Cog Final Exam

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What is the difference between STM and WM?

1974 is the dividing line. Before 1974 it was short term memory. people thought it was unitary and passive. George Miller believed it was unitary, only 1 storage place. after 1974 baddeley working memory model influential. multiple components and active. can do things, can manipulate information in our mind = working.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

1st memory experiments lists of nonsense words - so people don't draw personal or previous memory shows loss of memory is not linear, but exponential (sharp) loss of memory over time. forgetting curve is controversial, not everyone agrees. behavioral approach- looked at accuracy

most popular model of wm, current. has central executive at the top, then VSSP, Episodic buffer, and PL (WM PARTS) then under that has visual semantics, episodic LTM, and language (HOW WM IS RELATED TO LTM)

2000 version of baddeleys wm model

1. trial and error 2. hill climbing 3. means ends 4. working backwards 5. analogy

5 problem solving heuristics:

priming

previous information unconsciously influences behavior. example: older participants given words like apple boat, or older age words like florida, aches, pains, retire, wrinkles, then measured how long it took participants to walk to their car. participants with older age words took longer to walk to their car. subconscious!! HO_SES. given either trot, mane, gallop, or porch, front door, window. participants filled in either R or U based on words given to them.

given either bug words or flower words, then given AFEL (had to unscramble to make word) people with bug words wrote flea and people with flower words wrote leaf. explain by PDP model. unconsciously more likely to say LEAF if flower words were activated in your brain, FLEA if bug words. LOOK AT PDP MODEL IN NOTES

priming demo

creativity

problem solving that is novel, high quality, and useful

transduction

process of converting information from environment to neural impulse. important.

processes color

processes motion

V2 and V3

processing form/shape, what it is. taking the bits from V1 and putting them together.

Computational modeling approach

program computers to mimic human cognition. different from Pure artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence focuses on making computers the best they can be, better than humans. NOT like computational modeling.

reception

receiving information from the outside world

self reference

relating something to yourself

episodic memory

remembering life events. usually multi sensory memories. can remember sounds and visual.

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future. external aid = planner, post its. internal aid = visual imagery

procedural skills and habits

riding bike, driving car, getting dressed. muscle memory

Cowans WM as activation of LTM model

saying WM is unitary - only 1 WM component. biological basis says the same as baddeley. shows WM is related to LTM because you just activate it. Very similar to baddeley but simpler. says WMs are just activations of LTMs

Information Processing Model

says things happen sequentially, usually has boxes and arrows, don't look like neurons. these are the older kinds of models, they don't reflect what is happening in the brain. Example is the Atkinson Shiffrin Model

assimilation

sees raccoon during trick or treat, points and calls it a dog. making guess about raccoon based on info already know. usually leads to mistakes

coding

sending signals at sensory receptors to the brain to process information

George Miller

short term memory (7+/-2) behavioral approach, looked at accuracy

Newell and Simon

simulating the human mind using computers, computational modeling

parapraxes

slip of the tongue, close to what you want to say but not quite

PET (position emission tomography)

small amount of radioactive material is injected into blood stream. radioactive substances decay over time, as it decays it releases positrons. There would be more positrons released where there is more blood, and more blood where it was active during cognitive task. has good spatial but bad temporal because they usually average activity into two minutes, doesn't tell exactly when activity happens.

saccades

smallish eye movements that change your attention

phonological loop

sound. how do we know peoples phonological loops are similar? acoustic confusions (sound mistakes, rehearsing CTGVB vs CWQKR, people make more mistakes in the first one because they sound similar)and interference(two sound based tasks interfere with each other).

autobiographical memories

specific type of episodic memories, about oneself. includes flashbulb and eyewitness memories

distinctiveness

stands out, activates strong connection in mind

problem solving

start at initial state and get to goal state by overcoming obstacles

Noam Chomsky

studied linguistics

phonology

study of how sound is used in language (ex r and l are phonetically different, but in some again languages r and l has no distinction, French, etc.)

people reporting differences rarely consult the extensive psychology research about gender comparisons and don't learn that most gender differences in cognitive abilities are small. But differences are more substantial when talking about spatial ability. However, only one meta analysis yielded a d value in the large category. Also, spatial ability measures three tasks, not only one. These tasks include spatial visualization, spatial perception, and mental rotation. mental rotation is the only cognitive skill where males are expected to earn higher scores than females. BUT some studies report no gender differences in mental rotation. in addition, a large portion of the gender differences in spatial rotation can be traced to the fact that boys typically have more experience with toys and sports that emphasize spatial skills. this difference can be reduced by providing girls with experience and training in spatial activities.

suppose that you see a newspaper headline, "males have better spatial ability, study shows" when reading this article, what cautions should you keep in mind, based on the discussion about gender comparisons in spatial ability? (Ch 7)

were told to draw the following animals: duck, camel, seal, and frog. people with SD drew duck with 4 legs and tail, drew no hump on the camel, drew legs and tail on the seal, and gave the frog a tail. all animals got 4 legs and a tail, they are going off their prototype of an animal. helps with distributed plus hub theory

test about SD and drawing animals

groupthink

the practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility.

planning fallacy

the tendency to underestimate the amount of time or money required to complete a project and to estimate that the task will be relatively easy to complete

ventral stream

the what stream. means bottom stream, inferotemporal. helps process what we are looking at (ex: faces, houses, tools, etc.) includes prosopagnosia and visual object agnosia. Goes from the primary visual cortex to the inferotemporal cortex.

Dorsal stream

the where stream. lets us know where things are and performs action. means top stream - parietal. helps to continue to process motion information. includes simultagnosia and prosopagnosia. stream goes from primary visual cortex to the posterior parietal cortex.

Gestalt psychology

the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. Used ambiguous images, 2 faces of the necker cube shows there is something going on in the mind because with the same parts can bring 2 separate experiences, behaviorists can't explain this more functionalist because they don't care about all the little parts

elaboration

thinking about meaning, connect new information with information you already know

temporal

timing of brain activity

structuralist

tries to understand what makes up experiences, the structure, little pieces, building blocks

show people with no SD, mild SD, and severe SD pictures of a monkey with a normal ear and a monkey with an elephant ear, and a picture of an elephant with a normal ear and a elephant with a small ear. people with SD can get monkey question right but not elephant question. people with severe SD are at 50% with the elephant question, so they are just guessing. Why? the prototype of an animal is small ears, so they are picking the animal with small ears. helps with distributed plus hub theory

two task stimulus which is the real animal task

keyword memory

use imagery to try to learn new words. Ex: catatonic - means the state of suspended animation and loss of voluntary motion - picture a cat drinking a gin and tonic

reasoning

use the laws of logic to make a conclusion based on given information

J. Ridley Stroop

used to stroop test in behaviorism, looks at accuracy and reaction time.

illusory conjunction demo

visual processing is distributed (shape processed in one part of the brain and the color in another). how do we bind the features of the object?

indirect access hypothesis

we cannot gain meaning from just letters, we have to go through sound. ex: catatonic, sadistic, malignant. don't see often, learned though hearing it. have to sound it out, hear it, then know what it means.

1. striatum 2. basal ganglia 3. cerebellum

what are the important brain regions for procedural memories?

recall - essay. no hints, actively pull it, harder. recognition - MC

what are the two types of retrieval?

baddeley saw that cross block test and visual pattern test did not interfere with each other, so they are two separate spaces in WM.

what did baddeley find through the cross block test and the visual pattern test?

native language

what does L1 mean

learned language or 2nd native language

what does L2 mean

information of categories and concepts

what does gaining general knowledge require?

emotional responses (love, fear, anxiety) and skeletal musculature (eye blinks, pupil dilation)

what is simple classical conditioning broken down into?

proactive interference

when have old information interfering with trying to remember new information. difficulty learning or recalling new material because some previously learned material continues to interfere with the formation of new memories

accommodation

when parent corrects child, child would make new schema for raccoon

illusory conjunction

when shape and color get combined, or mixed up. Was there an orange W? attention was distributed, so you might say yes. Yes is wrong = illusory conjunction

episodic buffer

when the VSSP and PL interact. the two working together Ex: elephant story

amygdala

where is emotional responses in the brain?

neocortex

where is priming in the brain?

striatum

where is procedural skills and habits in the brain

cerebellum

where is skeletal musculature in the brain?

eleanor rosch, 1973

who founded the prototype model?

Showed STM is unitary = 7 slots for info total, not 7 slots for each kind of information and when put together there is 14. (BUT this was wrong, we learned later that at least auditory and visual have separate capacities.)

why are findings with 2 dimensions important?

1. subjective - who decides what is/isnt creative? 2. difficult to define: is it a person, product, or process? our operational definition is novel, useful,high quality. 3. many different ways to measure: count # of accomplishments, have people rate creativity of others, self-reports of creativity, cognitive tasks assessing creativity

why is creativity difficult to study?

1. used to quickly identify objects 2. its more easily primed

why is the basic level category in the vertical structure of the prototype model special?

challenger explosion: after 2 years memories were different, but people were very confident about their memories. Sept 11: sept 12 - students recall how they found out about 9/11, also recall an ordinary event from 9/11 to compare memory of ordinary memories to flashbulb memories. study showed flashbulb memories declining at same rate as ordinary memories. details are also being added since day 1, rate the same as ordinary memories. Even though they feel more vivid and we have more confidence with flashbulb memories, details are still inconsistent like regular memories. Study showed flashbulb memories are not special or more vivid. no different than ordinary memories. BUT people who were close to the event (in NYC) were showing consistency. probably due to telling story over and over again. SO they had rehearsal, self reference, distinction, and elaboration. NOT due to it being a flashbulb memory.

Are flashbulb memories more accurate than everyday memories?

Quick to fix mistakes?

Are there any new possible themes that you think could be added to the 5 themes?

used Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique to prevent rehearsal of information in STM (math problems). study had 5 different groups of people asked to remember items in their assigned category for Trials 1 - 3 (we used just 2 categories in class). occupations, meats, flowers, vegetables, fruits. showed proactive interference (all jobs, by 3rd trial do worse because all jobs, 4th trial: ALL got fruits, people who had all jobs did better in 4th trial and people who had all fruits progressively did worse) people with jobs doing better with fruits shows release from proactive interference. bigger release because they are so different, where as meats, flowers, and vegetables are closer in similarity than jobs.

Change semantic category of items demo

surface structure (literal words and oder that you would see/hear) and Deep (kernel) Structure (meaning) we have rules in our mind that help us go from surface to deep and other animals don't have these. example of surface vs deep structure: surface is the black and white image, deep is the two different pictures (face and person playing saxophone). another example using language: the chicken is ready to eat. 1 sentence is the surface structure, 2 different meanings is the deep structure. pigeon could not do this, humans can example of 2 surface and 1 deep: the boy kissed the girl, the girl was kissed by the boy. we know they mean the same thing, pigeon wouldn't. Themes? cog processes are active, interrelated, both top down and bottom up processing

Chomsky's transformational grammar

could still play piano, has <30s memory. viral encephalitis, knows language, knew kids. had semantic information. cannot form new memories. had both amnesias.

Clive wearing

1. the number of intervening cities - when there more more intervening cities the distance is estimated to be greater than when there are no cities intervening. 2. category membership - people estimate things closer when they belong to the same category (said courthouse and jail and police station were closer than they were) also estimate cities closer if they are in the same country/state and farther away if there was a border in between. 3. whether their destination is a landmark - when going to a landmark it is estimated to be shorter, but when going from a landmark to another place it is estimated to be longer.

Cognitive maps sometimes correspond to reality, but sometimes they show systematic deviations. Discuss the factors that seem to produce systematic distortions when people estimate distance on mental maps. (Ch 7)

William James

Considered first US Psychologist Wrote principles of psychology used a descriptive approach instead of empirical considered a functionalist

used to test visual memory in a neuropsych setting. researcher points at blocks in a series, waits, then patient points at which ones were pointed at. used to test visuospatial sketchpad, specifically the inner scribe

Corsi Block test

1 phonological slip - sound being in wrong place 2. morphological slips - units that have meaning 3. lexical slips - whole words wrong

Dells classification theory in the book:

saw letters (nonsense), then had to count down by 3's, some for longer and some for shorter, some for none. within 3 seconds of interference, HALF of items are gone from STM. shows STM is very fragile and can be interfered with easily. After 12 seconds, 10% is left only. after 3 seconds, 50% is gone and after 12 seconds, about only 10% is left.

Demo 3: Brown peterson and peterson technique. about interference that prevents rehearsal: then how long is our STM duration?

hypothesis: Group 1 shown image for short amount of time (2s). use schemes to fill in missing details. more likely to draw complete objects. think we saw more than we actually did. group 2 shown image for longer, noticed picture was cut off. did not draw picture with full picture, drew it cut off. more accurate drawing. shows boundary extension. helps with distributed plus hub theory

Demo about the cat and teacup picture

read a story either thinking about a robber or a home buyer. we then wrote down details but remembered more details that were about our perspective. similar to the war of the ghosts study. helps with distributed plus hub theory

Demo showing that perspective while encoding a story will influence details remembered during free recall

semantic memory is an interconnected network of categories and concepts. Key terms: nodes, links, spreading activation, strength of connections, parallel distributed processing.

Describe network models

information is distributed or spread out across brain to certain parts, but there is also a "hub" in the anterior temporal lobe

Describe the distributed-plus-hub theory

stores specific examples (from episodic memory) of a category (not abstract)

Describe the exemplar model

needed to circle the same or different as quickly as possible, letters. when you are done with all 16, look at the board and write down your reaction time. difference between 0 + W = different features, but O and Q, only 1 different feature. with different features, activating very different neurons in V1 of the brain. They are easier to distinguish because there is very little overlapping activity in the brain that could cause confusion. BOTTOM UP PROCESSING

Describe the feature detector demo

depending on position of an item on a list, will influence how much you remember it. Stuff remembered in beginning of list made it to LTM from repeating it over and over. (primacy effect) stuff remembered in end of list still in STM and thats why you can remember these. (recency effect) BUT stuff in middle was not rehearsed, and not in STM because not enough room, so thats why you can't remember those.

Describe the serial position effect

illusory correlation- people are overconfident that two variables are related when in fact the relationship is weak or nonexistent. anchoring and adjustment- people are so confident that they supply narrow intervals for estimates.

Describe the variety of ways in which people tend to be overconfident in their decision making. think of relevant examples from your own experience. then point out methods for avoiding the planning fallacy when you face a deadline for a class assignment. (Ch 12)

research question: when categorizing an object, do we compare the object to an abstract prototype or an example from episodic memory ? training phase: given explicit rule about animal: builders have at least 2 of the following: long legs, angular body, spots. otherwise, categorize animal as a digger test phase: asked to categorize new animals. two types of tests: same context and animal belongs to same category as during training, same context but animal belongs to different category than during training. results showed that when the context and category were both the same, there was low error rate but when the context was the same but the category was different, the error rate was high. results also show that reaction time was higher when context was the same but category was different. shows when categorizing, participants were thinking back to specific example that they saw during training rather than abstract concept of builders/diggers. thats why context of the scene from a specific example influenced categorization. this is more conscious while priming is more unconscious. EX: medical diagnoses, different doctors may diagnose different diseases due to previous episodic events.

Evidence for exemplar model

people were shown pictures of something then asked a basic, general, and specific question. Basic - is this a dog? General - is this an animal? Specific - is this a lab? in people with no semantic dementia, all levels were pretty much the same in reaction time and amount correct. in individuals with moderate and severe SD, basic level no longer special and having a lot of trouble with subordinate level. helps with distributed plus hub theory

Evidence from people with Semantic Dementia for picture categorization

1. visual-image 2. auditory - song stuck in head, replaying conversation 3. olfactory - when i think of pool, smell chlorine 4. gustatory - taste 5. somatosensory - touch, imagine a bee sting, warm hands, etc.

Examples of mental imagery:

changed name from STM to WM in 1974. method similar to Brown peterson and peterson task. different from george miller because he only used the same senses, but baddeley used different senses. present series of numbers, up to 8 random numbers. follow with true false spatial reasoning task (A or B task). Numbers = sound, interference = visual. shows we can do both, suggesting separate storage areas for auditory and visual. visual did not interfere with auditory. WM with auditory = phonological loop. WM with visual = visual spatial sketchpad. Results showed: accuracy- low error rate on spatial reasoning task even when rehearsing up to 8 numbers. Reaction time- only .5 seconds longer when rehearsing 8 numbers compared to not rehearsing any numbers.

Explain Baddeleys working memory model

conditional statement: if a person is drinking beer, they eed to be of drinking age. 1. person drinking beer, need to check because you can affirm the antecedent so you need to see if you can affirm the consequent. 2. person drinking soda, dont need to check because you can deny the antecedent. 3. 22 year old, dont need to check because you can affirm the consequent. 4. 16 year old, need to check because you can deny the consequent so you need to see if you can deny the antecedent.

Explain deductive reasoning and conditional statements with the 21 and drinking example

conditional statement: if there is an A on one side of the card, then there is a 2 on the other. 1. A on one side, you can affirm the antecedent so you need to flip it to see if you can affirm the consequent. 2. D on one side, dont need to flip because you can deny the antecedent. 3. 3 on the one side, dont need to flip because you can only affirm the consequent. 4. 7 on the one side, need to flip because you can deny the consequent so you need to see if you can deny the antecedent.

Explain deductive reasoning and conditional statements with the cards example.

conditional statement: if that is a dog, then it is an animal. 1. if dog, then animal. if you can affirm the antecedent, you can also confirm the consequent. 2. if not a dog, no logical conclusion. if deny antecedent, no logical conclusion. 3. if animal, no logical conclusion. if only affirm the consequent, no logical conclusion 4.if not an animal, then not a dog. if deny consequent, can deny antecedent.

Explain deductive reasoning and conditional statemtents with the animal and dog example

had a set of blocks a, b, and c. showed them to participants and asked if they were the same set of blocks or different. found that the more degrees the set of blocks needed to be rotated, the longer it took the participant to give an answer. showed that the individual was mentally rotating the blocks like they would during perception, so it took longer. evidence for analog theory.

Explain first mental imagery study

alerting network: be conscious orienting network: moving eyes to each word of stroop (top-down) executive network: telling you to ignore word, just say the color

Explain how the attention networks work together during the stroop task

some people see connection between mood disorders and high creativity (van gough, beethoven, kurt cobain). Bipolar disorder and creativity study (2007). Two patient groups: bipolar and depression. Two control groups: creative (students at stanford in creative fields such as creative writing) and normal (stanford students not in creative fields). methods: Barron-Welsh art scale and TTCT. Results showed that the only one with significant results was the Barron-Welsh art scale. Showed that individuals with bipolar disorder and creative individuals scored high and normal and depression did not score well. but this was not a good test. shows the idea of someone with a disorder having high creativity is not a good conclusion. bipolar individuals on medications could change results. difficult to study psych disorders because people who can take the test are on medications and people who arent on medications probably cannot function enough to take the test.

Explain if there is a link between creativity and psych disorders

studied by gestaltists. say the whole is greater than the sum of its part (Ah-Hah phenomenon). can study by ambiguous image. once you see the second image you have an ah hah moment. twin/triplets demo was insight. bus driver problem was insight. Duckers candle problem. Cirlces and lines problem.

Explain insight problem solving

studied by behaviorists. "trial and error". rat doesnt know what to do to get treat, so he starts doing trail and error things. non insight problem, not an ah hah moment, but gradual learning over time. Tower of hanoi. Calculate mean of set of numnbers.

Explain non insight problem solving

saw ink blot for 1 second, had to see the first image, then had to rotate it to see the second animal. then we got to see the image left up. we were better at it perceptually not mentally and this shows perception and memory are not alike. evidence against analog.

Explain reinterpreting ambiguous images study

set of rules that if used correctly, always lead to a correct solution. Has to go through rules systematically, so takes a long time. Ex: trying to figure out credit card pin #: 0000,0001,0002,0003,0004,0005..... Ex: calulating mean: 1000,1001,1002,1003,1004 Calculating to find correct ansewr. Problems with this strategy: slow, labor intensive, better for computers because speed.

Explain the algorithm problem solving strategy

says imagery is a pictoral representation. mental imagery is like perceptionn, use a lot of the same brain areas during mental imagery as perception. when doing mental imagery, see the same thing as when you percieved.

Explain the analog theory of mental imagery

comparing makes 1 easier to solve. Ex: surgeon problem compared to war fortress problem. Ex: GRE, Ex: classical conditioning. Compare two problem isomorphs: surface features different but deep features the same.

Explain the analogy approach problem solving heuristic

base decision on ability to call examples to mind. Ex: stereotypes. Ex: is the likelihood of death higher from a shark attack or from an airplane part falling from the sky? airplane 30X higher, but we hear more about sharks so we have more examples. Ex: population of Iraq or Nepal bigger? want to say Iraq because we hear it more, but the answer is Nepal Ex: every time i wash my car it rains: illusory correlation-making a false correlation because we think it always happens, but just thinking about times it did happen and not about times it didnt happen. `

Explain the availability decision making heuristic

open shapes et closed by brain (illusory contours)

Explain the closure gestalt principle of organization

Paivio, 1986 (need to know name). shows 2 different routes, both visual and verbal stimuli go together. both analog and propositional theories combined.

Explain the compomise - dual-coding theory

told people to imagine one corner of a cube on a table and holding the diagonally opposite corner with your finger. by examining only your mental image, point to and count the corners not in contact with either the table or your finger. showed we use language (cube has 8 minus 2 equals 6). could not use only image. evidence shows we may use language during mental imagery. against analog theory.

Explain the cube on table mental imagery test

we assume things are continuing even though we can't see it all. Ex: giraffes neck, giraffes feet

Explain the good continuation gestalt principle of organization

short cuts that are quicker but dont always lead to the correct solution. Ex: trying to figure out credit card pin #: guess birthdays, favorite numbers, anniversary, 1234.... Ex: calucating mean: 1000,1001,1002,1003,1004.... Approximately 1002 Problems with this strategy: not always best or correct solution

Explain the heuristic problem solving strategy

choose short term solutions to get to nearest goal rather than alternative long term solutions that might be better. Ex: need to graduate vs need to graduate with good gpa. Does this hill lead to the best solution? Am i climbing the correct hill?

Explain the hill climbing problem solving heuristic

split large problem into sub problems (ends). reduce difference between current state and goal state of sub problems, can help us reach long term goals. unpacking the problem.

Explain the means-ends problem solving heuristic

participants were told to memorize a map. Then told to imagine a black spec moving from the hut to the well. then told to imagine a black spec moving from the hut to the beach. then told to image a black spec moving from the hut to the top of the island. just like it takes longer to physically look from the hut to the top of the island, it takes longer in our head, showing that perception and imagery are alike. evidence for analog theory. Problem: we can expect it to take us longer, so we might control our own results. cant really know whats happening in someones head.

Explain the mental scanning study

Zenon Pylyshyn. language-like representation. mental imagery NOT like perception. not directly accessing picture of pppy when we imagine it, but acccessing verbal information. we would think puppies are furry, have 4 legs, tail, 2 ears, etc. stored in LTM, NOT a picture. Says that: During encoding: visual info ---- language propositions----LTM During retriveal: LTM ---- language propositions ---- visual info he does not deny that we see the pictoral representation, he just says its indirect. pictoral representation is epiphenominal (feels like primary event but there is something behind it)

Explain the propositional code theory of mental imagery

we group things together into an object when they are close to each other. Ex: gras blades grouped together into grass as a whole

Explain the proximity gestalt principle of organization

base deciison on how well we think a sample represents the population from where it came from but sometimes wrong. Ex: roulette, ball landed on RRRRRRRRRR what do you pick next? black, think its not likely to be red again but WRONG. always 50% chance of each. Ex: couple has 5 boys, has to be a girl next time. but wrong. always 50% of each. Ex: lotto balls - choose 5 #s. would never pick 12345, never pick 2468, but would pick 11 43 27 77 3 BUT each has the same exact chance

Explain the representative decision making heuristic

the figure covers up the ground, so the one that is the figure usually has more detail. brain uses this information to know which is the figure.

Explain the separate figure from ground gestalt principle of organization

we group things together that are alike Ex: giraffes, bushes, grass

Explain the similarity gestalt principle of organization

fixing a car- not going through every single part, just looking for symptoms and guessing. perfect chocolate chip cookies. need a well defined goal state with narrow range of options

Explain the trial and error problem solving heuristic

split into 2 parts: 1. visual cache: form/what 2. inner scribe: spatial/where if two tasks in visual cache, there is interference. if two tasks in inner scribe, there is interference. if there is one in each, no interference

Explain the visuospatial sketchpad

find job you want, then see what degree you need, then see what program you need to be in, then decide your major. Lake filled with moss doubling every day, on 90th day it is full, what day was it half full? 89th, had to work backwards.

Explain the working backwards problem solving heuristic

this was a thought experiment, not really empirical evidence. told people to imagine two beams of light, yellow and blue, moving closer together and finally overlapping and to imagine what color would be in the middle once they overlapped. most people say green because of pigments would make green, but light would make white. so evidence against analog, because we are accessing language information (yellow + blue = green), not a mental picture.

Explain the yellow and blue lights study for mental imagery

Misinformation effect. participants were shown cards of a car either running a stop sign or a yield sign and then hitting a pedestrian. then asked 20 questions to mimic police questioning. either given a question asking "did another car pass the car while it was stopped at the stop sign?", "did another car pass the car while it was stopped at the yield sign?", or "did another car pass the car while it was stopped?". if they saw a yield sign and ask about stop sign, given misinformation. will their memory change? if the information was consistent, their answer was consistent. if the information was opposite, they showed the misinformation effect and their answers were not consistent. showed retroactive interference (new information interfering with old information). after 20 minutes, people with inconsistent information only 40% gave the correct answer. they switched their answer. then steadily declined and after 1 week only about 20% of participants gave the right answer. People with neutral question after 20 minutes only 60% gave right answer. after 2 days 50% gave right answer, they are simply guessing. participants with consistent information after 20 minutes still only 70% of participants gave right answer.

Eyewitness memories

1. negatives (demo A is below B, A is not below B, A is above B, A is not above B. when had below, people took a little longer to answer. when people had a negative (not), they took about an extra second. shows theme 3: positive info processed better than negative info) 2. passive voice (active is more accurate and faster comprehension than passive. active: boy walked the dog, passive: dog walked by boy) 3. nested structure (sentences that are long and have many clauses are more difficult to understand 4. ambiguity (demo: punch too warm to drink vs cider. volume good to read vs series. ambiguous longer reaction time, normally used saccade data (fixation time and regressions)

Factors that influence comprehension

1. levels of processing 2. encoding specificity 3. positivity bias 4. mood congruency

Factors that influence long term memory

Wilhelm Wundt

Father of experimental psychology First Psychology lab Used introspection Structuralist

Ex: calculator for 30$ or for 15 min drive 15$ (68%) calculator for 130$ or for 15 min drive 115$ (29%) different answers, so shows its NOT expected Utility, but subjective utility.

Framing effect from Kahneman and Tversky

unconscious coming out, game show hosts ID was coming out because he was sexually attracted to her

Freud's explanation of parapraxes?

1. learning phase: participants were presented a pitch with an assigned number, participants had a "learning phase" to learn which pitch was assigned which number. 2. encoding phase: presented certain number of pitches. had to remember it in STM. wait. 3. Test phase: say numbers of pitches they remember. on average, 6 were remembered.

Generally, how did short term memory studies work?

behavioral approach could use stroop, cog neuro could use stroop while using an fMRI, neuropsych could see if there was certain brain damage, computational could model computers to show same deficit and see if they can help.

Give an example of how you could use several different approaches to study an issue using ADHD

probably combination of all 3

How are categories and concepts stored in the mind? Is it feature comparison model, prototype approach, or exemplar approach?

1. object recognition (recognizing letters) 2. attention (executive) 3. WM (PL, VSSP) 4. LTM (meaning of language) 5. Metacognition 6. memory strategies 7. semantic memory Theme? 4-cog processes are interrelated

How do other processes contribute to language?

Gestalt principles of organization. BOTTOM UP PROCESSING

How do we recognize objects?

5: says cog processes rely on bottom up and top down. imagery is mostly top down processes 4: says cog process are interrelated. imagery relies on language, LTM, WM, attention, sensation and perception.

How is mental imagery related to themes 5 and 4?

30 seconds if no rehearsal and no interference, but this is not likely. what is likely is rehearsal and interference. if no interference and rehearsal, we could remember it forever.

How long is STM duration?

6,500 - 7,000

How many languages exist in the world?

people often have less creativity when they are using extrinsic motivation, or the motivation to work on a task because you were promised a reward, not because it is enjoyable. people are more creative when they are doing a task they enjoy for intrinsic motivation. self efficacy was also correlated with high creativity. perseverance was not correlated with creativity.

Imagine that you are supervising ten employees in a small company. Describe how you might use the material in this chapter to encourage more effective problem solving and greater capacity. Then describe the activities you would want to avoid because they might hinder problem solving creativity. (Ch 11)

when participant judged pitch only: 6 capacity when participant judged loudness only: 5 capacity when participant judged pitch and loudness they thought the capacity should change to 11. BUT no, capacity was still 5 - 6. SAME SENSE = AUDITORY when participant judged salt only: 4 capacity when participant judged sugar only: 5 capacity. when participant judged salt and sugar they thought the capacity should change to 9. BUT no, capacity between 4 and 5. SAME SENSE = TASTE

Important judgements with 2 dimensions:

whole words wrong. two types: 1. phonologically mediated - words that sound the same. Ex: pretty nipples instead of dimples. what are you incinerating? 2. semantically mediated - words that meanings are related. Ex: Ron...Lou....Billy! get over here! My tummach hurts (two words mixed that are related) He rode his bike tomorrow (tomorrow and yesterday are semantically related, so mistake)

Lexical slips

1. lesions rarely only in one part of the brain 2. brain compensates through plasticity, so hard to see damages

Limitations of neuropsychology approach

1. real world doesn't look like geons 2. face recognition - a lot of people have same face features, aka same geons but we can still tell the differences apart

Limitations of recognition by components theory?

1. the cognitive processes are active rather than passive: the behaviorists viewed humans as passive organisms who wait until a stimulus arrives from the environment before they react. in contrast, the cognitive approach says that people seek out information. Your mind is not a sponge that passively absorbs information leaking out from the environment. instead, you continually search and synthesize. Example 1: perceptual processing: we go through reception of a sense, then go through transduction, then coding in order for information to reach the brain. Very active (Ch 2) Example 2: Working Memory rather than short term memory. george miller thought short term memory was passive rather than active. baddely found that we can do things with working memory and can manipulate information in our mind, making it working memory and an active process (Ch 4) Example 3: Long term memory, levels of processing. Getting to a deep level of processing leads to a better memory than shallow processing. 3 ways to get to a deep level of processing are: elaboration, self-reference, distinctiveness. mind being active and manipulating information to have a better long term memory (Ch 5) 2. the cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate: for instance, preschoolers can master thousands of new words and in addition know the complex structure of language. processes are mostly accurate and very quick and efficient. Example 1: General knowledge. using assimilation for new objects and putting them into categories for the most part is accurate and efficient rather than not knowing what everything is (Ch 8) Example 2: creating common ground in language production leads to efficiency and accuracy, even though we do not have to keep explaining pictures in the demo, we created a common ground. (Ch 10) Example 3: recognizing objects, need to use the gestalt principles of organization: separate figure from ground, proximity, similarity, good continuance, and closure. Do this quickly and it is accurate. (Ch 2) 3. the cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information: : we understand sentences better if they are worded in the affirmative (Mary is honest, not Mary is not dishonest). in short, our cognitive processes are designed to handle what is rather than what isn't. Example 1: Factors that influence comprehension, demo showing A is below B, A is not below B showed that we handle the positive information better than negative. took shorter to answer above and no nots (Ch 9) Example 2: positivity bias influencing LTM - fits that we tend to process positive things better. remember positive words better than negative words and neutral words (Ch 5). Example 3: emotional stroop demo showed that social rejection words took longer to say color of the word than social acceptance words. (Ch 3) 4. the cognitive processes are interrelated with one another; they do not operate in isolation. we usually discuss each cognitive process in one or more separate chapters, however this does not imply that every process can function by itself. all higher mental processes require careful integration of our more basic cognitive processes. Example 1: cognitive processes contribute to language (object recognition, attention, WM, LTM, Metacognition, memory strategies, semantic memory) (Ch 9) Example 2: Working memory needs attention, perception of visual and auditory information, and memory) (Ch 4) Example 3: General knowledge needs perception, attention, working memory, long term memory, object recognition, semantic memory) 5. many cognitive processes rely on both bottom-up and top-down processing: Both bottom up and town down processing work simultaneously to ensure that our cognitive process are typically fast and accurate. Example 1: transformational grammar - surface structure vs deep structure. surface structure is bottom up and deep structure is top down (Ch 9) Example 2: Object recognition, top down is your experience and then knowing what it is, bottom up is seeing the components and then knowing what it is. (Ch 2). Example 3: General knowledge: top down, knowing what something is because it compares to a past experience (exemplar) bottom up, feature comparison. (Ch 8)

List the 5 themes cognitive psychology. Explain each one and have 3 examples for each theme.

family resemblance

Ludwig Wittgenstein used example of games. said if you pick only two, they have to have one thing in common. prototype has most things in common with other games

Top is direct access hypothesis I---------------------I Printed letters Meaning I------Sound--------I Bottom is indirect access hypothesis

Model of Reading

participant shown grid with 3 faces - different faces and places each time. participant asked to remember either faces or locations. Faces = visual cache and places = inner scribe. did this in a fmri. shown that it doesn't interfere because different parts of the brain control each. the inner scribe = dorsal stream. visual cache = ventral stream.

Neurological evidence for the visuospatial sketchpad

Patient C.K. had damage on both parts of brain, perception and imagery. showed a picture of a rhino and he said it was a dino. showed a picture of a beaver and said it was a hamster. showed a picture of a tennis racket and said it was a fencers mask. only got 30% of images correct, showed his perception was not good. but then he was given directions to imagine a 3, rotate it, add a triangle under it, take out the middle line, what do you have? and he knew it was a heart. but when he just saw the heart shape he did not know what it was. also was shown sentences, when asked to understand the written language he could not. but when copying the sentences he got 80% right. Showed image of England but he didn't know what it was. but when asked to draw England he could draw a pretty much perfect image. When shown image of guitar he did not know what it was, but when asked to draw a guitar he could draw a very good guitar. Showed that his perception was weak but imagery was near perfect. Evidence against analog because his imagery and perception were not alike, they follow different rules and have different behaviors.

Neuropsychology evidence for mental imagery

had surgery in 1953, studied from 1975 until his death. hit by bike when kid, hit head. developed lots of seizures. surgery removed both hippo campuses (medial temporal lobes) surgeons contacted Drs Penfield and Milner. Penciled and Milner noticed similar problem in 2 of their patients. milner thought memory loss was directly linked to hippo campuses; others took a freudian approach (he suppressed memories) Had both retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Neuropsychology research: H.M.

if analog theory is true, there should be overlapping brain areas when comparing perception and imagery. in FMRI showed that about 2/3 of same brain areas are active in both. neuroscience techniques avoid demand characteristics because people cant control their brain activity.

Neuroscience evidence:visual for mental imagery

because knowing if your confidence is increasing or not will let you know if you need insight or not. if you don't need insight, your confidence will build gradually where if you do need insight you will experience sudden leap in confidence when you are close to a correct solution.

On two occasions, this chapter discussed meta-cognition. discuss these two topics, and point out how meta-cognition measures can help us determine which problems require insight and which do not. (Ch 11)

1. loudness: 5 remembered on average. 2. saltiness: 4 remembered 3. points on a line: 10 remembered.

Other types of short term memory studies

Paul Broca (Tan - got syphillis and had damage to the brain, had brocas aphasia. could only say tan) Brenda Miller (H.M. had hippocampus taken out, could not form new memories - led to knowledge of what hippocampus did = forming new memories) Clive wearing - had viral encephalitis, hippo campuses were damaged, could not form new memories, got excited every time he saw his wife

People in neuropsychology

1. too much information to store 2. better for category with few members (tropical fruit) compared to many members (fruit uses more prototype approach)

Problem with exemplar model:

model does not account for how we might see objects depending on whats around it. influence of context not included in model (ex: grapes vs wine next to bowl or cup) the model suggests we store abstract concepts rather than specifics. how do we study something abstract?

Problem with prototype model

sounds (phonology and phonetics), words (morphology), combining words (syntax), combining sentences (discourse)

Psycholinguistics: levels of analysis

3 different strategies assigned: 1. say words in mind repeatedly 2. alternate between image of each word 3. imagine pictures of words interacting why does 3rd work best? deep processing

Rehearsal strategies demo

1. BF Skinner "verbal behavior" - focused on observable behaviors, focused on learned behaviors (nurture), pigeon reading for food. 2. Noam Chomsky citrique - says mind contains rules for language, universal language is innate, says brain is prewired to develop language, so it is not a blank slate.

Selective History of Psycholinguistics:

Read/Hear/Think of Problem ---- encode problem --- search for strategies ---- execute strategy --- compare current state with goal state. If there is a mismatch between goal and current, you either go back to encode or search. then go through steps again. If there is a match between goal and current then you are done. Information processing model .

Simon and Newell model of problem solving

They both go off oxygen, which is carried by blood. Active neurons use oxygen, blood carries oxygen to the neurons. measure which areas have more blood, assume more oxygen is being used, assume brain area is active, AKA neurons are firing. indirect measure of neural activity, not measuring electrical activity but blood.

Talk about how PET and fMRI indirectly measure neural activity (ESSAY QUESTION)

knowledge base- need the appropriate schemas in order to understand a topic properly memory- only differ in respect to memory related to their expertise. memory skills of experts tend to be very specific. specifically only to their expertise schema. problem solving strategies- more likely to use means ends heuristic effectively. they divide a problem into subproblems, which they solve in a specified order. they are also more likely to approach a problem systematically. speed and accuracy- experts are much faster than novices. their operations become more automatic. metacognitive skills- experts are better at monitoring their problem solving. better at judging the difficulty of a problem and they are more skilled at allocating their time appropriately when solving problems. however, experts underestimate how long it will take a novice to solve a problem in the experts area of specialization.

Think of someone you know well, who is an expert in a particular area. Explain the cognitive areas in which he or she may have an advantage over a novice. When discussion this area of expertise, does this person fail to recognize that other people might not understand this discussion? (Ch 11)

1. Chinese 2. spanish 3. english

Top 3 native languages

half of class had riddle, had to rate hotness and give answer. other half of class had long division problem. results showed that non-insight problem had gradual increasing of hotness while insight problem had sudden jump from 2 to 10.

Twins/Triplets Demo of problem solving

shown grid with some blocks filled in, then taken away. had to fill in a black one with the same pattern. used to test visuospatial sketchpad, specifically the

Visual pattern test

perception, attention, working memory, long term memory, memory strategies, general knowledge, language comprehension, language production, mental imagery, problem solving, decision making

What are low level ------ high level mental processes?

overactive top down processing a. stick to mental set - we can get stuck in a way of thinking, treating 2nd math problem like the first one, leading to not being able to solve the problem. overuse of top down (past experiences) b. functional fixedness - duckers candle problem, we can only see box as having 1 fixed function: holding tacks. can only see something as having one set function. c. imposing non-existent constraints - we think there are rules we have to follow but there arents, we put them on ourselves. dot problem: can go beyond boundaries but we assume we cant.

What are some difficulties we face when we use heuristics

1. remote associations test - convergent task (1 answer). hear, dead, up __________. corn, up, music _____________. (RAT) the more remote the elements, the more creative the processes. Dr. Mednick says creative thinking is "forming of new combinations that are in someway useful" 2. Barron-Welsh Art Scale - convergent task (1 answer). Shown 8 pictures, half simple half complex. creative individuals tend to prefer the more complex images and dislike the simple images. problem is that people can see through this task and know which ones to pick. 3. Alternative Uses Task - Guilford (need to know name). Divergent task (list many responses). name as many uses of a shoe...iron....brick. measures 4 things: a. fluency: can get a lot of answers b. originality: responses that not a lot of other people said, unique, novel c. flexibility: types of uses, different uses, (throw, build, paperweight, stand on, etc.) d. elaboration: how much detail someone has "moms dog uses it as a chew toy" vs "chew toy" 4. Torrance Test of Creative Thinking - divergent production task. two different types: a. figural TTCT: shown picture and ask how to complete it. b. verbal TTCT: what would happen if gravity didnt exist?

What are the 4 cognitive tasks that measure creativity?

1. behavioral approach: looking for behavioral evidence for typical human cognition. measures accuracy and reaction time. occurs in labs or real world settings. Pros: high ecological validity. Limitations: trade off of internal vs external validity, reaction time and accuracy indirectly measures internal processes, theories tend to be studied separately, but in reality they are all interrelated. Example 1: stroop task. emotional stroop task tested if words related to social rejection would be easier to get right than words related to social acceptance. the task tested reaction time and accuracy, so it is the behavioral approach. Example 2: short term memory duration research. saw nonsense letters and then had to count down by 3s, some for longer and some for shorter and some for none. with 3 seconds of interference, half of items are gone from STM. shows stm is ery fragile and can be interfered with easily. since we reacted accuracy and time it is behavioral approach. Example 3: common ground demo. assigned partner, one person describes order of 4 pictures and other puts pictures in order. got quicker because we developed language only us two would understand, common ground. measured accuracy and time so behavioral approach. 2. cognitive neuroscience approach: looks at brain activity during normal, typical cognition. 3 techniques: EEG, PET, FMRI. looks at spatial and temporal aspects of brain activity. Pros: high internal validity, shows exactly what brain area and when process is happening. limitations: low ecological validity, not like everyday life, media misinterpretation. Example 1: partcipants were in an fmri and were shown a gird with 3 faces, different faces and places. participant was asked to remember either faces or locations. they could remmember both and the information didnt interfere with eachother because they are in different parts of the brain. faces were in the visual cache and where they were was in the inner scribe. saw in the fmri that inner scribe was in the dorsal stream and the visual cache was in the ventral stream. Example 2: 3. neuropsychology approach: patterns of cognitive performance in patients with brain lesions. seek double dissociations- people with opposite cognitive disabilities. 1 person cannot speak but can comprehend, 1 person cannot understand but can speak. see if cognition has been diminished by brain damage. Pros: can show specific part of brain is linked to specific task that individual is having trouble doing. ALSO can resolve theoretical controversies. Limitations: lesions rarely only in one part of the brain, brain compensates through plasticity, so hard to see damages. Example 1: HM: star mirror tracing task. HM could not remember milner anytime he came to see her but he got better at the tracing task. showed he did not have episodic memory but had procedural memory. so he could form implicit but not explicit, can form procedural. showed that hippocampus helped with forming explicit memories. Example 2: individuals with semantic dementia were shown pictures of something then asked a basic, general, and specific question. had trouble with basic and specific questions.. showed they had trouble with the subordinate level, they could not retrieve the distinctive features of objects, showing that the anterior temporal lobe is responsible for reaching out to other brain places to find defining features of objects. Example 3: Clive Wearing had viral encephalitis and had both amnesias. could not form new memories, but had semantic information. he knew language, knew his kids but has less than 30s of memory. could still play piano. 4. computational modeling approach: program computers to mimic human cognition. different from pure artificial intelligence. Pros: high internal validity. limitations: low ecological validity, brains not like computers.

What are the 4 current approaches to cognitive psychology?

1. separate figure from ground 2. proximity 3. similarity 4. good continuation 5. closure

What are the 5 gestalt principles of organization?

1. representative 2. availability 3. anchoring and adjustment

What are the decision making heuristics?

1. simultagnosia 2. optic ataxia 3. prosopagnosia 4. visual object agnosia

What are the high level visual processing disorders?

experts use subordinate level more quickly than novices

What are the individual differences in prototype model?

1. trade off internal vs external validity 2. reaction time and accuracy indirectly measure internal processes - may not measure attention well, may be measuring other things 3. theories tend to be studied separately, but in reality they are all interrelated to each other BUT provides empirical and theoretical basis for other approaches

What are the limitations of the behavioral approach?

Low ecological validity, not like everyday life. media misinterpretation BUT can resolve theoretical controversies

What are the limitations to cognitive neuroscience?

1. whether it is unitary or non unitary 2. how working memory is controlled 3. how working memory is related to long term memory 4. biological basis

What are the things that a good working memory model needs?

1. alerting 2. orienting 3. executive

What are the three main attention networks in the brain?

1. they are supplied as examples of categories Demo: name a bird, name an ice cream, name a pizza topping, name a beer 2. have the greatest family resemblance to others - Ludwig Wittgenstein used example of games. said if you pick only 2, they have to have 1 thing in common. prototype has most things in common with others 3. they are more easily primed than non-prototypes when told to think of red and we see normal red, we respond very fast. when told to think of green and then showed a yellow-green, we respond slower. because red was like the prototype we imagined, green was not

What are the three reasons prototypes are special?

1. EEG 2. PET 3. FMRI These techniques look at spatial and temporal aspects of brain activity

What are the three techniques of the cognitive neuroscience approach? What do they do?

1. expected utility- humans are logical, thoughtful decision makers. rationally make decisions based on rules of probability. WRONG. 2. subjective utility: Kahneman and Tversky (need to know names) - humans use heuristics in decision making, rather than rules of probability. RIGHT.

What are the two decision making models?

Algorithm and Heuristic

What are the two main problem solving strategies?

non declarative (implicit) and declarative (explicit)

What are the two main types of LTM?

1. deductive 2. inductive 3. abductive

What are the types of logical reasoning?

Chunking. shows interaction between LTM and STM. takes advantage of things in LTM. Ex: grocery list: need dairy, breakfast foods, lunch foods.

What can increase STM capacity?

study of mental processes, from low level mental processes to high level mental processes

What do we study in cognitive psychology?

Information then reaches the brain, different information is sent to different parts of the brain

What happens after reception, transduction, and coding during perceptual processing?

90 degree angle heuristic makes us estimate street intersections to be 90 degrees because most urban areas have intersections that are 90 degrees so we use top down processing and use the heuristic to estimate most intersections to be 90 degrees. symmetry heuristic makes us remember figures as being more symmetrical and regular than they really are.

What heuristics cause systematic distortions in geographic shape and in relative position represented on cognitive maps? How are these related to two concepts we discussed in earlier chapters, namely top-down processing and schemas? (Ch 7)

awake, conscious, ready to take information in. low level of attention. In the thalamus, all sensory information goes to the thalamus first, then thalamus sends it to other areas. thalamus is the relay station

What is alerting attention networks function?

taking in sensory information to the brain and trying to understand what it is. includes visual processing, visual object recognition

What is bottom up perceptual processing?

fact (semantic) and event (episodic memories) both of these are in the medial temporal lobe (part of the brain that helps us store explicit LTM memories. AKA hippocampus)

What is declarative memories broken down into?

decides what to focus on and what to ignore. Ex: reading and thinking about dinner, your eyes are still moving but you are thinking about dinner, and then your brain tells you that you need to keep reading. In prefrontal cortex: I'm going to attend to this and ignore that. doesn't require the where of an object like the orienting. can attend to certain parts of 1 thing.

What is executive attention networks function?

1. simple classical conditioning 2. priming 3. procedural skills and habits 4. non associative

What is non declarative (implicit) memories broken down into?

shifting attention to a location, where. in superior parietal lobe: Top down, "I can decide where to put my attention" in superior colliculus: Bottom up, Something grabbing our attending in environment, you are not deciding to look at it.

What is orienting attention networks function?

language is split into comprehension and production. comprehension is split into read and hear and production is broken down into speak and write

What is the breakdown of language?

Remember defining features (ex: hump on camel). not started here, but hub reaches out to other places to find those defining features

What is the function of the anterior temporal lobe (hub)?

1. prefrontal cortex needed when judging superordinate level vs basic level 2. parietal lobe needed when judging subordinate level vs basic level (helps to direct attention to other places in order to look at details) Since its not just the basic level, extra brain areas are needed

What is the neuro evidence for the categories in the vertical structure of the prototype model?

1. Brocas area in the frontal lobe, important for outward speech and rehearsal of speech in the mind. production of speech both out lout and in the mind. 2. posterior speech cortex including the wernickes area. where temporal, parietal, and occipital lobe meet. important for comprehension, but when people use the PL this area is active as well.

What is the neurological evidence for the Phonological loops?

Reception -- transduction -- coding

What is the order of perceptual processing?

What i already believe and know can influence what i see in the world

What is top down processing?

in the 1960s: disenchantment with behaviorism military advancements

What other historical events influenced the emergence of the cognitive revolution?

cog processes are active. every step trying to figure things out. top down and bottom up. top down = searching for strategies. bottom up = encoding. interrelated. attention, WM, perception, imagery.

What themes does the model of problem solving match?

Most supported: interrelated, active rather than passive, Least supported: efficient and accurate Evidence against: efficient and accurate: many cognitive mistakes were talked about. For example, assimilation mistakes and need to use accommodation to fix them (Ch 8), paropraxes (Ch 10), flashbulb memories (Ch 5), Eyewitness memories (Ch 5), overactive top down processing: mcGurk effect (Ch 2), inattentional blindness (Ch 2), word superiority effect (Ch 2)

What themes were most supported in the course and which themes were least supported? Evidence against themes?

mirror tracing task, could not remember Milner any time she came to see him, but got better at task. Showed episodic memories he does not have (bc no hippocampus) BUT had procedural memory (bc still has striatum, basal ganglia, and cerebellum) H.M CAN form implicit, NOT explicit. CAN form procedural, NOT episodic

What was Milners landmark study on HM?

completely in someones mind, difficult to know what is happening in someones mind. covert-completely hidden

Why is it difficult to study mental imagery?

1. overlap 2. vary in shape, color, size 3. vary in viewing angle

Why is object recognition a difficult task?

conjunction fallacy

a decision making error that occurs when people judge the probability of the conjunction of two events to be greater than the probability of either constituent event.

representativeness heuristic

a general rule in decision making that people use when trying to decide which outcome would be more likely. people who use this heuristic make judgement in term of the similarity between the sample and the population from which the sample was selected. for instance, people believe that a coin toss of HTTHTH is more likely than a coin toss of HHHTTT

attention

a way of focusing mental energy on important information

prototype

abstract idea about a most typical and representative item in a category. Elephant example

perceptual processing

acquisition and processing of sensory information by the brain.

uniformity

across humans, brains are generally the same

Atkinson Shiffrin Model

an information processing model about memory: 1. sensory memory -- 2. STM -- 3. LTM Says it is step by step. Where is attention? between sensory memory and Short term memory. only important information moves onto STM, rest is ignored.

working memory

anything you are currently thinking about and doing in your head. not just memory. Includes though processes as well. George Miller

declarative (explicit) memories

are able to consciously recall the information

decision making

assess and choose among several alternatives

morpheme

basic unit of meaning. ex: giraffes has 2: giraffe and S

John Watson

behaviorism looks at outward behavior rather than inner workings of the mind no interest in mental processes focused on nature not nurture tabula rasa - "blank slate"

Anne Treisman

came up with the feature integration theory (says we need attention in order to bind features together). if attention is focused, we can bind but if attention is distributed we cannot

visual object agnosia

can't recognize objects, can see it but cannot recognize an object as that object. CAN recognize faces.

optic ataxia

can't see their movement towards things, cannot reach out and grab something. can understand where things are in space but cannot move in order to get it

non declarative (implicit) memories

cannot consciously recall, unconscious habits

controls switching attention between VSSP and PL (note taking: using visuospatial sketchpad to see PPT, but using PL to hear what professor is saying), planning goals, and inhibiting (not paying attention to someone talking because they are boring but paying attention to the song)

central executive in baddeleys WM model

we have nodes for all of the levels of psycholinguistics (phonology, phonetics, morphology, syntax, discourse), so nodes are activating at the same time and we can get slops, if one is activating too son or not at all.

cognitive explanation of parapraxes?

discourse

combine sentences to create story or conversation. rules.

1. PDP models not enough like the brain (1,000 nodes vs billions of neurons) BUT still provide useful framework for understanding/simulating the human mind ex:siri

computational modeling limitations

If that is a dog, then it is an animal. If then part, beginning: antecedent Then part, end: consequent.

conditional statement in deductive reasoning

achromatopsia

damage of V4 - not able to process color. see shades of grey.

direct access hypothesis

depending on characteristics, its possible to just see letters, not say sound, and access meaning. Ex: deaf people. Ex: the, and, because, said, though. so common or difficult to sound them out, so use direct access.

dual access hypothesis

depends on characteristics of material (common or not) and characteristics of reader (new vs experienced)

memory is best when encoding and retrieval match. 1. direction of attention during encoding - if attending to vowels and then tested for vowels, will show better retrieval than if attending to usefulness on deserted island. 2. mental state - bilinguals encode story in spanish, better memory if recall in spanish rather than english. alcohol during encoding and retrieval, caffeine during encoding and retrieval, time of day.

describe encoding specificity and how it influences long term memory

deep processing of information tends to lead to better memory than shallow processing. demo: counting vowels vs rating importance on deserted island. island = deep processing, vowels = shallow processing. 3 ways to get to a deep level of processing: elaboration, self-reference, distinctiveness

describe levels of processing and how it influences long term memory

better memory for material that matches your current mood. if content at encoding and at retrieval = remember positive words better, if negative mood at encoding and at retrieval = remember negative words better, if opposite mood during encoding and retrieval = worse memory

describe mood congruency and how it influences long term memory

fits the theme 3, that we tend to process positive things better than negative. if content at encoding and at retrieval = remember positive words better, if negative mood at encoding and at retrieval = remember negative words better, if opposite mood during encoding and retrieval = worse memory

describe positive bias and how it influences long term memory

perhaps we store lists of features of categories in semantic memory. when we want to categorize a new object, we compare the features of the object to the features stored in semantic memory. for example: Char: 4 legs, area to sit, back, arms, meant for 1 person. see chairs and compared them to that list in our head to decide if it is a chair or not. Problem with feature comparison model: category is clear, but concept is difficult to define as a list of features

describe the feature comparison model

snow white and the seven dwarves, had to write them all down. more than 80% remembered sleepy, sleepy, dopey, grumpy, and sneezy were usually remembered first and more often due to spreading activation of sounds, syllable, negative, etc. all end in y and have an ey sound at the end, all negative feelings, 2 syllables. mistakes would have the same characteristics incorrect guesses: tend to be negative, 65% of guesses started with the correct letter (B, D, G, H, S) 74% of incorrect guesses ended with y. word length equal to correct names (about 5 letters)

describe the network model demo

model has survived over the years, it is considered a classic. instead of storing a list of features, we store prototypes of a category.

describe the prototype model

3. superordinate-level category (furniture) 2. basic-level category (chair) 1. subordinate-level category (desk chair, brand)

describe the vertical structure of the prototype model

descriptive approach

describes psychological phenomena, what they observe and what processes look like

modules

different parts of the brain are going to process different sounds: voices, music, etc. and different vision: motion, color, form, etc.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

electrical activity in neuron is action potential, cognitive neuroscientists use ERPs (event related potentials) so they can see electrical activity related to a specific event, not random. has good temporal but not good spatial. includes putting bunch of wires on the head and it tells you exactly when the activity happens, but there is only about 50 wires and millions of neurons so it can't really tell you the exact place of the activity.

availability heuristic

estimating frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something

read 1st word silently, say 2nd word out loud: said braid tough dough love move did not make mistakes because using direct access. not sounding out. getting meaning then realizing how its said

evidence for direct access hypothesis

see two words, asked if they are semantically related or not: sand beach or sand beech sky blue or sky blew made mistakes because they sounded it out

evidence for indirect access hypothesis

observe an outcome and infer the probable exploration. Ex: Bob failed the exam.....because....he must not have studied. Ex: MoAs in manuscript

explain abductive logical reasoning

top down processing is overactive based on past experiences, so don't notice bottom up changes (changes in movie scene). 3 groups: no instructions, attend to visual, attend to auditory

explain change blindness

can make guaranteed conclusions based on assumptions. as long as assumptions are true, conclusion is guaranteed to be true. Example: all dogs are animals. if that is a dog then.... it is an animal. Example relating to manuscript: all results <.05 are significant.....if this stat is less than .05 then.....this result is significant.

explain deductive logical reasoning

not noticing a new object in your vision. video of white team vs black team passing ball and bear moonwalking through

explain inattention blindness

can make probable conclusion based on observations. Ex: teenagers are given many speeding tickets......therefore.....all teenagers speed. (stereotypes) Example relating to manuscript: take observations on sample....generalize to whole population

explain inductive logical reasoning

by Irving Biederman. we recognize shapes by component. says there are 33 geons that make up the "alphabet" of objects. interested in 3D object recognition. Evidence for importance of geons using single cell recording. Put electrode into single neuron in a monkey brain (in the interior temporal lobe). neuron was not active when picture was not there of geon, neuron was active when geon was shown, then when geon picture was gone the neuron was not active anymore. showed that neuron responds to certain neuron. BOTTOM UP PROCESSING

explain recognition by components

base decision on anchor (single start value) and adjustment from that value and adjustment is usually not enough. Ex: when was George Washington elected president? anchor: 1776 because of constitution. adjustment: about 5 years so 1781. actual answer is 1788. Ex: freezing point of vodka? anchor: 32, adjustment: 10 so 22, actual: -20 Ex: what is the gestation period of an elephant? anchor: 9m, adjustment: 5 so 14m, actual: 22m

explain the anchoring and adjustment decision making heuristic

the ___ raised bea__s to supplement his income. (farmer or lion tamer) (R or N). bottom up processing has a strong effect(second blank). when letter is ambiguous you see top down processing, when not ambiguous it is bottom up.

explain the beans/bears presentation

assigned partner, turn desks to face each other, one person described order of 4 pictures using only words and no gestures. other person put pictures in order based on words only and no gestures. got quicker through the 3rd trial because we gave pictures names that only you and your partner would understand, therefore developing common ground. other examples from life (inside jokes), work (terminology, low on kids, ratios) school (ANOVA, IV, DV) etc.

explain the common ground demo

Da, Ba, or Ga. shows past experiences influencing what you see or hear

explain the mcgurk effect

letters in words are easier to perceive than random letters. PDP model: real words activate more layers than non words, extra activity in brain helps. When random letters, you only have bottom up (only lines) BUT when you see a real word, you have top down processing to help you. TOP DOWN PROCESSING

explain word superiority effect

prosopagnosia

face blindness, know its a face but cannot recognize it. can see features, but can't process the tiny details needed to recognize.

general knowledge

facts about the world. Jeopardy facts. explicit, semantic information.

boundary extension

filling in areas of our memory that were cut off (ex: couldn't see part of stage during concert, our memory will probably fill that in later)

if something very emotional happens, we remember it very vividly, almost like a picture or video recording. Study JFK assassination, challenger explosion, 9/11.

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