Cognition Exam 2
availability heuristic--be able to give some examples.
"There are situations in which people assess the frequency of a class or the probability of an event by the ease with which instances or occurrences can be brought to mind. For example, one may assess the risk of heart attack among middle-aged people by recalling such occurrences among one's acquaintances. Similarly, one may evaluate the probability that a given business venture will fail by imagining various difficulties it could encounter. This judgmental heuristic is called availability. Availability is a useful clue for assessing frequency or probability, because instances of large classes are usually reached better and faster than instances of less frequent classes. However, availability is affected by factors other than frequency and probability. Consequently, the reliance on availability leads predictable biases,[...]" Experimental tasks are things like: Consider the letter R. Is R more likely to appear in The first position? The third position? 2/3 of subjects say 'first' despite being native English speakers.
types of mnemonic devices - acronyms (ex. OCEAN)
- chunking (categorizing by item/concept) - the method of loci - use occasionally for few items - pair familiar with unfamiliar - analogy: turn grocery buying into a story of you walking through your home Memory Tricks -Increase number of learning sessions -Mnemonic devices => acronyms => chunking => method of loci (grocery list example with childhood home).
Be able to describe experiments that bolster each of the 2 explanations for why the hypercorrection effect occurs.
1. Attentional capture/Surprise attentional factor. Surprise individuals experience at being wrong when they were sure they were right. Bc they were surprised and maybe embarrassed at having made a mistake on a response they strongly thought was correct, individuals may rally their attentional resources to better remember the correct answer. Experient/Evidence Butterfield and Metcalfe 2006- people miss detecting simultaneously presented tones Fazio & Marsh 2009- Hyper encoding of context Tested for memory for the surrounding context that accompanied feedback. Showed that surrounding context of high confidence error feedback was better remembered than was the surrounding context of low confidence feedback, results were interpreted as favoring the attentional explanation Butterfield & Mangels 2006 (2003 is correct) - There is a confidence graded p3 and anterior cingulate activation. This study revealed that there was a confidence graded p3a when corrective feedback was given. P3a was largest for the feedback to high confidence errors and smallest for low confidence errors. These results support the contention that high confidence errors are surprising and that increased attention is paid to corrective feedback to such errors. Metcalfe 2012- using event related functional magnetic resource imaging aka FMRI. participants answered questions for hours then entered the scanner and were presented with questions, their original answers, original confidence ratings and finally the correct answer. Found that medial frontal areas that prominently included the anterior cingulate- an area related to surprise, error detection, and attention were differentially activated 2. Greater semantic knowledge in the domain of high confidence errors than in low confidence error domain. Structure of the semantic network surrounding high as compared to low confidence errors. Latent Semantic Analysis? Experiments/evidence Butterfield and Mangels 2003- Participant ascribed familiarity to high and to low confidence responses were differential. Butterfield & Metclafe 2006 - showed that the a priori probability of a correct response was greater than for low confidence errors Latent semantic analysis Landauer and Dumais 1997- showed that the similarity of the error to the correct response is higher for high than for low confidence errors. Semantic similarity has been fond for both young and older adults. Therefore, individuals are closer in semantic space to the right answer when they produce a high confidence error than when they produce a low confidence error.
Loftus' implanting suggestions experiments; be able to describe 2 experiments that she conducted--how they appear to work Do they indicate that later suggestions alter earlier memories?
1. Smashed crash experiment In this experiment, the misleading information was shared verbally as can be seen in the reading on page 21 when describing the series of experiments. Also, the misleading information and the subsequent recall testing aren't done in an obvious way, but rather built into conversation and introduced as one of twenty questions regarding the scene. 2.Stop sign yield experiment (most famous) Loftus and others claim that information encountered after an event can alter the memory for the original event. For example, Loftus ran an experiment where people viewed a series of slides depicting a car accident. A stop sign was shown in one of the slides. In the control condition, participants then read a narrative description of the event that was consistent with the slides. In the experimental condition, participants also read a narrative description, but the experimental narrative provided misleading information. Specifically, the narrative described a yield sign rather than a stop sign. Then, participants performed a two-alternative forced-choice recognition task. They're asked, "What type of sign was at the intersection?" They have to say either stop sign or yield sign. The results showed that participants in the control condition gave a higher proportion of correct answers than the participants in the experimental condition. Based on that finding, Loftus concluded that the narrative information provided after viewing images of the event interfered with the memory for the original event. In reference to interference theory, which does agree with Loftus's theory, the interference information is seen to replace/block old/new information more so than to integrate the information. You're on the right track though with the importance of strength of information processing; weakly encoded information is more likely to be replaced than strongly encoded information, as can be seen in the Loftus as well as the McCloskey & Zaragoza studies.
Types of retrieval
1. recognition memory 2. recall memory
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
1885: First experimental investigations of memory His methodology was crucial to allow this field to become a science and to be open to empirical investigation. memory can be studied scientifically - used himself as test subject - nonsense syllables experiments
main effect; interaction (be able to give some examples)
2x2 experiment • Factors were, level of processing either rhyme or high associate • Type of retrieval cue, either high associate or rhyme cue
misconceptions of chance: what are they and what fallacies result? what is the hot hand fallacy and why does it occur?
A locally representative sequence, however, deviates systematically from chance expectation: It contains too many alternations and not enough long runs. So, if someone were shooting a basketball randomly, say, they would appear to have too many runs to be random. Abnormally long runs of hits is what we take as a person being 'hot.' An abnormally long steak with no hits is what we take as a person being 'cold.' The questionnaire examined basketball fans' beliefs regarding sequential dependence among shots. Their responses revealed considerable agreement: 91% of the fans believed that a player has "a better chance of making a shot after having just made his last two or three shots than he does after having just missed his last two or three shots"; 68% of the fans expressed essentially the same belief for free throws, claiming that a player has "a better chance of making his second shot after making his first shot than after missing his first shot"; 96% of the fans thought that "after having made a series of shots in a row . . . players tend to take more shots than they normally would"; 84% of the fans believed that "it is important to pass the ball to someone who has just made several (two, three, or four) shots in a row."
The famous Russian mnemonist, S (for Shereshevski-- & Luria's study of him..be able to describe) problems that he had.
Alexander Luria russian neuropsychologist wrote The Mind of a Mnemomist Solomon Shereshevsky main character of The Mind of a Mnemomist who could recall exact detail of an event Shereshevski might have had a mild form of autism Could remember everything. -Repeat a speech back, word for word months later. -Memorize poems in languages he didn't know -Had trouble recognizing faces because he was so alert to changes in a face one view to the next. -Trouble thinking of things in general terms, hard time focusing on what individuals have in common. -Importance of general more abstract knowledge.
when it comes to the effects of alcohol (state dependence) on memory...how exactly do main effects and interactions come into play?
As a main effect, alcohol impairs memory/performance on testing. Due to this effect, the assumption could be made that alcohol is detrimental to recall in all situations; however, it was seen that subjects who encoded information under the influence of alcohol had a better percentage of recall when also under the influence as opposed to testing recall when sober. This state dependent recall is the construction of the interaction effects.
Be able to describe the logic of McCloskey and Zaragoza's study on this issue, what their modified task was (and why) and what happened i.e., what the results were.
At the review session yesterday, people were confused about the logic underlying the McCloskey & Zaragoza paper that critiques Loftus' work on false memories. So to clear things up, I'll provide a synopsis of the rationale behind the M&Z critique. (Note that the logic of the M&Z task and their results are on the review sheet. We encourage you to reread the M&Z paper, too, and think through it on your own.) Before I discuss M&Z, I'll briefly review the Loftus procedure: Loftus and others claim that information encountered after an event can alter the memory for the original event. For example, Loftus ran an experiment where people viewed a series of slides depicting a car accident. A stop sign was shown in one of the slides. In the control condition, participants then read a narrative description of the event that was consistent with the slides. In the experimental condition, participants also read a narrative description, but the experimental narrative provided misleading information. Specifically, the narrative described a yield sign rather than a stop sign. Then, participants performed a two-alternative forced-choice recognition task. They're asked, "What type of sign was at the intersection?" They have to say either stop sign or yield sign. The results showed that participants in the control condition gave a higher proportion of correct answers than the participants in the experimental condition. Based on that finding, Loftus concluded that the narrative information provided after viewing images of the event interfered with the memory for the original event. M&Z take issue with Loftus' procedure. In the introduction to their paper (which I recommend you reread), they argue that the two-alternative forced-choice approach when the choices are either the original item or the misleading item will always lead to those in the experimental condition performing worse than those in the control condition. See Table 2 in the M&Z paper. Here's a summary of their logic. Assume that in both groups of participants (control and experimental) 40% remember the original information (stop sign) and 60% don't remember. The 40% who remember will choose the correct answer 100% of the time in both conditions. In the control condition, the 60% who do not remember will simply guess. So 50% of 60% (30%) choose the stop sign and the other 30% choose the yield sign. Thus, 40% + 30% = 70% of people in the control condition get the correct answer. In the experimental condition, the 60% of the people who do not remember the original information can be divided into two groups - those who remember the misleading information and those who do not. Assume that everyone who remembers the misleading information (30%) choose the yield sign. The 30% who do not remember the yield sign simply guess, so 15% choose the yield sign and 15% choose the stop sign. Thus, the total proportion of people choosing the stop sign is 40% + 15% = 55%. That's lower than the 70% in the control condition. Using that logic, the experimental condition will always be lower than the control condition. M&Z ran experiments using a modified procedure. In their procedure, participants did something very similar to what they did in the Loftus study (i.e., they viewed slides depicting an event then read a narrative). Rather than using signs, the critical item in the M&Z study was a hammer. The control group read a narrative that contained no specific information about the critical item. The experimental group read a narrative that replaced the hammer with a screwdriver. The key difference is in the choice task. M&Z used a recognition task that contained the accurate item (hammer) and a new item (screwdriver). Using those choices, the bias that caused the experimental group to always be lower was removed (see Table 4). Using the modified procedure, the data did not support the idea that misleading information alters the original memory. In the summary, it's all about the choice. M&Z devised a choice task that removed the bias they claimed existed in Loftus' choice task. Thus, they claimed the results of Loftus' study do not support the claim that later information alters or interferes with the original memory. Rather, her findings support a more general claim that "information about an event obtained from various sources is integrated in memory in a single representation of the event." It's that claim that more accurately, according to M&Z, explains the results of Loftus' studies. Hope that helps. Again, we strongly encourage you to reread the M&Z paper. If you still have questions, please post on Piazza.
Stephen Wiltshire (who drew Manhattan in the video we saw)
Autistic Savant He is known for his ability to draw from memory a landscape after seeing it just once.
Nadia, the autistic child who could draw like Toulouse Lautrec.
Autistic Savant No language but amazing drawings that resembled early cave drawings Inspired philosophers to speculate that perhaps the mind of early humans was like that of a person with autism Once language improved her art took a step back
what is the base rate? and why is it important?
Base rate = a priori probability. If you just draw from the population, it's the probability. This is called ignoring the base rate, and it's something that happens all the time.
Chunking and its effect
Chunking • Meaningfulness allows us to form larger units than single letters. There are called CHUNKS. • Chunks depend on the persons past knowledge organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember Lumping a series of numbers into smaller pieces, for easier memory recall
Synesthesia
Disorder, signals from various sensory organs are processed in the wrong cortical areas, results in sense info. being interpreted as more than one sensation
Is hypnosis a universal state that can evoke state dependence?
Does state dependence obtain under hypnosis? • Controversial • Suggestion to forget everything that happened until you hear the cue" to remember is problematic. • The snapping of the fingers is suspect, there is no evidence. • Forgetting phenomenon looks like state dependence • Bjork selective forgetting paradigm • Can you make yourself forget?
Disadvantages of encouraging errors.
Errors can be harmful for people who have amnesia. people with amnesia who have impaired or explicit or episodic memory are harmed by generating errors.
Savants (who may have autism)
Famous study London cab driver study London cab drivers have extremely good memory Memory exercise and the brain Structural growth in the hippocampus People who have super memories naturally not trained who are not autistic
McGaugh's study (that was on the video we saw in class) of people who have super memories...are they 'normal'? What do you make of them?
First to discover and study the superior autobiographical memory
simulation heuristic
How long will it take you to write your book (or your paper, or your thesis)??? What do you do to answer this question? Dynamic memory heuristic. When we're asked a question, we try to imagine ourselves doing this thing. Our dynamic simulations are biased. We get things wrong. We make judgments that are wrong.
The hypercorrection effect--what it is and two explanations for why it happens.
Hypercorrection Effect The more confident you are about things that you believe are true but are shown to be wrong are more corrected. errors made with high confidence are more likely to be corrected with feedback". Unfortunately, "high confidence errors are more likely to be corrected, but they are also more likely to be reproduced if the correct answer is forgotten". In other words, the corrected versions are easy to forget. A strong belief in the truth of ones errors makes them more, rather than less susceptible to being correctable. Two nonmutually exclusive factors are central to hypercorrection phenomenon in young adults, though these are not the only factors. 1. Surprise individuals experience at being wrong when they were sure they were right 2. Greater semantic knowledge in the domain of high confidence errors than in low confidence error domain. Structure of the semantic network surrounding high as compared to low confidence errors. Latent Semantic Analysis?
Do you give up your free will under hypnosis?
I think so
representativeness heuristic
In which probabilities are evaluated by the degree to which a is a representative of b that is, by the degree to which a resembles b. Huertistic - rule of thumb
effects of state dependence on memory.
It was from the encoding specificity principle/state dependent section. During the experiment, there were two groups of people, one who drank vodka and the other that drank a placebo, amount calibrated for body weight. After BAC increased, they were read a list of words and had a free recall tasks. A day or week later, half of alcohol drinkers drank it again, other half did not. Half of placebo drinkers drank a placebo again, other half drank alcohol. The experiment showed that being in same state at encoding as during recall makes it easier to remember: sober-sober, drunk-drunk, sober-drunk, then drunk-sober.
levels of processing
Levels of processing • Theory proposed by Crak and Lockhart • Begins to capture some of the nuances of the idea that the meaning is critical • The more deeply you process things the better will be your recall • Memory was a byproduct of depth of processing and you'll remember depending on how deeply you process • Hundreds of experiments have looked at depth of processing • Read it to understand the meaning, you'll remember much more • Interestingly, intention to remember didn't matter, only what you did mattered!
The London Cab driver study--what did they do and what were the results
London cab drivers have extremely good memory Memory exercise and the brain years of experience lead to changes in the brain recognize patterns quickly and easily (and then choose best algorithm or heuristic) Structural growth in the hippocampus
Bayes theorem--be able to describe what it is and what it does (though, for now I will not ask you to do any exact computations)
Mathematical way to correctly combine base rate with information you get on the test (e.g., a description or a medical test).
Advantages of encouraging errors
Might enhance learning- possible that emotional reactions might be good for encoding 1. Doing so will automatically produce a generation effect (slamecka and Graf 1978) on items that people get right 2. Cosideration of errors has been shown to offset overconfidence. (Koriat lichtenstein and fishoff 1980) Overconfidence leads to dysfunctional study (finn 2009 metcalfe and finn 2010 3. The errors that students generate provide crucial information to teachers
mood dependent memory--what is it and when does it occur?
Mood dependence is the facilitation of memory when mood at retrieval is identical to the mood at encoding, or the process of memory. When a human encodes a memory, he or she not only records the visual and other sensory data, he/she also stores his/her mood and emotional states. A persons present mood thus will affect the memories that are most easily available to him/her, such that when he/she is in a good mood he/she recalls good memories (and vice versa). The associative nature of memory also means that one tends to store happy memories in a linked set. Different from mood-congruent memory, mood-dependent memory occurs where the congruence of current mood with the mood at the time of memory storage helps to recall the memory. Thus, the likelihood of remembering an event is higher when encoding and recall moods match up. However, it seems that only authentic moods have the power to produce these mood-dependent effects.
Free recall
One of the very most sensitive task to use to determine if a person has memory loss Modern classic experiment a procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to remember stimuli that were previously presented The type of testing that Ebbinghaus used with nonsense syllables. Looking for traces of memory by asking to completely recreate what was presented. *Gallant legend ocean mother peanut (only words I remembered)
Julesz random dot stereograms and how they work--how the task was used to investigate the 'superior photographic memory' of the art professor.
Random Dot stereogram a stereoscopic image composed of a noise pattern. The depth in the image is created by the differences between the left and right eye view Bela Julesz Psychologist from Hungary who discovered the proof that the brain can solve the correspondence problem without recognizing objects by using computer graphics.
Shass Pollacks
Recounts the feats of the Shass Pollak, Jewish mnemonists who memorized the entire contents of the 12-book, 5,000-page Babylonian Talmud. Three eyewitnesses share their accounts of the Shass Pollak, who the author notes never "attained to any prominence in the scholarly world."
Serial Recall
Serial Recall • Have to recall either forward serial and backward serial recall • Backward serial recall is hard
Simonides, and what he did.
Simonides remembered each guest by the location of the body This story developes method of Loci
Interference theory view of what generating errors should to memory for the correct answer , and why.
Standard interference theory does a poor job of accounting for why generating errors helps later memory for the correct answer. Other theories, though, do better.
drug states as retrieval cues, and state dependence be able to describe the experiment(s) and results indicating (or not indicating) state dependence.
State dependence interaction • The basic paradigm - The reason women were excluded was bc of the possibility of pregnancy, not just discrimination toward women. - College students were recruited to do a study about alcohol - Vodka was used, 6 oz. of vodka with a peppermint floating on top. Placebo - Alcohol was calibrated to person's body weight, calibrated to get person drunk but not crazy. - Once peak drunkenness, participants would get words to remember on a list. Once encoding of list, wait for them to get sober and they would have to return between a day and a week later. Come back next day for next session. Half will have alcohol again, half who had placebo would have alcohol, half who had alcohol would have placebo
Stroop task--know what it is and why it happens
The STROOP task -A series of color bars or color words presented in conflicting colors -subjects must name as quickly as possible the ink colour of each item -Two sources of info are incongruent with eachother (colour and word); easier to read than say bc reading is automatized in us Can be demonstrated in a test in which skilled readers must attempt to report the color in which a word is written, though the word itself when read names a conflicting color.
serial position curve, and what the components mean: recency, primacy, asymptote (and how they have been interpreted). know how various factors affect the curve, and why
The differences in the serial position curves with different manipulations and for different populations have led researches to position working memory (or short term memory) and long term episodic memory. Evidence that there are two separate components • Dissociations • Presentation rate • Modality differences • Meaningfulness differences • Interference or distraction has a differential effect • Time delay has a differential effect • Phonetic similarity has a differential effect • Brain localization
conjunction fallacy (be able to give some examples)
The verbal description evokes something that's sort of like a prototype. We do something without taking into account the logic of the situation.
what is the relationship between hypnosis and free will?
Under hypnosis, an individual is much more suggestible than normal, which could be seen as being open to alteration of one's free will. However, the ability to identify those who are playing along from those who are truly hypnotized provides some evidence behind the maintenance of free will. We talked about the concept of people who are hypnotized only being suggestible to relatively agreeable ideas: for instance, people who are hypnotized will avoid objects in their path even if instructed to walk directly to the other side of a room, while those who are playing along will walk directly into objects.
Theory of mind tasks.
We use a new model of metarepresentational development to predict a cognitive deficit which could explain a crucial component of the social impairment in childhood autism. One of the manifestations of a basic metarepresentational capacity is a 'theory of mind'. We have reason to believe that autistic children lack such a 'theory'. If this were so, then they would be unable to impute beliefs to others and to predict their behaviour. This hypothesis was tested using Wimmer and Perner's puppet play paradigm. Normal children and those with Down's syndrome were used as controls for a group of autistic children. Even though the mental age of the autistic children was higher than that of the controls, they alone failed to impute beliefs to others. Thus the dysfunction we have postulated and demonstrated is independent of mental retardation and specific to autism.
Recognition
With recognition memory, there is rarely a state of dependent effect recognition test recognize learned information (information is hidden) (ex: multiple choice exam) -recognizing something when we are given options -multiple choice options give us cues to help us remember -seeing someone's face might help me recall their name Recognition Tests Ex. Multiple choice. Easier to recall when given a list of potential things. Recognition A method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimuli as having been experienced before.
the benefit of repeated testing when you use Bayes theorem--how do you deal with repeated testing?
Your base rate changes with each repeated testing because the way you are categorizing yourself changes
application of bayes theorem how do you deal with repeated testing when it comes to bayes theorem?
Your base rate changes with each repeated testing because the way you are categorizing yourself changes More specifically, the base rate of a repeated trial becomes the calculated probability of the prior trial. The example we used in class was that the probability of a positive mammogram actually identifying cancer was 7.8%, while the base rate of women at age 40 who participate in screenings having breast cancer being 1%, which is the base rate. On a repeated trial, the base rate now changes to the calculated 7.8%.
Ebbinghaus' Curve of Forgetting
a graph showing a distinct pattern in which forgetting is very fast within the first hour after learning a list and then tapers off gradually
Cued recall
cued recall tests information with hints (ex: recall 50 states given a blank map) cued recall a procedure for testing memory in which a participant is present with cues, such as words or phrases, to aid recall previously experienced stimuli Cued recall is the retrieval of memory with the help of cues. Such cues are often semantic. Cued recall differs from free recall in that a cue or word is presented that is related to the information being remembered. This aides in the process of memory retrieval. when I am given a hint of a cue to facilitate retrieval Cues or hints to a path to get to the answer. Ex. Naming all 50 states is hard but is easier if you have a map. No new information but giving path to info already in your head.
What generating errors actually does (be able to describe the experiments).
experimental investigations indicate that errorful learning followed by corrective feedback is beneficial to learning. Beneficial effects are salient when individuals strongly believe their error is correct. Errors committed with high confidence are corrected more readily than low confidence errors. Corrective feedback, including analysis of reasoning leading up to the mistake is crucial. Generation helps memory experiment - Sharon Bertsch meta-analysis of the slamecka/graff generation effect. In over 14,000 subjects tested - generating was better than reading Hence- if you generate something it should increase the strength of that thing you just generated
Growth/fixed mindset
growth mindset the same thing as incremental theory of intelligence and is fixed mindset the same thing as entity theory of intelligence?
Interference theory and how it works., i.e., how do we update memory? How does this apply to Loftus' studies?
interference theory, which does agree with Loftus's theory, the interference information is seen to replace/block old/new information more so than to integrate the information. You're on the right track though with the importance of strength of information processing; weakly encoded information is more likely to be replaced than strongly encoded information, as can be seen in the Loftus as well as the McCloskey & Zaragoza studies.
nonsense syllables
learning and forgetting curves - variables: number, length of time between learning and testing
method of loci, and how it works.
method of loci mentally picture a familiar place and making a list of things and placing them in certain areas of the room and mentally walking through the room to remember method of loci A mnemonic technique used to associate items to be remembered with locations along a well-known path.
Does hypnosis allow enhanced memory?
not sure but no
Category recall and recognition
recognition and association memory rarely has a state dependent effect, category recall has no state dependent effect because the categories become the cue. State dependent recall is based around the actual mental state being the retrieval cue itself. Once a new cue is provided, it overrides the effects of the state dependent cue.
what happens (and why) with free recall, cued recall, category cued recall, recognition?
recognition and association memory rarely has a state dependent effect, category recall has no state dependent effect because the categories become the cue. midterm_exam2
state dependence
state dependent memory the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.
Evidence that there is a special hypnotic state.
subjects will go around furniture whereas those faking it will bump into furniture
the encoding specificity principle, and how this shows up in experiments
that we lean info together with its context. This means that presence of the context can lead to enhanced memory for the info ability to recall something can be increased if asked to recall something related first (but can be more difficult to recall something if asked about something unrelated; ex: fan vs. fan)
Eidetic imagery...is there evidence for eidetakers (i.e. perfect photographic memory)?
the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more Eidetic imagery was found in Elizabeth, the wife of Stromeyer (I don't think we need to know who they are). She was presented with random dot patterns with a figure in the middle (created by the texture of the dots?)..because she had eidetic imagery, she demonstrated that she could remember the position of every dot in the pattern through her remembrance of the figures (though I'm not 100% sure about this).
Lindsey and johnson experiment
the conclusion of this experiment is that source judgments are very fragile, but what was the experimental procedure in the Lindsay & Johnson experiment? 2 Groups: Both groups are shown a visual image and read a text describing a story/scene. Group 1: Reply yes/no, only had to say whether or not it was in the picture. Group 2: Had to say whether it was only in the picture, only in the text, in neither, or in both. Group 1. Only said no if the information was in neither picture nor text; shows that they were forgetting the source of the information and assuming the text information came up in the picture as well. Issue of familiarity. Group 2. When forced to scrutinize between the four sources, the information was able to be sorted out very accurately.
Joshua Foer
wrote moonwalking with Einstein -rendition at how he tried to become better at memorization
Is there such a thing as hypnotic amnesia?
• But a recurrent criticism is that states like hypnosis, and the kind of amnesia associated with it are due to demand characteristics.
Hermann Ebbinghaus points
• Forgetting curve • Savings • Benefits of multiple repetitions • Spacing effect
what is hypnosis?
• Most extreme hypnosis is Amnesia • Long history of hypnosis, goes back to the greeks. • Early history, patient goes into state but then forgets everything when back in normal state • A recurrent theme was that there was some hidden memory, perhaps of some trauma. • But a recurrent criticism is that states like hypnosis, and the kind of amnesia associated with it are due to demand characteristics.
relation of state dependence to multiple personalities (Pierre Janet)
• Students of Charcot, one time friend of Freud • He thought that weak personalities • Movies that have become famous, dissociative identity disorders. Three faces of eve and Sybil. • 200 cases reported between 1880-1979 • 20,000 cases reported between 1980-1990 • But this was just after 3 face of eve and Sybil came out. • Demand characteristics? • A great criminal offense?
