Cognitive Psyc CH 8

* Of the 45 people who responded to this question "Have you seen the paparazzi's video-recording of the car crash in which Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Fayed lost their lives?", _____ said they had seen the film. This was, however, impossible, because no such film exists.

20

* When subjects indicated when each "I am" statement had become a significant part of their identity, the average age they assigned t the origin of these statements was _____, which is within the span of the ___________.

25; reminiscence bump

* As of 2012, the use of DNA evidence had exonerated ______ people in the US who had been wrongly convicted of crimes and served an average of ___ years in prison. _________ percent of these convictions involved eyewitness testimony.

341; 13; 75

* In one experiment, telling subjects that the perpetrator may not be present in a lineup caused a _____ percent decrease in false identifications of innocent people.

42

* Right after the explosion, only 21 percent of the subjects indicated that they had first heard about it on TV, but 2.5 years later, ____ percent of the subjects reported that they had first heard about it on TV. Reasons for the increase in TV memories could be that the TV reports become more memorable through repetition and that TV is a major source of news.

45

* The idea behind repeated recall is to determine whether memory changes over time by testing subjects ___________ after an event.

A number of times

* Brain scans using fMRI as people were remembering revealed that __________ activity was higher for the emotional words.

Amygdala

* The brain area that is responsible for detecting negative emotional stimuli is ______.

Amygdala

* One way the cognitive hypothesis has been tested is by finding people who have experienced rapid changes in their lives that occurred __________ adolescence or young adulthood. The cognitive hypothesis would predict that the reminiscence bump should occur later for these people.

At a time later than

* In Chapter 6, we defined ________________ as memory for specific experiences from our life, which can include both episodic and semantic components.

Autobiographical memory (AM)

* Recommendation 4: use a "_______" lineup administrator and get an ___________ confidence rating.

Blind; immediate

* It is important to emphasize that the term flashbulb memory refers to memory for the _________________

Circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an event.

* The problem with the procedure used by Brown and Kulik who surveyed people's memory about highly emotional events is that there was no way to determine whether the reported memories were accurate. The only way to check for accuracy is to compare the person's memory to what actually happened or to memory reports collected immediately after the event. The technique of _____________________ after the event is called repeated recall.

Comparing later memories to memories collected immediately

* The cultural life script hypothesis distinguishes between a person's life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person's life, and a _____________, which is the culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span.

Cultural life script

* When subjects also listed events that were connected with each "I am" statement, most of the events occurred during the time span associated with the reminiscence bump. ______________ therefore brings with it numerous memorable events, most of which happen during adolescence or young adulthood.

Development of the self-image

* According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have an administrator of the lineup procedure who _________ know whether or not the lineup has a real suspect/perpetrator while letting the eyewitness know that there _________ be the suspect.

Does not; may not

* The results in Figure 8.9, indicate that subjects were more likely to say they remembered ___________ pictures than _____________ pictures.

Emotional (negative); neutral

* ( Subjects gave stronger remember response and higher confidence to the emotional pictures.) ... Subjects were less likely to correctly name the color of the frame surrounding the __________ pictures they remembered. Results such as these have led researchers to conclude that _________ enhance our ability to remember that an event occurred and some of its general characteristics, but do not enhance our memory for details of what happened.

Emotional; emotions

* What is particularly interesting about the result of Larry Cahill and coworkers (2003) is that the cortisol enhances memory for the ____________ but not for the __________ pictures.

Emotional; neutral

* In one study, subjects viewed a security videotape in which a gunman was in view for 8 seconds and then were asked to pick the gunman from photographs. ________ subject(s) picked someone they thought was the gunman, even though his picture was not included in the photo spread. In another study, using a similar experimental design, _____________ subject(s) picked someone from a photo spread, even though the perpetrator's picture wasn't included.

Every; 61 percent of the

* In Ross et al. (1994), subjects in the experimental group saw a film of a male teacher reading to students; subjects in the control group saw a film of a female teacher reading to students. Subjects in both groups then saw a film of the female teacher being robbed and were asked to pick the robber from a photo spread. The photographs did not include the actual robber, but did include the male teacher, who resembled the robber. The results indicate that subjects in the ___________ group were three times more likely to pick the male teacher than were subjects in the ___________ group.

Experimental; control

* In referring to the day of President Kennedy's assassination, Brown and Kulik stated that "for an instant, the entire nation and perhaps much of the world stopped still to have its picture taken." This description, which likened the process of forming a memory to the taking of a photograph, led them to coin the term ________________ to refer to a person's memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events.

Flashbulb memory

* However, another result, shown in Figure 8.8b, did indicate a difference between flashbulb and everyday memories: People's belief that their memories were accurate stayed high over the entire 32-week period for the _________ memories but dropped for the _________ memories.

Flashbulb; everyday

* Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall?

Graduating from college at age 23

* Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements?

It is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time.

* One result of this experiment about flashbulb and everyday memories was that subjects remembered fewer details and made more errors at longer intervals after the events, with ______ difference between the results for the flashbulb and everyday memories. This result supports the idea that there is nothing special about flashbulb memories.

Little

* Cognitive interview involves letting the witness talk with a _________ of interruption and also uses techniques that help witness recreate the situation present at the crime scene by ___________ and recreate things like emotions they were felling, where they were looking, and how the scene might have appeared when viewed from different perspectives.

Minimum; having them place themselves back in the scene

* Claudia Stanny and Thomas Johnson (2000) determined how well subjects remembered details of a filmed simulated crime. They found that subjects were more likely to recall details of the perpetrator, the victim, and the weapon in the "_________" condition than in the "_________" condition. Apparently, the presence of a weapon that was fired distracted attention from other things that were happening.

No-shoot; shoot

* In 2011, the New Jersey Supreme Court mandated that judges inform jurors about the scientific finding regarding eyewitness testimony by including instructions to the jury such as "Human memory is _________. Research has shown that human memory ___________________ that witness need only replay to remember what happened."

Not foolproof; is not at all like a video recording

* Cognitive hypothesis proposes that _____________________________.

Periods of rapid change that are followed by stability causes stronger encoding of memories.

* The problem with the simultaneous presentation is that it increases the chances that the witness will make a _________ judgment - comparing people in the lineup to each other, so the question is "Who is most like the person I saw?" However, when each person in the lineup is presented sequentially - one at a time - then the witness compares each person not to the other person, but to the _______________.

Relative; memory of what the witness saw

* The enhanced memory for adolescence and young adulthood found in people over 40 is called the _______________.

Reminiscence bump

* When Dorthe Bernsten and David Rubin (2004) asked people to list when important events in a typical person's life usually occur...... Interestingly, a large number of the most commonly mentioned events occur during the period associated with the ________________.

Reminiscence bump

* _____ is your knowledge about what's the typical image of a place, which _____ your memory.

Scene schema

* Recommendation 3: When presenting a lineup, use ___________ rather than ___________ presentation.

Sequential; simultaneous

* According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have ________ lineup and ________ in the lineup.

Serial; fillers (someone similar to the suspect/perpetrator)

* Lindsay and Wells (1985) found that for lineups in which the perpetrator was not present, an innocent person was falsely identified 43 percent of the time in the ___________ lineup, but only 17 percent of the time in the ____________ lineup.

Simultaneous; sequential

* Many states, including New Jersey, Ohio, California, North Carolina, and Wisconsin, have switched from ____________ to ___________ lineups.

Simultaneous; sequential

* Loftus and Steven Palmer (1974) showed subjects films of a car crash (Figure 8.14) and then asked either (1) "how fast were the cars going when they _____________ each other?" or (2) "How fast were the cars going when they ________ each other?"

Smashed into; hit

* Although both groups saw the same event, the average speed estimated by subjects who heard the word __________" was 41 miles per hour, whereas the estimates for subjects who heard "_______" averaged 34 miles per hour.

Smashed; hit

* Even more interesting for the study of memory are the subjects' responses to the question "Did you see any broken glass?" which Loftus asked 1 week after they had seen the film. Although there was no broken glass in the film, 32 percent of the subjects who heard "________" before estimating the speed reported seeing broken glass, whereas only 14 percent of the subjects who heard "________" reported seeing the glass.

Smashed; hit

* Thus, the idea that flashbulb memories are special appears to be based at least partly on the fact that people ____________ the flashbulb memories are stronger and more accurate; however, this study found that in reality there is _________ difference between flashbulb and everyday memories in terms of the amount of accuracy of what is remembered.

Think the flashbulb memories are stronger and more accurate; little or no

* In fact, one of the main findings of research on flashbulb memories is that although people report that memories surrounding flashbulb events are especially ______, they are often __________.

Vivid; inaccurate or lacking in detail

* Many innocent people may be currently serving time for crimes they didn't commit. Many of these miscarriages of justice and others, some of which will undoubtedly never be discovered, are based on the assumption, made by jurors and judges, that people see and report things ____________.

accurately

* For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for ________.

adolescence and young adulthood.

* Paradoxically, the danger of suggestion influencing memory may be increased if it happens when or just after the witness is remembering what happened. This possibility was suited by Jason Chan and coworkers (2009), ... Thus, ________, which brought back memories for the original event, made subjects more likely to be influenced by the misinformation.

being tested

* According to the cognitive interview technique, we should let eyewitness _____________. a. Talk with minimal interruption / feedback b. Recreate the situation/emotion that they had at the crime scene c. Neither a) nor b) d. Both a) and b)

both a & b

* According to the YouTube video regarding eyewitness (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qQ-96BLaKYQ), the officer selectively used two critical words in his question. There were:

bump; smash

* Cognitive psychologists have developed an interview procedure called the _________ interview, which is based on what is known about memory retrieval. This interview procedure, which has been described as "perhaps one of the most successful developments in psychology and law research in the last 25 years."

cognitive

* Schrauf and Rubin's (1998) "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the __________.

cognitive hypothesis.

* Larry Cahill and coworkers (2003) showed subjects neutral and emotionally arousing pictures; then they had some subjects (the stress group) immerse their arms in ice water, which causes the release of __________, and other subjects (the no-stress group) immerse their arms in warm water, which is a nonstressful situation that doesn't cause __________ release (a stress-related hormone).

cortisol

* But when the perpetrator was not in the lineup, increasing similarity caused a large __________ in incorrect identification of an innocent person.

decrease

* When the perpetrator was in the lineup, increasing similarity did __________ identification of the perpetrator.

decrease

* In one experiment on the association between emotion and enhanced memory, Kevin LaBar and Elizabeth Phelps (1998) tested subjects' ability to recall arousing words and neutral words, and observed better memory for the ___________ words. In another study, Florin Dolcos and coworkers (2005) tested subjects' ability to recognize emotional and neutral pictures after a 1-year delay and observed better memory for the _________ pictures.

emotional (arousing)

* A lesson to be learned from the research on flashbulb memories is that _________.

extreme vividness of a memory does not necessarily mean high accuracy.

* Subjects, who as college students were far removed from these childhood experiences, were given some of the information from the parents' descriptions and were told to elaborate on them. They were also given some of the information from the false events and were told to elaborate on them as well. The results was that the subjects "recalled" and described in some detail 20 percent of the ________ events.

false

* In one case of mistaken identification, a ticket agent at a railway station was robbed and subsequently identified a sailor as being the robber. Luckily for the sailor, he was able to show that he was somewhere else at the time of the crime. When asked why he identified the sailor, the ticket agent said that he looked ___________.

familiar

* Wells and Bradfield call this increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification the post-identification ___________ effect.

feedback

* Recommendation 2: When constructing a lineup, use "_______" who are similar to the suspect.

fillers

* According to the cultural life script hypothesis, events in a person's life story becomes easier to recall when they ____________ the cultural life script for the person's culture.

fit

* Having witness immediate rate their confidence in their choice eliminates the possibility that the postevent feedback effect could ________ their confidence.

increases

* We will now see that information presented by others can also _________ a person's memory for past events.

influence

* To test the cognitive hypothesis, Robert Schrauf and David Rubin (1998) determined the recollections of people who had emigrated to the United States either in their 20s or in their mid 30s. Figure 8.4, which shows the memory curves for two groups of immigrants, indicates that the reminiscence bmp occurs at the normal age for people who emigrated at age 20-24 but is shifted to _________ for those who emigrated at age 34-35, just as the cognitive hypothesis would predict.

later

* A better way of presenting the task (pointing the perpetrator from a lineup) is to let the witness know that the crime suspect ___________ be in the lineup.

may or may not

* Lineups are notaries for producing mistaken identifications. Here are some of the recommendations that have been made: Recommendation 1: When asking a witness to pick the perpetrator from a lineup, inform the witness that the perpetrator ___________ be in the particular lineup he or she is viewing.

may or may not

* The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that _________.

memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities.

* According to the experiment that involves emotional and neutral picture surrounded by color frames, people are ______ confident to recognize emotional pictures than to recognize neutral pictures, but their memory for the frame color is ________ accurate for the emotional pictures.

more ; less

* In this classic study, Bartlett first had his subjects read the story from Canadian Indian Folklore. After his subjects had read this story, Bartlett asked them to recall it as accurately as possible. ...At longer times after reading the story, most subjects' reproductions of the story were shorter than the original and contained many omissions and inaccuracies. But what was most significant about the remembered stories is that they tended to reflect the subject's ________.

own culture

* The fact that memories become more susceptible to suggestion during ___________ means that every precaution needs to be taken to avoid making suggestions to the witness.

questioning

* The acceptance of eyewitness testimony is based on two assumptions: (1) the eyewitness was able to clearly see what happened; and (2) the eyewitness was able to __________ his or her observations and translate them into an accurate description of what happened and an accurate identification of the perpetrator(s).

remember

* To measure the accuracy of flashbulb memories, researchers use ________ procedure.

repeated recall.

* A ________ is a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment.

schema

* In an experiment that studied how memory is influenced by people's _________, subjects who had come to participate in a psychology experiment were asked to wait in an office ... their task was to write down what they had seen while they were sitting in the office.

schema

* The ______________ hypothesis, proposed by Clare Rathbone and coworkers (2008), proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's ____________ or life identity is being formed.

self-image

* Transition points in people's lives appear to be particularly memorable. This is illustrated by what Wellesley College juniors and seniors said when they were asked to recall the most influential event from their freshmen year. Most of the responses to this question were descriptions of events that had occurred in ___________. When alumni were asked the same question, they remembered more events from ___________ of their freshman year and from the end of their senior year - another transition point.

september

* Why are adolescence and young adulthood special times for encoding memories? We will describe three hypotheses, all based on the idea that _____________events are happening during adolescence and young adulthood.

special life

* Although researchers are still discussing the mechanism of mechanisms that cause the misinformation effect, there is no doubt that the effect is real and that experimenter's _____________can influence subjects' reports in memory experiments.

suggestions

* At the trial, Elizabeth Loftus and other cognitive psychologists described research on the misinformation effect and implanting false memories to demonstrate how __________ can create false memory for long ago events that never actually happened.

suggestions

* An important feature of the cognitive interview technique is that it decreases the likelihood of any __________ input by the person conducting the interview.

suggestive

* The link between emotions and the amygdala was also demonstrated by testing a patient, B.P., who suffered damage to his amygdala. ... B.P.'s memory was the same as that of the non-brain damaged subjects for the first part of the story, but it ________ for the emotional part. It appears, therefore, that emotions may trigger mechanisms in the amygdala that help us remember events that are associated with the emotions.

was not

* Although there is evidence linking emotion to better memory, there is also evidence that under certain conditions, emotions can impair memory. For example, emotions can sometimes cause a focusing of attention on objects that are particularly important, drawing attention away from other objects and so decreasing memory for those objects (Mather & Sutherland, 2011). An example of this is a phenomenon called __________, the tendency to focus attention on a weapon during the commission of a crime.

weapon focus

* Subjects in Neisser and Harsch's experiment filled out a questionnaire within a day after the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger, and then filled out the same questionnaire 2.5 to 3 ______ later.

years