 4 and 1/2 degrees above that time.

Alpine areas are another ecosystem of real concern. Take, for example, the Snowy Mountains region of Southeastern Australia. By world standards, the mountains here are pretty short, with very few over

2,000 metres.

Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier

21 March 1768 - 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier transform and Fourier's Law are also named in his honour. Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect.

What increase in temperature above pre-industrial levels has been identified by scientists as the level at which the risk of reaching 'tipping points' in the climate system is greatly increased? 2°C 1°C 4.5°C 5°C

2°C

1 and 1/2 degre increase would give us a warmer world than at any time that humans have been on the planet. If we got to _------ degrees, it would be the warmest planet than we've had for millions and millions of years.

4 and 1/2

About ________ of the Earth's land surface has already been cleared for agriculture and another 3% for_________

40%,urban settlements

Every year about______ million hectares of vegetation are cleaned.

5

we could get warming in the second half of the century of between 2 and about 1/2 degrees.But as graph shows, things won't necessarily stop there.We could get

5, or 6, or 7 degrees of warming.

The summers of 1998 and 2002 were particularly bad, where underwater heat waves affected about

60% of the individual reefs.In fact, 1998 was a very bad year worldwide.About 20% of global reefs were killed.

A neutral solution has a pH of

7

seawater has a pH a little bit above

8

Between about 1750 and the mid-1990s, surface ocean pH has decreased from about 8.25 to

8.14.

the oceans have absorbed about__% of the excess heat.

90

,by about 2070, they'll be about 30 centimetres higher than they are now.If this was to occur, it's been estimated that the area of the Sundarbans would shrink by about

96%. And it would only support about 20 of the tigers.

about_____% of all the species that have ever existed on Earth are now extinct.

98

Under a business-as-usual scenario, average temperatures may reach up to 4.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels by 2050. The last time Earth's temperature reached this level was: 1970s (the hole in the ozone layer) AD 950 to 1250 (Medieval warming period) 10,000 years ago (the Neolithic era following the last ice age) A few million years ago

A few million years ago

A warmer atmosphere holds more water vapour. One of the major consequences of increased water vapour in the atmosphere is: A net cooling effect as water vapour reflect solar radiation back out into space An increase in extreme rainfall events and flash flooding A saturated atmosphere is less capable of holding carbon dioxide, providing a negative feedback to global warming An easing of drought conditions as rainfall is distributed more evenly over the Earth's surface

An increase in extreme rainfall events and flash flooding

Tipping points in the climate system Could occur due to negative feedbacks from the melting permafrost Are rapid, non-linear changes that are likely to be irreversible in either the short- or long-term Are unlikely to occur over the next century despite acceleration of global greenhouse gas emissions Are slow and incremental changes in climate such as the warming of the Earth after the last Ice Age

Are rapid, non-linear changes that are likely to be irreversible in either the short- or long-term

Oceans and other water bodies are absorbing about a third of extra CO2 that human activities are releasing into the atmosphere. What effect does this have on their chemical composition? CO2 is broken down into silicon carbide, making the water more saline CO2 is neutralised and broadly diluted into the ocean depths CO2 is broken down into carbonic acid, making the water more acidic CO2 is broken down into sodium carbonate, making the water more alkaline

CO2 is broken down into carbonic acid, making the water more acidic Well done. Absorption of this CO2 is changing the fundamental chemistry of the oceans. Formation of more carbonic acid is increasing the overall acidity of the oceans and this has profound implications for marine life.

Keeling Curve

CO2 measured at Mauna Loa from 1958 to the present. It's called the Keeling Curve, named after Charles Keeling, who was the first one to perfect the techniques to measure very small amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere.

The cloud forests near Monteverde and Santa Elena are one of____

Costa Rica's premier destinations for everyone from budget backpackers to well-heeled retirees.

trees in the Northern Hemisphere which are mostly

Deciduous

John Tyndall ]

FRS (2 August 1820 - 4 December 1893) was a prominent 19th century physicist. His initial scientific fame arose in the 1850s from his study of diamagnetism. Later he made discoveries in the realms of infrared radiation and the physical properties of air. Tyndall also published more than a dozen science books which brought state-of-the-art 19th century experimental physics to a wide audience. From 1853 to 1887 he was professor of physics at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in London.

Mauna Loa Observatory in

Hawaii.

Where is the majority of carbon found on Earth? In the Earth's biosphere In the Earth's oceans In the Earth's atmosphere In the Earth's crust

In the Earth's crust

he world has warmed on average just under 1 degree since the

Industrial Revolution.

carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere by 2050 are predicted to be about double what they were before the

Industrial Revolution. That is, about 560 parts per million.

stomate

It's a little pore in the leaves that allows CO2 into the plant, that the plant uses for photosynthesis.But it also let's water out.

bigger plants, reduced need for water

More CO2 in the atmosphere,

A minor increase in average temperatures results in: More extreme hot days Warmer average days but fewer extreme hot days More extreme cold days Little observable impact on our daily lives

More extreme hot days

Nuclei also have distinct energy states that are widely separated and lead to gamma ray spectra. Distinct nuclear spin states can have their energy separated by a magnetic field, and this allows for

NMR spectroscopy.

Which of these is NOT a greenhouse gas? Carbon dioxide Methane Water vapour Nitrogen

Nitrogen

What happens to nutrients such as nitrogen in plants grown at high CO2 levels? Nitrogen levels fluctuate wildly in a cycle of over and under-compensation Nitrogen concentration in plant tissues increases in relation to carbon Nitrogen content is not affected but the nutritional quality of the plants declines Nitrogen concentration in plant tissues decreases in relation to carbon

Nitrogen concentration in plant tissues decreases in relation to carbon That's correct. When plants are grown at high CO2, their nitrogen content, relative to their carbon content, actually declines, making them less nutritious because nitrogen is the main building block of protein.

What are stomates? Pores on the surface of leaves that allow carbon dioxide into the plant, and water and oxygen out Structures on a plant's leaf that absorb nitrogen and potassium Pores on the surface of leaves that absorb water and nutrients The chemicals in a plant's leaves that photosynthesize

Pores on the surface of leaves that allow carbon dioxide into the plant, and water and oxygen out

Schweizer's reagent

Schweizer's reagent is the chemical complex tetraamminediaquacopper dihydroxide, [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2](OH)2. It is prepared by precipitating copper(II) hydroxide from an aqueous solution of copper sulfate using sodium hydroxide or ammonia, then dissolving the precipitate in a solution of ammonia.When the entire amount of copper is precipitated as hydroxide, it is a good idea to filter it and dispose of the filtrate and rinse the precipitate from sulfate and other excess ions.

Which of the following is true? Sensitivity of species' distributions and life cycles to small changes in te mperature can have implications for the functioning of food webs There is no evidence yet that species migrating to new regions are having any effects at the ecosystem level Species are not yet responding to climate change because average temperatures have only increased about 0.8°C globally Temperature rises have affected the geography of species distribution, while their life cycles are unaffected

Sensitivity of species' distributions and life cycles to small changes in te mperature can have implications for the functioning of food webs

Over the last 250 years ocean acidity has increased 30% and is set to keep rising. The consequences of more acidic oceans include: More carbon dioxide will be released into the atmosphere Shells and skeletons of sea creatures are weakened Sea level rise will accelerate Ocean warming will accelerate further

Shells and skeletons of sea creatures are weakened

Why are we concerned that present day species extinction rates will increase as the climate changes during the next century? Species struggle to compete with introduced pests and foreign predators The climate is changing faster than most species will be able to adapt Deforestation and land clearing removes natural habitats More virulent diseases emerge from antibiotic use and factory farming

The climate is changing faster than most species will be able to adapt

What do scientists think will be the impact of climate change on tropical cyclones? The frequency of cyclones may decline or stay the same, but their intensity may increase Cyclones will further raise ocean temperatures Cyclones may decrease in intensity but there will be more of them Warmer air moves faster, creating gale force winds that meet to form cyclones

The frequency of cyclones may decline or stay the same, but their intensity may increase

What is the main factor accounting for the Earth's average temperature, in comparison to other planets? The Earth's molten core The Earth's distance from the sun The Earth's orbital speed The thin blanket of gases such as CO2 and methane within the troposphere

The thin blanket of gases such as CO2 and methane within the troposphere

How are extreme weather events affected by climate change? Climate change creates stronger but shorter extreme weather events Climate change directly causes some additional extreme weather events, but not others, which occur naturally There is a lot more energy in the climate system, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events There is little to no effect

There is a lot more energy in the climate system, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events Great work. The climate models are pointing to a pattern where the parts of the world that are already wet, will get wetter and those regions that are usually dry will get drier. This will therefore increase the frequency and intensity of events such as drought.

Coral bleaching, in which corals become stressed, and expel their symbiotic algae, loses its colour and dies, has been identified as a significant threat to marine biodiversity. Which of the following is considered the primary cause of global coral bleaching? Warmer than average summer temperatures in the ocean Ocean acidification Colder than average winter temperatures Rising sea levels

Warmer than average summer temperatures in the ocean

Human-induced climate change was initiated by what historical event?

Your answer: The Industrial Revolution

The lower the pH, the more

acid the solution.This process is therefore known as ocean acidification.

A cloud forest

also called a fog forest, is a generally tropical or subtropical, evergreen, montane, moist forest characterized by a persistent, frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover, usually at the canopy level ,It's a type of rainforest where much of the available moisture comes in the form of fine mist, rather than rain.

Inelastic scattering phenomena involve

an exchange of energy between the radiation and the matter that shifts the wavelength of the scattered radiation. These include Raman and Compton scattering.

Great Barrier Reef, can be seen from space and is the largest structure 03:47 It's home to more than 1,600 species of fish and 1,400 03:51 species of corals, amongst many other species.

built by living things on the planet.

Aragonite is a lot more soluble than

calcite.

Calcium carbonate comes in two different forms.One is called aragonite and the other is called

calcite.

Many marine organisms build their shells or skeletons out of a substance called

calcium carbonate.During the acidification process, the production of bicarbonate ions reduces the availability of carbonate ions, which the organisms need to make calcium carbonate.

Coal mainly consist of

carbon.

During the acidification process, the production of bicarbonate ions reduces the availability of _________ which the organisms need to make calcium carbonate.

carbonate ions,

When the CO2 dissolves in sea water, it forms

carbonic acid.

warming is not constant over the globeIn fact, it's been quite modest around the _____and far faster in the polar regions at each end.We also know that the interiors of continents are warming faster than the______

equator , coastal areas.

Aragonite is a lot more soluble than calcite. So those organisms that need aragonite to build their skeletons will be

far more vulnerable that those that use calcite.

Increasingly acidic water, with lower amounts of carbonate ions, affect all sorts of things,like

fertilisation success, immune systems, the swimming speed of sperm,amongst other things.

This 2 degree level is sometimes called the --------- We need to stay beneath this guardrail to be on the safer side.

guardrail.

This carbonic acid disassociates in the water,releasing

hydrogen ions and bicarbonate.The more hydrogen ions there are in a solution, the more acidic it is.

Coral reefs can actually recover from bleaching

if they've got enough time.

It could even affect the way whales talk to each other.That's because

increasingly acidic waters affects the absorption of low-frequency sound.

Emission

indicates that radiative energy is released by the material. A material's blackbody spectrum is a spontaneous emission spectrum determined by its temperature. Emission can also be induced by other sources of energy such as flames or sparks or electromagnetic radiation in the case of fluorescence.

child prodigy or Wunderkind

is a person who, at an early age, develops one or more skills at a level far beyond the norm for their age.[1] A prodigy has to be a child, or at least younger than 18 years, who is performing at the level of a highly trained adult in a very demanding field of endeavour.[1][2]

Timothy Flannery

is an Australian mammalogist, palaeontologist, environmentalist and global warming activist

cliché or cliche

is an expression, idea, or element of an artistic work which has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect,

Pliocene Epoch

is the period in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.333 million to 2.58 million years before present. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era.

Spectroscopy

is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy.[1][2] Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative energy as a function of its wavelength or frequency. Spectroscopic data is often represented by a spectrum, a plot of the response of interest as a function of wavelength or frequency.

Deciduous

means "falling off at maturity"[1] or "tending to fall off",[2] and it is typically used in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during Autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe. In a more general sense, deciduous means "the dropping of a part that is no longer needed" or "falling away after its purpose is finished". In plants it is the result of natural processes. "Deciduous" has a similar meaning when referring to animal parts, such as deciduous antlers in deer[3] or deciduous teeth, also known as baby teeth, in some mammalsIn botany and horticulture, deciduous plants, including trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials, are those that lose all of their leaves for part of the year.[4] This process is called abscission.[5] In some cases leaf loss coincides with winter — namely in temperate or polar climates.[6] In other parts of the world, including tropical, subtropical, and arid regions, plants lose their leaves during the dry season or other seasons, depending on variations in rainfall.

Deep in the ocean, there's actually quite a lot of methane stored.But it's stored in little tiny cages of ice.And in this form, it's called

methane clathrate or methane hydrate.

Absorption

occurs when energy from the radiative source is absorbed by the material. Absorption is often determined by measuring the fraction of energy transmitted through the material; absorption will decrease the transmitted portion.

About a third of the CO2 is being absorbed by the

oceans.

Up in the frozen north of the Northern Hemisphere, the soil is called ___, basically because it's frozen. This soil contains a lot of carbon in the form of both solid carbon and also methane

permafrost

By 2050, ocean acidification could be about 70% above

pre-industrial levels And by the end of the century, it could be about 120% above. This could mean about a 60% decrease in the concentration of calcium carbonate.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

spectroscopy is a widely used resonance method and ultrafast laser methods are also now possible in the infrared and visible spectral regions.

Impedance spectroscopy

studies the ability of a medium to impede or slow the transmittance of energy. For optical applications, this is characterized by the index of refraction.

We know that winters are warming faster than ____ and that nights are warming faster than daytime.

summer time

Coherent or resonance spectroscopy are techniques where.

the radiative energy couples two quantum states of the material in a coherent interaction that is sustained by the radiating field. The coherence can be disrupted by other interactions, such as particle collisions and energy transfer, and so often require high intensity radiation to be sustained

have an optimal temperature range.This is the range where

they can live,flourish, and reproduce

They grow bigger and faster with more CO2, providing they've got enough things like ____________. A higher concentration of carbon dioxide in the air also has impacts on plants, apart from just allowing them to get bigger.

water, light, and nutrients