Cognitive Psych Exam 2

Summary of Memory Errors

'Sins' of memory = common ways in which we forget Human memory is fallible even in the healthy

Wixted (2010): Forgetting Function * Wixted (2010) has argued that both -Thus, one way to increase retrieval -In other words,

* Wixted (2010) has argued that both interference and consolidation failures contribute to forgetting. -Thus, one way to increase retrieval from long-term memory (and improve memory performance) is to facilitate consolidation (e.g., by sleeping after studying) and prevent interference as much as possible. -In other words, sleeping between the study and test of information you want to remember will help you retrieve that information from long-term memory.

Conclusion: Memory is 'Reconstructive' - relies on -A schema is - turning slot memory into -rationalization is - adding a moral makes the story .. - in recall, we impose.. - some people retelling the .. *people will substitute .. * we are not good with remembering stuff

*(..) a Schema -Bartlett: a schema = an 'organized setting' -slot memory into existing semantic knowledge -'rationalization':people added material to explain unnatural elements, or just removed any details that did not fit with their own past experience in southern England in the early 20th century. -adding a moral makes the whole story more like a fairy tale of the kind that we are used to in anglo-saxon culture. -in recalling, we impose structure -some people retelling the War of Ghosts added a moral at the end! *people will substitute certain things like paddles to oars based on their own experience * we are not good with remembering stuff that doesn't go with our world view

Environmental Context *better to study ..

*(...) in exam room or where you will be taking exam

Schemata and Scripts

*A schema is a general knowledge structure for an event or situation. -For example, after visiting some of your professors' offices, you may have a schema for what a professor's office looks like: books on shelves, a desk, a computer, chairs, a telephone. If you were to visit one of your professor's offices and then try to recall the objects in that office a couple of days later, you might recall objects that fit your schema of a professor's office but were not actually in your professor's office -It seems we rely on our schemata to reconstruct memories of events and experiences that have familiar elements.

The Bizarreness Effect -define - From this finding, McDaniel and Einstein suggested that the bizarreness effect is caused by the -However, when only one type of sentence is studied, -Distinctiveness has also been proposed to explain

*Bizarreness effect: result showing that memory for unusual images is superior to memory for typical images - From this finding, McDaniel and Einstein suggested that the bizarreness effect is caused by the distinctiveness of the bizarre image as compared with the common image. The bizarre sentences seem to stand out when one tries to remember sentences of both types. -However, when only one type of sentence is studied, bizarre sentences are less distinct because they are all of the same type. Thus, the bizarre nature of the image only aids memory when it stands out against other studied information. -Distinctiveness has also been proposed to explain the picture superiority effect Although the picture superiority effect can be produced when pictures seem to be more distinctive from one another than words are, which allows the individual pictures to stand out against the other items.

The concreteness Effect - define -Paivio and colleagues also showed this effect in their studies with -Dual-coding theory was -Although words are not automatically imagined in every case, -Thus, this effect is also consistent with the -Instruction did not affect

*Concreteness effect: a result showing that memory for concrete concepts is superior to memory for abstract concepts -Paivio and colleagues also showed this effect in their studies with higher recall for concrete item labels (e.g., apple, hotel, pencil) than more abstract item labels (e.g., crime, death, gravity). -Dual-coding theory was also suggested as the explanation for this effect. -Although words are not automatically imagined in every case, it is likely that some word items may be imagined during encoding or retrieval, with more concrete objects imagined than abstract items (which are more difficult to imagine). -Thus, this effect is also consistent with the dual-coding idea that relies on image coding of some items. -Instruction did not affect memory for pictures, but imagining the object increased memory for words compared with memorizing the label.

Imagery in Wayfinding *Imagery seems to be helpful as well in another type of problem-solving task: - Foley and Cohen argued that 1.Scenographic imagery 2. Abstract imagery - Their study showed that XXX

*Imagery seems to be helpful as well in another type of problem-solving task: navigating our environment. -argued that in making judgments about a large-scale environment (e.g., a large building) subjects who made accurate judgments constructed a "working map" of the environment. : 1.Scenographic imagery: the image of an environment based on landmarks encountered in that environment along a navigated route 2. Abstract imagery:an image of an environment based on an overview of the environment -Their study showed that both types of imagery contributed to subjects' knowledge of the environments they were asked to judge.

The Picture Superiority Effect Picture superiority effect: ex. in study subjects studied - According to dual-coding theory, words - Paivio proposed that both the image code and the verbal code for pictures are -This provides a better opportunity for one to retrieve a

*Picture superiority effect: a result showing that memory for pictures is superior to memory for words of the same concepts * For example, in one such study (Paivio & Csapo, 1973), subjects studied pictures or word labels for the pictures and then recalled the items they had studied. In a number of different study conditions, pictures were better recalled than words in the memory test. This result has been replicated many times in the decades since Paivio began his research in this area. - According to dual-coding theory, words produce only a verbal code (the word itself) when studied, but pictures produce both an image code (the picture itself) and a verbal code (the label for the picture). - Paivio proposed that both the image code and the verbal code for pictures are automatically encoded into memory when they are studied. This results in two separate and distinct cues (the image code and the verbal code) accessed at retrieval. -This provides a better opportunity for one to retrieve a studied picture compared with a studied word that can be retrieved through the verbal code but not an image code.

Testing Effect:Empirical Data

*Results from Experiment 1 of Roediger and Karpickes Study - 5 minutes and 2 days of finall recall test delay was not significantly different. - from 2 days and 1 week , the 'learning phase 2' and final test *Why? More effortful processing. Deeper processing. Strengthens the connections between cues for retrieval and the to-be-retrieved information. - Better if done a week in advance

*Some studies have shown that, although both types of imagery contribute to wayfinding, -However, in a study comparing a route perspective and a survey perspective - Padgitt and Hund (2012) found that - Thus, the effectiveness of the two types of imagery may depend on -However, most of the imagery helpful in these cognitive tasks XXX

*Some studies have shown that, although both types of imagery contribute to wayfinding, abstract imagery is more helpful in navigating an environment -However, in a study comparing a route perspective (directions are given in terms of what the person following them will see on the route, allowing for scenographic images) and a survey perspective (directions are given as if following a map overview of the route, allowing for abstract images), - Padgitt and Hund (2012) found that the route perspective resulted in better wayfinding performance in a university building. - Thus, the effectiveness of the two types of imagery may depend on the complexity of the environment, the means of following the instructions (i.e., step-by-step or from memory), individual differences in sense of direction, or other facto -However, most of the imagery helpful in these cognitive tasks is visual.

Memory Error #7 : Persistence - Define - This particular situation can .. - these types of memories.. - the re-experiencing of these memories..

*This is persistence: experiencing unwanted memories over and over. -This particular situation can be annoying but can become more serious and debilitating if the unwanted memory is of a traumatic event. -These types of memories are sometimes experienced by soldiers who were in combat and victims of violent crimes and can interfere with an individual's daily life - The re-experiencing of these memories can cause extreme anxiety and sleeplessness that becomes debilitating. In extreme cases, these memories are a primary symptom of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and can require psychological treatment to decrease them.

Cahill and McGaugh (2006): Superior Autobiographical Memory : AJ -autobiographical memories are.. Study:

- Autobiographical memories are memories of your day-to-day life (e.g., what you had for breakfast this morning, the day you broke up with your last boyfriend or girlfriend). -Parker, Cahill, and McGaugh (2006) describe a case study of a woman identified as AJ who claimed to be able to report what occurred on any date past 1980 (during her lifetime). -The researchers tested AJ in the lab and found that she did in fact have superior autobiographical memory. -She was able to report with near perfect accuracy events from her life and historical events when given a date chosen by the researchers. -The researchers verified her personal events from diaries she kept spanning twenty-four years of her life. -Because AJ did not know which dates she would be tested on, it is unlikely that she used the mnemonic techniques described in this chapter. -In fact, her performance for memorization of lists was below normal levels when tested by the researchers. - Thus, her superior autobiographical memory appears to be an untrained ability with an unknown cause. -The results showed that these individuals differed from normal control subjects in the size and shape of their temporal lobe, which is known to be involved in autobiographical memory, and the caudate nucleus, which is known to be involved in skills and habits. -The researchers also suggested that the subjects showed some tendencies toward obsessive memory and other habits (e.g., they habitually recall past events in their lives). **Thus, these brain structure differences might be responsible for the superior autobiographical memory shown by these subjects, or they could be a result of the abilities these individuals possess.

SPC: Evidence for Multi-Store Model

- Primacy Effect - Recency Effect Multiple Store explanation: *Primacy- items from early list positions can be reharesed more often and are in LTM * REcency Effect- Recency - participants start recall phase by reporting items still in short-term memory

The DRM Procedure: Roediger and McDermott

- Roediger and McDermott published a study on false memories with a new methodology based on a much older study by Deese (1950). -From the initials of these three authors, the method has become known as the DRM procedure and has been used in numerous studies in the past two decades to study the creation of false memories. Ex. Look at each word in the list in the figure, going down the columns, for a few seconds each. At the end of thirty seconds, try to write down all the words in the list without looking back at the list. When you are finished recalling the words, check your responses. Did you include any words not on the list? In particular, did you recall sleep, chair, king, or cold? If so, then your memory is like most people's in that you created false memories for these items. - In fact, the words all relate to one of four "themes" that correspond to sleep, chair, king, or cold. For example, the words in the "bed, rest, awake, tired" list all relate to the theme (or schema) of sleep. -They then tested the subjects' memory for the lists using both recall (i.e., write down all the words you remember in the list) and recognition (i.e., decide if each word shown was in the list and indicate your confidence in your response) tests. False memories for the theme words were high in both types of tests. - Results: Recall and recognition rates for theme items not presented in the lists were high. Notice that the recall data show the serial position curve, with higher recall for items at the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list . -The number of false memories for theme words was similar to the recall rates of list items in the middle of the list where no primacy and recency effects occur. This makes sense because the theme words not in the lists cannot benefit from list position effects. -Subjects were sure the theme items were "old" almost 60 percent of the time. **Seeing the words for the sleep schema likely activated that schema (and the others just listed) for you during your study of the words. Then when you tried to recall the words in the list, your memory relied on the schema (perhaps even unconsciously) to try to recall the words, inserting errors based on the theme words.

*Spaced Vs. Massed Learning

- Spaced: objects shown throughout the lecture ( spaced out and seen a couple of times)--> This is easier to remeber - massed: these objects were only shown quickly one time (harder to remeber)

Tracy and Baker :auditory memory - auditory information is also stored in - what did they do - students were asked to - after a delay, participants -overall, recall rates were similar for words -recall increase as - thus both -In other words, strong images helped for *These results suggest that memory is influenced by

- auditory information is also stored in long-term memory and can be used to create auditory images through long-term memory retrieval. -Tracy and Barker (1993) compared the roles of visual and auditory images in recalling words. -Students were asked to imagine a future trip to the beach and rate the vividness of visual (e.g., How easy is it to "see" the waves?) and auditory (e.g., How easy is it to "hear" the waves?) images. -After a brief delay, participants completed an unexpected recall test for the objects (e.g., waves) that they had been asked about in the earlier rating task. -Overall, recall rates were similar for words rated according to visual and auditory images. - Recall increased as visual image ratings increased, but recall was highest for words with high and low auditory image ratings as compared with words with intermediate auditory ratings. -Thus, both strong and weak auditory images aided memory, but only strong visual images aided memory. -In other words, strong images helped for both auditory and visual images, but for auditory images only, when it was difficult to imagine a sound, this made the image more distinct in memory. *These results suggest that memory is influenced by both types of images, but the effects can differ depending on whether the image is visual or auditory in nature.

Fuzzy trace theory

- suggests that when the themed lists are presented for study in the DRM procedure, a gist for the list is created and stored in memory. - The gist matches the theme items closely because the lists were created to correspond to that theme item. -When items are retrieved in a later memory test, the gist for the list is easily available (like the main ideas of the story in the Bartlett studies), whereas the details of the specific items have been lost (like the details of the story in the Bartlett studies). -Thus, the theme items are falsely remembered as the gist for the list. This description of false memory creation is known as fuzzy trace theory -Both the activation-monitoring and fuzzy trace theories have been supported by research studies and show some similarities in the way they describe false memories. In fact, they have been difficult to separate in tests of their predictions (Gallo, 2010).

Amnesia: 1. Clive Wearing -After suffering from a form of -Such cases are 2.HM - H. M. suffered from -Unfortunately, the surgery had an even more debilitating side effect: -During the surgery, the area known as - In other words, H. M. seemed to

- the story of Clive Wearing, who suffers from extreme amnesia. -After suffering from a form of encephalitis, he was no longer able to remember events that he experienced and had forgotten many of the events of his past. -Such cases are atypical, but they can occur when one suffers damage in particular brain areas due to a disease or accident. 2. another well-known case of amnesia in a man known as H. M., - H. M. suffered from epilepsy as a child that was severe enough to disrupt his daily life. When he was eighteen, surgery was performed in an attempt to reduce the frequency and severity of his seizures. -Unfortunately, the surgery had an even more debilitating side effect: H. M. lost his ability to explicitly retrieve events that occurred after his surgery. -During the surgery, the area known as the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) was damaged in H. M.'s brain along with surrounding areas of his MTL, which caused his anterograde amnesia (see Figure 7.8). - In other words, H. M. seemed to remember who he was, his family, and his life up until the surgery but could not remember people he met or events he experienced after the surgery.

Why does the 'DRM' procedure produce false memories? Theory #1b

-Activation of related items at time of retrieval -Recall words like 'orbiting', 'shuttle' during test ... activates 'ASTRONAUT' so you "recall" it -Evidence? retrieval of theme words usually later in test phase -Still an 'activation + source-monitoring' error --> 'activation-monitoring' account (version b)

Childhood Amnesia -Amnesia (childhood or infantile amnesia) has also been used to describe -However, amnesia in this case does not mean -Many people can remember -One suggestion for the cause of this lack of early childhood memories is that -The lack of a fully developed knowledge structure may also contribute to -However, this does not mean that children of this age -In addition, childhood amnesia seems to be -Semantic and implicit memories do not seem to EX.

-Amnesia (childhood or infantile amnesia) has also been used to describe the phenomenon of a lack of memory of one's life before the age of five (the age range can vary by individual). -However, amnesia in this case does not mean a complete absence of memories for this time period. -Many people can remember a few episodes from before this age, especially if they have strong emotional content, but far fewer memories exist for this age range than for later in one's life (Richmond & Nelson, 2007). -One suggestion for the cause of this lack of early childhood memories is that the areas of the brain (e.g., the hippocampus and the surrounding medial temporal lobe) responsible for very long-term storage of memories are not yet fully developed. -The lack of a fully developed knowledge structure may also contribute to this phenomenon because, as we have discussed, connections to current knowledge are important for memory encoding. -However, this does not mean that children of this age do not store information in long-term memory. -In addition, childhood amnesia seems to be specific to episodic memories. -Semantic and implicit memories do not seem to show the same types of deficits in young children. EX. My son knows that he went to Disney World when he was three years old (a semantic memory), but he does not remember meeting his great aunts on that trip (an episodic memory).

auditory Imagery -Auditory images, like visual images, can be -Memory for a piece of music or your inner speech -As visual images extend across space, auditory images extend over time, EX.

-Auditory images, like visual images, can be held for auditory stimuli. -Memory for a piece of music or your inner speech when you "talk to yourself" or memories for distinctive sounds (e.g., a wind chime or crashing waves) can all involve auditory images (Hubbard, 2010). -As visual images extend across space, auditory images extend over time, showing similar effects in time (rather than space) when people are asked to manipulate those images in research studies. *For example, Halpern (1988) found that when participants were asked to verify if two lyrics came from the same song, reaction times for responses were longer if the lyrics were farther apart in the song than when they were closer together. These results are similar to those in Kosslyn's (1973) study of visual images over spatial distance.

Memory Error #6: Bias - Define - Example - some women later remeber.. - in other words....

-Bias occurs when our current experiences or knowledge alter our memory of a past experience. -For example, after going through an unpleasant breakup with a romantic partner, you may remember a happy event you experienced with that partner as more negative than it actually was. This can easily occur when our impressions of people change. -Some women later remember the pain of childbirth as less painful than when they were experiencing it because they currently are experiencing happy times with their child. - In other words, our current experiences and knowledge affect or bias the way we remember past experiences.

Bransford and Johnson: Laundry Passage Experiment

-Bransford and Johnson (1972) gave subjects the following passage to read and remember. -subjects remembered about 15 percent to 23 percent (across three experiments) of the ideas in the passage when no topic was given to them. -Other subjects were told ahead of time that the passage was about doing laundry, and these subjects remembered from 32 percent to 40 percent of the ideas (in three experiments), significantly improving recall scores. -Simply knowing the topic ahead of time allowed the subjects to apply their own knowledge and experience to the passage while they read it and increased their ability to recall the passage accurately. -When the topic was given to the subjects after reading the passage (as you were), no improvement in recall was seen. -Thus, the effects of subjects' prior knowledge seemed to occur while the passage was being read the first time in interpreting the different parts of it. -The subjects' knowledge that the passage was about doing laundry provided them with a schema for the information they were reading.

Superior Autobiographical Memory

-Case AJ: could report her activities from any day of her life since 1980 (tested in 2006) -60 Minutes episode -Actress Marilu Henner: "I decided to play a game with myself, in which I tried to remember every day that had led up to that moment starting with the most recent What did I do a week ago? Two weeks ago? I even started to go back to previous years. This exercise became not only my routine to fall asleep, but also a way to mentally challenge and exercise my brain."

Summary of LTM

-Cognitive Psychologists now know quite a lot about how encoding and retrieval work -Consolidation, depth of processing, spaced practice, primacy effect, the testing effect, the encoding specificity principle -Most of these "effects" discovered by Cognitive Psychologists can be exploited by you to do better in your exams!

AD: -Current research suggests that -For example, Erickson et al. (2011) showed that -Belleville et al. (2011) also showed that ** Better understanding of the link between -Recent research has shown that -In fact, the hippocampus is one of the few brain areas where \ - However, with the onset of Alzheimer's disease, the degradation of -Further complicating matters,

-Current research suggests that both physical and cognitive activity can help reduce the incidence of the disease. -For example, Erickson et al. (2011) showed that aerobic exercise increased the size of the hippocampus, which led to memory improvements in elderly subjects. -Belleville et al. (2011) also showed that in individuals with mild cognitive impairment (often a precursor to Alzheimer's disease), memory training with a cognitive task increased brain activity in areas related to memory on a later task. ** Better understanding of the link between brain function and these activities will aid efforts to reduce Alzheimer's disease in the elderly. -Recent research has shown that the hippocampus is one of the first brain areas to be affected by the progression of Alzheimer's disease (Mu & Gage, 2011). -In fact, the hippocampus is one of the few brain areas where new neurons are formed throughout adulthood. - However, with the onset of Alzheimer's disease, the degradation of hippocampal neurons occurs faster than new neurons can form (Mu & Gage, 2011) and problems with memory begin to emerge due to the damage to neurons in this area. -Further complicating matters, the hippocampus and the surrounding entorhinal cortex have been shown to be involved in learning of new procedural knowledge and relational processing (making meaningful connections between sets of information; Moser, Kropff, & Moser, 2008; O'Keefe & Nadel, 1978), which are important processes for learning new tasks.

Picture Superiority Effect -dual code -providing the word -assusmes:

-Dual code: image (visual) and verbal (auditory) -Providing the word only gives verbal (and any visual image you dream up is less vivid) -Assumes: pictures are automatically labelled, but words are less well "imagined" as images.

Memory Errors: George W Bush

-Flash bulb memories: Seem vivid. Accurate? -George W. Bush on the subject of 9/11 -GWB: How did you find out about the attacks? 4 Dec 2001: saw it on TV outside classroom 20 Dec 2001: senior advisor Karl Rove told me 5 Jan 2001: saw it on TV, then Chief of Staff Andy Card told me "America is under attack"

Hegarty: Imagery in Problem Solving -Hegarty (2004) reviewed research studies showing that - Further, asking subjects to mentally imagine the -Hegarty (1992) also showed that in solving complex problems, -EX. Which direction will the top left wheel move? In order to solve this problem, -Hegarty gave subjects pulley systems like the one shown.She then gave them statements to verify - As can be seen in the graph, -Adding more parts to the problem

-Hegarty (2004) reviewed research studies showing that when subjects attempt to solve problems like the gear system problem shown in or a pulley system problem, the reaction time in solving the problem depended on the amount of movement required by the system in the problem. - Further, asking subjects to mentally imagine the problem did not change their reaction times, suggesting that mental imaging is something they will do on their own to solve the problem. -Hegarty (1992) also showed that in solving complex problems, the mental simulation is done in parts to arrive at the final solution. -EX. Which direction will the top left wheel move? In order to solve this problem, you might think through each part of the system's movement (e.g., pulling the rope on the right will make the top right wheel move clockwise, which will then move the bottom wheel counterclockwise, which then moves the top left wheel counterclockwise). -Hegarty gave subjects pulley systems like the one shown.She then gave them statements to verify (e.g., True or false? If the block on the bottom is pulled, the bottom wheel will turn clockwise) and recorded the reaction time to verify the statements. - As can be seen in the graph, subjects took longer to verify statements that involved more parts of the pulley system. -This result suggests that subjects are not moving all the parts of the mental image of the system simultaneously. -Adding more parts to the problem adds more time for subjects to imagine a solution.

Clive Wearing -Had - Damaged his -Memory span of

-Herpes Viral Encephalitis -Damaged his hippocampus -Memory span of 7 - 30 seconds

Memory Strategies -How to improve retrieval : -How to make encoding and retrieval work together: -how you retrieve

-How to improve retrieval : the testing effect -How to make encoding and retrieval work together: -matching environmental context -matching your mood -matching how you learn and how you retrieve (transfer-appropriate processing) -Mnemonics!

Amnesia and Implicit Memory

-Implicit memory, however, involves unintentional retrieval of memory. -In some cases, implicit memory is involved in a task without us being aware that our memory is being used at all. -Amnesics like H. M. have shown the ability to use implicit memory, as measured by improvement on skills tasks performed over a series of days or weeks that they had no memory of having performed in the past (although his improvement was not as great as that shown by non-amnesic controls, Lemonick, 2016). - The fact that individuals like H. M. show evidence of implicit memory is important because it suggests that amnesics most likely can encode some new memories; they just cannot explicitly retrieve them.

-In a number of studies, Loftus and colleagues -However, if one imagines a negative event related to something - As an example of a positive application of false memory through imagining events, -Thus, false memories might provide a useful way

-In a number of studies, Loftus and colleagues (e.g., Thomas & Loftus, 2002) have shown that imagining an event can create a false memory for that event. -However, if one imagines a negative event related to something he or she wishes to avoid, the false memory can work to aid in avoiding that item or situation in the future. - As an example of a positive application of false memory through imagining events, Clifasefi, Bernstein, Mantonakis, and Loftus (2013) reported that subjects who had false memories created by suggestions from researchers of an earlier event when they got sick drinking vodka showed a decreased preference for drinking vodka in the future. -Thus, false memories might provide a useful way to avoid negative stimuli (like drinking too much alcohol) for individuals who wish to do so.

Schema : Brewer and Treyens

-In fact, Brewer and Treyens (1981) showed that our memory relies on our schemata in an experiment with a similar situation to the professor office visit just described. - The subjects in their experiment were asked to wait in the experimenter's office while the experimenter checked that the last subject had finished. -After a short time, the subject was taken into another room and asked to describe the office he or she waited in. -Subjects could accurately recall many of the objects from the office they waited in, and their schema for a university office likely contributed to that accurate recall, but they also falsely recalled objects that were not in the office. -Many of the objects falsely recalled were consistent with a schema of a university office (e.g., books, a filing cabinet). Thus, the office schema may have helped subjects recall objects that were actually there, but it also resulted in recall of objects consistent with the schema that were not present in the office they waited in.

Hand configuration cues -In some early work in this area, Klatzky et al. (1987) showed that subjects could report the correct hand shape -In this case, the image was also available in their minds as a -In another study by Klatzky, Pellegrino, McCloskey, and Doherty (1989), these researchers showed that when asked to judge whether an action could be performed -This suggests that subjects benefitted in XXX

-In some early work in this area, Klatzky et al. (1987) showed that subjects could report the correct hand shape for grasping different objects (see Photo 8.5) without actually grasping those objects, suggesting that the subjects had access to a motor image for the task. -In this case, the image was also available in their minds as a verbal description, as subjects could make a verbal report of the appropriate hand grasp. -In another study by Klatzky, Pellegrino, McCloskey, and Doherty (1989), these researchers showed that when asked to judge whether an action could be performed (e.g., crumple a newspaper versus climb a grape), subjects more quickly identified performable actions when they were preceded by an appropriate hand configuration for the action. -This suggests that subjects benefitted in judging the actions from the motor imagery provided by the hand configuration cues.

Kosslyn: Mental-scanning task 1. Plane 2. Fictional island

-Kosslyn (1973) asked subjects to consider drawings of objects (e.g., a plane, a lighthouse) like those shown in Figure 8.1. -He asked them to create an image of the object they had seen and focus on a part of the object (e.g., the plane's propeller). -The subjects were then asked to review their mental image to verify the presence of another part of the object (e.g., Does the plane have a tail fin?). -The time taken to answer the question was recorded on each trial. -Results from this study showed that the farther away on the object the verification task was (e.g., the plane's tail) from the starting point in the image (e.g., the plane's propeller), the longer it took subjects to complete the task. **From these results, Kosslyn argued that mental images exist as spatial representations in the mind that we can access to complete a task. 2. Kosslyn further supported his argument with additional experiments. -For example, in one study (Kosslyn, Ball, & Reiser, 1978), subjects were asked to study the locations of objects on the map of a fictional island (see Figure 8.2 for an example). -They were then asked to imagine the map of the island and go to a specific location on the island. -Finally, they were asked to mentally move from that location to another location on the island. -The time it took them to "mentally travel" between locations depended on the actual distance between the locations on the map, suggesting that subjects were moving around on a spatial representation of the map in their minds. *Similar results were also reported by Pinker and Kosslyn (1978) for three-dimensional scenes and by Shepard and Metzler (1971) for the rotation of three-dimensional objects (see Figure 5.8).

Kossylns studies have been supported by more data (spatial) -they conducted - For example, Kosslyn et al. (1993) showed that visual mental-imagery tasks activate - they also showed that the size of an object --more recently reported that brain areas involved in visual-memory tasks are also -Zatorre and Halpern (2005) present similar evidence for auditory images—when asked to imagine something auditory ***Thus, recent neuroimaging studies provide * Therefore, the debate over how images are represented

-Kosslyn and his colleagues conducted further studies that examined brain activity during mental imaging. - For example, Kosslyn et al. (1993) showed that visual mental-imagery tasks activate visual cortex areas in the brain, suggesting that mental imagery activates brain regions that are also activated in perception. - they also showed that the size of an object one is imagining is related to the location of brain activation in primary visual cortex areas due to the spatial organization of the visual cortex -more recently reported that brain areas involved in visual-memory tasks are also involved in visual mental-imagery tasks. -Zatorre and Halpern (2005) present similar evidence for auditory images—when asked to imagine something auditory (e.g., the tune of a song), brain areas that process sound stimuli in the temporal lobe are active, despite no sound stimuli being presented -These results suggest that the memory accessed in the imagery task is perceptual. ***Thus, recent neuroimaging studies provide additional support for the spatial-representation view of imagery. * Therefore, the debate over how images are represented in the mind is ongoing.

*Encoding Effects : How to optimize your encoding

-Levels of Processing ("depth of processing") -Spacing Effects -Serial Position curve

phonological loop (articulatory loop) - like - rehersal -it is the - new info -Evidence : 1. 2. 3. *articulatory suppression -harder cause -studied info *STM is an * rehersal most important for * even if we read words, it is - capacity

-Like Visuospatial sketchpad, for verbal info -Rehearsal holds info in the loop for longer -It is the dominant store for words -New info displaces old info Evidence? -more errors recalling similar-sounding items (C mistaken for T, but C rarely mistaken for X) -articulatory suppression (e.g. counting backwards) -Word Length Effect *articulatory suppression makes it harder because: Puts more items in the loop to remember --> capacity exceeded -->new info -->displaces old info -studied information cannot be rehearsed to maintain it because loop is being used for something else *STM is an active store house that manipulates information * rehersal most important for phonological loop * even if we read words, it is converted to verbal format which goes to the phonological loop Capacity-About 1.5 to 2.0 seconds' worth of verbal material can be rehearsed in the phonological loop, which prevents decay/ forgetting. The amount of information that can be rehearsed and temporarily retained is determined by this 'auditory duration', not by the number of items.

Sensory Memory -measured by - up tp -format STM -measured -lasts -format

-Measured by Partial Report -up to 1 sec (visual); up to 3-4 sec (auditory) -Format: raw, unprocessed -Measured by, e.g., length of digit span -Lasts up to 18-20 sec (longer if you keep rehearsing it continuously) -Format: somewhat processed; perceptual features and/or semantic information

The reconstructive nature of memory - memory researchers are .. - we do not record and store.. - sometimes we.. - this process occurs...

-Memory researchers have long known that memory is reconstructive. -We do not record and store all aspects of our experiences together. Instead, we encode and store the pieces of an experience (e.g., sights, sounds, scents) and then attempt to put the correct pieces back together when we retrieve our memory of the experience. - sometime we lose some of those pieces and they may be replaced with our imaginations - this is a process that occurs automatically and without awareness making us feel as though our memories are accurate

Transfer Appropriate Processing

-Memory retrieval is best when there is a good match between type of processing at study and type of processing at test -So, for exams in this course, you could practice multiple choice questions (for tests) and short answer questions (for SWAs) -BUT: recall practice is always the most effective!

Motor imagery and social skills -Motor imagery may also be related -Decety and Grèzes (2006) suggest that -They review evidence from neurophysiological studies showing connections between -They further suggest links between perceiving -Similar links exist between -Thus, motor imagery may be important in XXX

-Motor imagery may also be related to social skills and interactions. -Decety and Grèzes (2006) suggest that the type of imagery used to enhance motor performance is related to imagery that can enhance social interactions. -They review evidence from neurophysiological studies showing connections between brain areas involved in producing actions and in imagining actions. -They further suggest links between perceiving one's own actions and another's actions and between imagining emotions and correctly identifying another's emotional state, which illustrates similarity between imagery and social behaviors. -Similar links exist between imagining pain and perceiving pain in others. -Thus, motor imagery may be important in producing active interactions with others (e.g., coordinated movements and synchrony) and in understanding others' emotional states.

Application: -Numerous studies have found that -In fact, Memon et al. (2010) conducted a -Further, the Memon et al. study showed that the -Campo, Gregory, and Fisher (2012) conducted a field study to -Unfortunately, they found that the interviews

-Numerous studies have found that the cognitive interview increases accurate witness retrieval of event details compared with typical police questioning procedures. -In fact, Memon et al. (2010) conducted a statistical review (called a meta-analysis) of sixty-five experiments involving the cognitive interview and showed that across these experiments, the cognitive interview increases retrieval of correct details of events with only a small increase in the number of incorrect details retrieved. -Further, the Memon et al. study showed that the increase in correct details was highest for older adults, meaning that the cognitive interview may be particularly useful for older eyewitnesses, who are typically more influenced by misleading information (e.g., Cohen & Faulkner, 1989) and prone to source monitoring errors (e.g., Hashtroudi, Johnson, & Chrosniak, 1990). -Campo, Gregory, and Fisher (2012) conducted a field study to determine if South Florida police officers were using the technique described in these training manuals in their questioning of witnesses. -Unfortunately, they found that the interviews sampled did not successfully use the cognitive interview techniques. Thus, there is room for improvement in translating the results of psychological science to real-world situations in this area.

Eyewitness Memory Studies --One factor that has emerged as important in altering the accuracy of an eyewitness' memory is .. -Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) asked.. First experimetn Second experiment -misinformation effect

-One factor that has emerged as important in altering the accuracy of an eyewitness' memory is what the witness is exposed to after he or she witnesses the event, termed postevent information. When the postevent information is incorrect or misleading, it can result in memory errors from the witness. -Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) asked subjects to watch videos of car accidents. -After viewing the films, subjects were asked to recall what happened and then asked some questions about what they had seen. One key question asked subjects "How fast were the cars going when they _____ each other?" with the blank filled in with a specific verb that suggested a particular description of the crash. -The researchers used the verbs smashed, collided, bumped, hit, and contacted for different groups of subjects. -They found that the speed estimate subjects gave depended on the verb they were given in the question, with higher estimates of speed given for more violent verbs (e.g., smashed). - In a second experiment, subjects viewed a car accident video and then received the speed estimate question with either smashed or hit as the verb. -Again, higher speed estimates were given for smashed than for hit. -A week later, the subjects returned and were asked again about the car accident in the video. This time they were asked if they saw any broken glass in the video, another suggestive question about the nature of the crash. -A larger percentage of people said they saw glass if they had been asked the speed question with the verb smashed (32 percent) than if they had been asked with the verb hit (14 percent). -No broken glass appeared in the video; these reports were false memories about the accident influenced by the type of question subjects were asked about the video they saw. -results are known as the misinformation effect because subjects are misled by suggestive information given (in statements or questions) after they have witnessed an event. This information changes their memory of the event to create memory errors. The misinformation effect provides another example of the memory "sin" of suggestibility.

Amnesia of Alzheimer's Disease - one of the more common causes - it is believed that Alzehimers disease occurs when - Plaques are - as the plaques spread - Tangles are - as more tangles spread **Neuron function is disrupted by - overtime, massive cell loss -Neuron function disruption seems to begin in the -Because the hippocampus is important in

-One of the more common causes of progressive amnesia is Alzheimer's disease. -It is believed that Alzheimer's disease occurs when neuron (i.e., brain cell) function is disrupted by plaques and tangles. -Plaques are bundles of protein (generally beta amyloid protein) that develop in the space between neurons known as the synapse, disrupting communication between neurons. -As the plaques spread throughout the brain, neuron communication deteriorates causing more severe dementia. -Tangles are protein fibers (tau amyloid protein) that develop in a neuron's nucleus, decreasing its ability to function properly. -As more tangles spread throughout the neurons in the brain, less cognitive functioning occurs, resulting in dementia. **Neuron functioning is disrupted by both plaques and tangles in Alzheimer's patients. -Over time, massive cell loss drastically reduces brain mass -Neuron function disruption seems to begin in the hippocampus in the early stages of Alzheimer's disease (Gosche, Mortimer, Smith, Markesbery, & Snowdon, 2002). -Because the hippocampus is important in explicit-memory retrieval (as already described), this is likely the cause of memory problems that signal the beginning of the disease symptoms.

Suggestibility - other peoples - or even - a line up implies - reminds witness there is - make nonsuspect people in line up look To prevent this can : - have a police do a - dont show - let the witness know it is ...

-Other people's statements and suggestions can alter our memory of an event. -Or even create false memories. -A line-up implies the guilty person is present. -Remind witness there is a chance that NONE of the faces in the line-up is the guilty person. -Make non-suspect people in line-up look similar to the suspect (and to description of criminal). - have police do a line up without the suspect - don't show photo line up first - let the witness know its okay to choose no body

Retrograde vs. Anterograde in H.M. -RA -AM --This has led people to argue that the - the memories lost in the temporal gradient is because - the hippocampus was - so HM had a - anterograde part,

-RA: had a temporal gradient, so a slope of memory decreasing of approx. 2 yrs before his trauma (cant remeber 2 yrs before) - AM: HM also had this, couldnt remeber anything after trauma Like this profile in H.M. -This has led people to argue that the MTL (hippocampus) is involved in 'consolidation' - it is important for encoding new memories and for somehow cementing them for a period of time after they happen... but ultimately the memory traces get shipped off elsewhere (e.g. into neocortex) and stored there long term. Which is why memories for remote events are ok after MTL damage, but new ones or recently acquired ones are impaired. - the memories lost in the temporal gradient is because those memories have not been consolidated yet, so they are able to be lost. - the hippocampus was still trying to organize it and storing it, so it was able to be gone because the hippocampus wasnt fully done with it - so HM had a time-limited retrograde, so he couldn't remeber events for approx. 2yrs before trauma - anterograde part, cant rember anything after trauma *you dont lose semantic memory

Flashblindness/Negative Afterimages - requires either: -lasts -contains only -image is -caused by either : - -

-Requires either -high intensity (sun) -long exposure (Jesus/flag) -Lasts several seconds -Contains only edges/patches -Image is inverted -Caused by either -Photopigment depletion (in retinal photoreceptors) -neurotransmitter depletion (fatigue of visual neurons

Sensory Memory/Positive Afterimages - requires only -does not require -caused by -probably in -sensory memory lasts -Positive afterimages last

-Requires only very brief exposure -Does not require high intensity -Caused by temporary persistence of neural firing (?) -Probably in the retina -Sensory memory: lasts 1 sec and contains visual details -Positive Afterimages: last >1sec; esp. high contrast edges. Maybe just "strong" sensory memory?

Applications: Cognitive Interview -Research is also helping police departments find ways to question witnesses - The interview relies on -The techniques come from -In the cognitive interview, the witness is asked to 1. 2. 3. 4.

-Research is also helping police departments find ways to question witnesses that prevent memory errors through postevent misinformation. The development of the cognitive interview has helped police question witnesses in a way that limits suggestibility and misleading information. - The interview relies on four techniques designed to enhance retrieval of the details of an event . -The techniques come from basic principles of memory processing -In the cognitive interview, the witness is asked to conduct a detailed retrieval of the event he or she experienced such that (1) the original context is reinstated in the witness' mind (2) the witness reports everything he or she remembers even if it is incomplete to allow for retrieval of information a witness may have less confidence in, (3) the witness takes different perspectives of the event in his or her retrieval (e.g., other witnesses' views), and (4) the witness retrieves events in different temporal orders (e.g., forward in time, backward in time).

Memory Error #3: Blocking - schacter (2002) describes .. - ex. Most people have .. - Blocking seems to occur more frequently with ..

-Schacter (2002) describes blocking as an experience of knowing that you know information but being unable to retrieve it. This is also sometimes called a "tip-of-the-tongue" experience. -ex: Most people have had this experience when they know the name of something (e.g., an actor, the name of a book or movie, a specific word they want to use in their writing) and may be able to remember what letter it starts with or what it sounds like but cannot retrieve the full name or word. -Blocking seems to occur more frequently with proper names and unusual words because the terms are somewhat arbitrary in their assignment: There is no meaning connection to help us associate the name Heather with the person we just met to help us remember her name in the future.

False Memories : -Several studies have now shown that when one is asked to imagine an event that never occurred, -For example, Loftus (1993) has shown that subjects who are asked to "remember" the - Thomas and Loftus (2002) showed that just imagining an event a few times can create -In this study, subjects were asked to perform or imagine either -After imagining the tasks they did not perform a few times, - Thus, imagining events that never happened can have -These studies show that although in most cases imagery can aid memory retrieval, it can also

-Several studies have now shown that when one is asked to imagine an event that never occurred, this can sometimes create a false memory for the event as if it actually happened. -For example, Loftus (1993) has shown that subjects who are asked to "remember" the time they were lost in the mall when they were a child are able to recall details of the event, even though every subject in these studies was never actually lost in a mall as a child (as verified by their family members). - Thomas and Loftus (2002) showed that just imagining an event a few times can create false memories for having experienced the event. -In this study, subjects were asked to perform or imagine either common tasks (e.g., roll a pair of dice, flip a coin) or bizarre tasks (e.g., sit on a pair of dice). -After imagining the tasks they did not perform a few times, many of the subjects reported having performed both the common and the bizarre tasks. - Thus, imagining events that never happened can have the unintended effect of creating a false memory for those events. -These studies show that although in most cases imagery can aid memory retrieval, it can also create memory errors that could be damaging if one is asked to imagine a negative event, such as a crime.

Perceptual After-effects 1: Negative afterimages *NOT SAME AS

-Similar to flash-blindness, but less harmful and not mediated solely by photoreceptors -E.g. Jesus afterimage look for a long time with eyes kept still (fatigue of neurons) -in retina (ganglion cells) or in brain -E.g. color-reversed flag -look for a long time (fatigue) -Higher up than retina (need color opponent processing) Not same as sensory memory!

Bias -Similar to -Our current knowledge or feelings -Falling out with a -Child.. Bias in Jennifers case -'Bias' in psychology may -Decision-making: -Memory bias - not bias in - not bias in - it was - police had a - they took Jenn's evidence OR - the police Prevent do this: -

-Similar to suggestibility -Our current knowledge or feelings alter our memory of a past event. -Falling out with a friend or romantic partner., makes you remeber positive memories as more negative -Childbirth!, mothers after they developed a relationship with child, feel that childbirth was not as painful Jennifers Case: -'Bias' in psychology may refer to decision-making or memory. -Decision-making: Confirmation bias -In coming to a decision, we place more weight on evidence that confirms our pre-conceived belief -Memory Bias: we recast old memories in a new light, according to our current mindset (biased toward current mindset). -not 'bias' in Jennifer's memory --not a racial bias in Jennifer: all faces in lineup were same race -It was confirmation bias on the part of the Police: -police had a pre-conceived idea of which person did the crime -they took Jennifer's 'evidence' from the photo lineup (however hesitant her selection may have been) and interpreted it as strong evidence. Or: the police may have biased her decision with subtle signals (hinting that it was Cotton) Could do: - double blind line up: police doesn't know so they cant hint at you

Levels of PRocessing: Class Experiment Which side of class did better?

-Similar to the experiment from the first day -But we'll collect more data -One side of class: is the word in capitals or lower case? -Other side of class: if this item were in your (childhood) home, which room would it be in? Which side of class did better? - the side with the rooms -Levels of Processing -deeper processing at encoding better memory -deeper = ? **encoding information using its meaning aids memory***

Bartlett's Studies

-Sir Frederick C. Bartlett (1932) conducted studies on subjects' abilities to reproduce simple stories, passages, and figures. Bartlett was interested in the accuracy of reproduction of the text or figures over time and the types of errors subjects made. - After asking subjects to study the text or figures, Bartlett asked subjects to reproduce them after increasing intervals of time, beginning with a delay of about fifteen minutes. -One of the main texts he used was a Native Canadian folk story that involved a fishing trip for two young men and a battle up the river ( -As one would expect, he found that subjects could reproduce only some of the text word for word, but they seemed to have remembered many of the main points of the story for long periods of time. -However, when subjects made errors in the story, they tended to be consistent with the subjects' cultural biases (the subjects were students in the United Kingdom). For example, "canoes" in the story became "boats" in the reproductions, and "paddling" became "rowing." -These errors showed that the subjects relied on their own experiences and knowledge to fill in the details based on their general memory of the events, instead of remembering the details of these events. -Bartlett's studies were some of the first to show how memories of experiences are remembered based on the general meaning of the events they want to remember with details filled in (sometimes incorrectly) from subjects' general knowledge.

Blocking - stop on - ex - Or aka - you have a - can sometimes Ex.

-Stop on cue: someone give an example, what is the cue in this example? (context, or some other item present at time of encoding the item, or otherwise related to the item, or maybe even PART of the item). Or 'tip-of-the-tongue' -You have a cue, and you have a sense of 'being close' to retrieving the memory item, but you cannot quite retrieve it. -Can sometimes remember parts of the item (e.g., the first letter of the name) Ex. names are arbitrary and cant do semantic processing so we forget

Memory Error #5: suggestibility -Suggestibility likely also -others' suggestions and statements can Ex. George W Bush..

-Suggestibility likely also played a role in Ronald Cotton's case. Jennifer reported that the police confirmed her choice of Cotton as the suspect when she picked him out of the lineup, giving her more confidence that Cotton was the man who attacked her, which likely altered her memory of the attack to fit him as the attacker. -others' suggestions and statements can alter our memories for events in ways we do not even realize. This can be done both in altering actual memories and creating false memories for events we have never experienced. Ex. George W bush saying others' suggestions and statements can alter our memories for events in ways we do not even realize. This can be done both in altering actual memories and creating false memories for events we have never experienced. Thus, it is likely that after hearing reports of the planes hitting the towers of the Trade Center and seeing the video repeatedly of the second plane hitting the building, he unknowingly created a false memory of the first plane that was suggested from these later experiences.

Testing Memory errors in the lab

-The Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm -Creating "false memories" - due to theme words - participants were given a bunch of words with two themes -Participants falsely recall the 'theme' words

Imagery and Simulation -The neurophysiological results described by Decety and Grèzes (2006) suggest -In fact, imagery may precede -In other words, social interaction often -This idea was suggested by Barsalou (2008) in describing -He calls this perspective -Instead, it is an important process in -Thus, cognition is a broad interactive process rather than XXX

-The neurophysiological results described by Decety and Grèzes (2006) suggest that imagery may play a role in social interactions. -In fact, imagery may precede many social interactions as we consider what we might say to someone in certain situations before we encounter them, what emotions specific social situations might elicit in us before we experience them, or what movements we must make to navigate a social environment without tripping and embarrassing ourselves. -In other words, social interaction often requires simulation of these actions and emotions in order to determine the best way to handle a social situation. -This idea was suggested by Barsalou (2008) in describing the role of cognitive processes in our goals for perception and action in our environment. -He calls this perspective "grounded cognition," as it involves considering cognition as a means for achieving goals that may be bodily, social, or simulative -Instead, it is an important process in grounded cognition, where cognition involves simulation and the interaction of the body and the environment. -Thus, cognition is a broad interactive process rather than the accumulation of different operations from independent processes of perception, memory, and language.

Crutcher and Beer: Auditory superiority effect -There is also some evidence for an -Crutcher and Beer (2011) compared -Their results suggested that there is an -Their last experiment further showed that when participants were asked to label the sounds during study,

-There is also some evidence for an auditory version of the picture superiority effect. -Crutcher and Beer (2011) compared memory for sounds (e.g., the sound of dogs barking) and the spoken labels of those sounds (e.g., the word "barking") in several experiments. -Their results suggested that there is an "auditory superiority effect" with sounds better recalled than the labels of sounds. -Their last experiment further showed that when participants were asked to label the sounds during study, the sound advantage was strengthened with an even larger recall advantage for the sounds than the spoken labels they studied.

activation-monitoring theory of false memory creation. --These studies have found that.. --One study also found .. - Studies have even shown that .. --two important memory processes are.. --When one attempts to remember the.. -In other words, we try to determine the source ... --Thus, both..

-These studies have found that false memories for the theme items show remarkable similarities to accurate memories for the list items that subjects have studied. -One study also found that a study-test delay affects list and false memories similarly when delays are relatively short (Colbert & McBride, 2007). - Studies have even shown that electrophysical brain activity is similar for true recognition of list items and false recognition of theme items -two important memory processes are at play in the creation of false memories in the DRM procedure. The first process is activation of related items in memory.When concepts (e.g., words) are presented, those concepts become activated in the network organization in long-term memory. When a concept or schema becomes activated, that activation then spreads to other related concepts in the network. -When one attempts to remember the list items, the second process of source monitoring further works against accurate identification of list items. When we attempt to recall or recognize items, we consider whether a generated (in recall) or presented (in recognition) item was actually studied in the list. -In other words, we try to determine the source (previously studied versus encountered somewhere else) of the item to decide if it was studied or not. -Thus, both activation and source monitoring work together to produce false memories in the DRM procedure. Therefore, this theory is called the activation-monitoring theory of false memory creation.

Chimps and Memory

-This chimp had very good sensory memory (up to 1 sec, visual) -And also very good at getting info into Short-term Memory (trained to use attention effectively) -We know he/she must be using STM to some extent, because it takes 2-4 sec for the chimp to execute the response, by which time the info. will have faded from sensory memory.

Retrograde Amnesia: -This might be the form of amnesia you first thought about -This type of amnesia is most common after a -Doug Bruce, -Doctors who examined Doug diagnosed him with -Because the hippocampus works over time to -The hippocampus also seems to play a role in -He could tell you that an event had occurred, but could not

-This might be the form of amnesia you first thought about when reading the title of the section, as it is the one commonly portrayed in movies and TV shows. -This type of amnesia is most common after a head injury (e.g., due to the swelling of brain tissue) but is typically short-lived (i.e., many of the memories are eventually recovered) and limited to the events that occurred shortly before the damage. - However, extreme cases of retrograde amnesia have been documented. **For example, Doug Bruce, depicted in the documentary film Unknown White Male, describes suddenly becoming conscious one day on a New York train with no memory of who he was or where he was headed. This film depicts the various effects of retrograde amnesia on one's life, most especially the social issues that come with not remembering your family and friends and having to rebuild those relationships. -Doctors who examined Doug diagnosed him with a severe case of retrograde amnesia, but the cause was not clear despite several medical tests and examinations. Less is known about this type of amnesia because it is rare unless extensive damage to the hippocampus has occurred. -Because the hippocampus works over time to store memories as long-term memories with consolidation , retrograde amnesia can occur for memories in the time preceding damage of this area. -The hippocampus also seems to play a role in retrieving memories. For example, H. M. (see Photo 7.9) showed retrograde amnesia for events in the year or so preceding his surgery, and further testing of H. M. revealed that he could report very few details of most events in his life before the surgery (Lemonick, 2016). -He could tell you that an event had occurred, but could not "relive" the event as many of us can for important occasions in our lives. It was as if H. M.'s episodic memories from before his hippocampus was damaged had become semantic memories, suggesting that the hippocampus may be important for retrieving memories as well as storing them.

The seven 'sins' of memory

-Transience -Absentmindedness -Blocking -Source misattribution -Suggestibility -Bias -Persistence

Memory Error #1 - Transience - define - the rate if forgetting information is.. - most memory researchers have .. -Instead, -With more interference and .. - very little interference..

-Transience is a term for normal forgetting of information over time. -the rate of forgetting of information is very high right after encoding, but the rate decreases as the time since encoding increases, such that forgetting slows down -most memory researchers have rejected the idea of passive decay over time as the cause of forgetting. -Instead, active processes of interference (from older or more recently encoded information) and consolidation (the strengthening of memories through neural cell processes) seem to most heavily influence forgetting. - With more interference and less consolidation, more forgetting occurs. -Very little interference occurs while one is sleeping, and consolidation seems to work more effectively (perhaps because of the lack of interference) during sleep.

DRM false memory paradigm - type of experiment to - shows we - shows we retain - supports the idea that we - theories explaining why we

-Type of experiment to investigate false memory -Shows we confuse similar things in memory -Shows we retain gist better than details -supports the idea that we fit new info. into our existing schema, or existing semantic knowledge -Theories explaining why we see false memories in the DRM paradigm are not very detailed, and don't make competing predictions

Summary

-Unit Test 2 is on Chapter 5, 6, 7 plus "Memory and Imagery" from Chapter 8 -Sensory memory is not fully understood yet, even by vision researchers -Visual Short-Term Memory (STM) is thought of as Visual Working Memory (in this course) -Baddeley's model reconceptualized STM as something "active", malleable; not just a store

Implementing the Testing Effect -Use it with.. -Use it with.. -Home in: Also:

-Use it with Spaced Practice -Use it with Explanatory Questioning -why is my answer correct? (or incorrect) -Home in: which questions did I get wrong? Also: -private study in the exam room? (Context Effects) -type of practice questions you use (Transfer-appropriate Processing)

Persistence - define - ex. - occurs in -Why might it make sense, in terms of evolution, for emotionally intense memories to persist?

-When memories persist although they are unnecessary or unwanted -"Ear-worm" -Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) -Why might it make sense, in terms of evolution, for emotionally intense memories to persist?

Memory Error #4: Source Misattribution -Define -Ex. - source misattribution may have played a role in.. - other eyewitness cases...

-When we remember something as from a different source than the one it was actually learned from, we suffer from source misattribution. -For example, there are likely times when you have a thought or idea about something that you think is an original thought you generated, but in reality you read or heard about the idea somewhere else first. - Source misattribution may have played a role in Jennifer Thompson's case. When she identified Ronald Cotton in the police lineup of live suspects, she may have been remembering him from the photo lineup she had already completed instead of from the attack she experienced. -Other eyewitness cases have been found to be incorrect due to the "sin" of source misattribution. In these cases, eyewitnesses have erroneously identified someone as having committed the crime that they encountered in another (more innocent) situation.

eye witness memory - define - what type of info? -Lindsay shows: -Post event : - Results:

-a person's episodic memory for a crime or other dramatic event that he or she has witnessed -incorrect information after the event (e.g., from other witnesses) alters memory -Lindsay (1990): -slides of a crime -verbal narrative -female voice *The participants were given Post-event description with incorrect information: -either male or female voice -BUT , they were only asked about the slides - answered questions about the slides Results: People who had the same female voice after, remembered many incorrect details when source sounded the same (more misleading post event details) - people who had the male voice, remembered fewer incorrect details when the source was different ( less misleading post event details), but more details not in post event description - people who had no post-event misleading information, it didnt matter if it was a male or female voice because they both had less incorrect response than misleading post event descriptions

Flash Blindness

-bleaching (oversaturation) of retinal pigment -Lasts a few seconds to a few minutes -Or, permanent damage -Inverted image relative to stimulus in world - blinds you

Episodic Buffer

-briefly stores episodic memories when the loop and/or sketchpad is engaged -combines (binds) visual and verbal codes -only temporary storage -serves as a link to long-term episodic memory -Much less evidence for/about this component -examples: articulatory suppression does not wipe out recall of a word list completely

Perceptual After-effects 2: Positive afterimages -might be ex. sparkler

-e.g. bright window in dark room -After-effect is same as stim (bright on dark) -Cause: not depletion, but persistence of firing in photoreceptors -Don't need to look for a long time -Can last a few seconds; but usually when it does, it doesn't retain any detail except very high contrast -Might be the same thing as sensory memory -Mechanisms of sensory memory are debated!

7 sins: Eye-witness memory - Loftus and Palmer - What did they do? -asked participants

-extra information a witness is exposed to AFTER the event alters the memory -Loftus and Palmer (1974): showed video -free recall, then asked some questions asked to participants : How fast were the cars going when they ______ each other? - different verbs were used to explain what happened and , the most people choose a higher speed when the verb used was smashed compared to contacted ( which was a lower speed)

-images seem to play a role in many -In fact, many studies have shown that images can aid

-images seem to play a role in many episodic memories we recall from events we have experienced in our lives. -In fact, many studies have shown that images can aid memory compared with other forms of information (e.g., words): Pictures are better remembered than words, words that are more easily imaged (i.e., concrete objects) are better remembered, and sentences that create bizarre images are better remembered than sentences that invoke more common images.

Why? (... does matching the circumstances aid memory?)

-increased overlap -Same cues of encoding, same cues of retrieval

7 sins: Ronald Cotton - line up was not - made Jenns confidence - line up was not - it is a problem with - police took - lead to - suspect looks more like - lead to *Double blind

-line-up was not double blind: police officer may have 'confirmed' Jennifer's choice -made her confidence in her memory stronger next time --> suggestibility -line-up was not double blind: police officer may have biased her decision with hints -not a memory 'sin': a problem with decision-making because they are biasing her decision not her memory -police may have taken her hesitant memory judgement ("I think it was him") as strong evidence -confirmation bias - not a memory 'sin': decision-making -Suspect looks more like criminal than 'distractor' faces; all the distractor faces need to be similar to the suspect so it is not suggest that it is that specific person -suggestibility *Double-blind: witness is blind (cause they are not sure) , police is blind so they don't know who the suspect is so they don't influence ones choice

* Anterograde vs. Retrograde -Retrograde Amnesia -Anterograde amnesia

-memory for events prior to onset of amnesia is lost -memory for events occurring after the onset of amnesia is lost

Godden and Baddeley Results

-no 'main effect' of learning environment -no 'main effect' of test environment -strong interaction between learning and test environment *Matching is better than mismatching due to satistical interaction -Since lines cross shows that there is an interaction and that is is better when the environment matches -Interaction = a difference of differences: -5 versus +3

Scripts

-scripts provide a general structure for a familiar event, but they involve an ordered set of actions that one holds in memory for that event. -For example, you likely have a script for going out to eat at a restaurant. Think about the sequence of actions that takes place in this scenario. When you enter the restaurant, you approach a desk or podium to be greeted by the host or hostess, where he or she checks your reservation or sees if a table is available for you. The host or hostess then takes you to your table with menus if there is no wait for your table. Someone then comes to take drink orders while you read the menu. You can imagine the rest of the scenario and perhaps additional actions that might occur (e.g., a pager given to you if there is a wait for your table, going to the bar for a drink to wait for your table). -Our own experiences alter the scripts and schemata we develop (as seen in the Bartlett studies), and the context in which we encounter information (e.g., with or without the topic information as in the Bransford and Johnson study) will alter how we encode the information, which then affects whether we can retrieve the information later.

-the same processes that -For example, hearing incorrect information -Stephen Lindsay's (1990) study showed that - In this study, subjects viewed - However, half of the subjects heard the postevent description in the same female voice -The other subjects heard the postevent description in a male voice, -The results are shown along with -Subjects who heard the male voice in the postevent description were -These results showed that

-the same processes that create false memories in the DRM procedure are suggested as mechanisms of memory errors in eyewitnesses. -For example, hearing incorrect information about an event one experiences can "activate" those details about the event, with a source misattribution later causing one to think they are part of his or her memory of the event instead of from another source (e.g., another witness). -Stephen Lindsay's (1990) study showed that such source misattributions occur for postevent misinformation. - In this study, subjects viewed slides of a crime where a man steals items from an office (see Photo 7.7). The slides were shown along with a verbal narrative of the events in the slides presented in a female voice. Subjects then heard a postevent description of the crime (different from the narrative presented with the slides) that contained some incorrect information about the slides, as was done in the Stark et al. (2010) study. - However, half of the subjects heard the postevent description in the same female voice as the original slide narrative, making it difficult for the subjects to discriminate between the two descriptions. -The other subjects heard the postevent description in a male voice, allowing them to distinguish the two descriptions better in their memories of the descriptions. Subjects then answered questions about the crime depicted in the slides. -The results are shown along with misremembered information that was not presented in the postevent description. -Subjects who heard the male voice in the postevent description were less likely to be influenced by the incorrect information in the description than subjects who heard the postevent description in the same female voice as the original slide narrative. -These results showed that subjects make source misattributions when they attempt to remember the details of the crime they witnessed in the slides.

Implicit Memory Tasks -the use of implicit-memory tasks by -This increase was due in part to findings from - The amnesic subjects showed -In other words, when they were - These results suggest that amnesics such as H. M.

-the use of implicit-memory tasks by researchers wanting to measure memories that are not intentionally retrieved increased significantly in the 1970s and 1980s. -This increase was due in part to findings from two researchers in the United Kingdom showing that amnesics who have little to no memory for studied items in intentional-retrieval tests (e.g., recall, recognition) exhibit normal memory performance on implicit-memory tasks, like identifying word fragments (Warrington & Weiskrantz, 1968, 1970, 1974). - The amnesic subjects showed lower performance on the free-recall test than the normal control subjects (the small amount of memory they showed on this test is likely due to guessing guided by implicit memory) but showed similar performance to normal control subjects on the fragment-completion test. -In other words, when they were intentionally retrieving studied items, the amnesic subjects performed poorly, but when they were simply asked to complete a related task without any reference to the studied items, the amnesic subjects showed performance indicating typical implicit memory. - These results suggest that amnesics such as H. M. have not lost the ability to make new memories as was once believed. Instead, it seems that amnesics may have lost the ability to intentionally retrieve memories. Thus, amnesics seem to have deficits in explicit memory but do not typically show deficits in implicit memory.

Experiments in the 1970s created two primary ideas about how images are held or manipulated.... 1. - experiment -Spatial representation

.. in our minds, each of which relies on the representationalist approach to cognition 1.One idea is that mental images are represented spatially, in the same way that objects or scenes are perceived when looking at them. -Stephen Kosslyn (e.g., Kosslyn, Ganis, & Thompson, 2006) has been one of the strongest proponents of this view and conducted many experiments to test this idea. He reasoned that subjects asked to do a "mental travel" task, where they have to access different locations of an object or scene, should show longer response times in the task for larger distances across locations if, in fact, they are accessing a spatial representation of the image to complete the task. This type of task is known as mental scanning. Spatial representation: the idea that visual information is represented in analog form in the mind

another researcher suggested a different idea about how mental images are represented in the mind. Pylyshyn (1973) argued that mental images actually represent ... * Propositional representation: -for ex. -The propositional-representation view is consistent with -Pylyshyn (1973) argued that

..propositional representation, rather than spatial. *the idea that visual information is represented nonspatially in the mind - An example of a proposition is the way you might think of a sentence. Because you know how sentences are structured, you can assign each word to a part of the structure. - For example, for the sentence "The boy flew his kite," you know that The boy is the subject of the sentence, flew is the verb, and his kite is the object of the verb -The propositional-representation view is consistent with ideas about the way language is represented in the mind -Pylyshyn (1973) argued that mental images that seem spatial might actually be propositions of the objects -In this way, the sensory images we experience may be like the heat—we experience them, but they are not part of the process of representing images in our minds. -It is possible that the actual representation (a propositional representation) is beyond our conscious experience. - Pylyshyn (1981) argued that the task of imagining something happening (like the "mental travel" tasks Kosslyn and colleagues used in their studies) has a temporal sense that the subjects understand and that they mimic this idea of the unfolding of time in the task. *He claimed this was why the response times were longer for larger distances, not the idea that images are actually represented spatially within one's mind.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

1. Rhyming task at study : Rhyming test (processing match) and Meaning test( Processing mismatch 2. Meaning Task at study : Rhyming test(Processing mismatch) and Meaning Test (Processing match) *Memory is better when the processing matches from study to test Morris Bransford and Franks (1977) Participants studied words. Sentence completion task, e.g. had to complete a sentence with the 'to-be-studied' word in it MEANING Versus a rhyming task, e.g. had to answer whether the word rhymed with another word. Semantic test: standard recognition test (people default to using meaning). - Rhyming test: Does this word rhyme with a studied word? - Best performance are the ones that are starred

A sparklers trail is probably due to :

A sparklers trail is probably due to : a combo of sensory memory and a positive afterimage on the retina

Memory Error #2 : Absentmindedness Ex. -Remembering to - Failures of

Absentmindedness: when A lack of attention during encoding or retrieval results in poor memory Ex. . A good example of this memory failure is not remembering where you have placed something you need to find, such as your car keys. -Remembering to complete a future task (e.g., taking medicine at a certain time, taking cookies out of the oven before they burn, calling your mom before you go to bed) is known as prospective memory - Failures of prospective memory are normal (Have you ever completed a homework assignment on time and then forgotten to turn it in?)

Amnesia Hippocampus Anterograde Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia

Amnesia: a memory deficit due to a brain lesion or deterioration Hippocampus: an area of the brain important for memory encoding and retrieval Anterograde amnesia: a memory deficit for information or experiences encountered after a brain lesion Retrograde amnesia: a memory deficit for information learned or experiences encountered before a brain lesion

Source misattribution ex. Jenn Thompson and Ronald 1. 2. 3. -memory at live lin up - can misattribute the - ex. - can misattribute an -ex.

An example: stealing someone else's idea without realizing you're doing so Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton: 1.the attack 2. photo line-up 3. real 'live' line-up -'memory' at time of live line-up (3) could have been memory from photo line-up (2), not memory from attack (1) * Jenn was more confident at live line up, than the photo line up but this occurred because she was remebering the picture -can 'misattribute' the real-world context in which you learned something to a different real-world context -e.g., 'remember' that an event happened in Biology class but in fact it happened in Chemistry class -can 'misattribute' the item you remember to a real-world event when it was in fact imagined (a thought, or a photo) -e.g. dreamed it, then later think it really happened

Which of the following describes The Testing Effect?

An intervening practice test boosts performance on an exam more than a passive review session and answering this question will help you in the future, recall what the testing effect is, compared to a lecture which I just explained the testing effect

Blocking is primarly a failure of :

Blocking is primarly a failure of : retrieval

Long Term Memory Capacity: Duration: Format:

Capacity: seemingly limitless Duration: minutes, hours, years, decades ( this is all LTM) Format: semantic meaning and perceptual features

Short Term Memory: Capacity

Chunk - unit with a coherent meaning Chess masters: memory for positions; memorize chess positions Everyone: common acronyms (FBI, IRS ...)

Concreteness Effect Bizareness Effect

Concreteness Effect More "concrete" words (apple, car) are easier to form an image of than "abstract" words (justice, gravity) Bizarreness Effect More bizarre scenarios form images that stand out in your mind

Improving Retrieval From LTM: Consolidation: Depth of processing Spaced out repetition

Consolidation: Sleeping between the study and the test of information you want to remeber will help you retrieve that information from LTM Depth of processing: Encoding information according to its meaning aids LTM Spaced out repetition: Spaced repetitions result in better memory than massed repetitions

DRM Result #1: Free Recall DRM Result #2: Recognition

DRM Result #1: Free Recall -recall rate for non-studied theme words is the same as recall rate for many of the words that were actually studied! (people put words in that the think is related to the theme) *more theme words recalled in the beginning and end, not middle, ---> serial position effects :primacy and recency DRM Results #2: Recognition - Words were shown and they had to say yes or no and then if its old or new, Sure it was old words: - more unstudied theme words they said was sure was old (about 55%) - about 80% of studied words they said were sure was old Sure was new: - more unstudied theme words then studied words were said by participants to be sure that was new

*EXAM TIP : Make sure you know what the word length effect is and what it provides evidence for

EXAM TIP : Make sure you know what the word length effect is and what it provides evidence for

Activation-monitoring Theory of DRM (1A) Evidence for this hypothesis? the extent to which it is .. -in other words if..

Evidence for this hypothesis? -Deese (1959): free association task; when someone says a word and you just say first thing that comes to mind -the extent to which an item is falsely recalled in the DRM memory task is PREDICTED by -the extent to which it is generated by subjects in a free-association task -in other words, if 'queen', 'England', etc. all strongly make people think of 'KING', then KING is more likely to be falsely recalled (in the DRM memory task)

Flashbulb memories: -ex - although flashbulb memories seem accurate, -Thus, even flashbulb and autobiographical memories

Flashbulb memories: vivid memories for hearing about a significant event that are not always accurate -ex. You may have a flashbulb memory for when you heard about a significant event in your country's history (e.g., the Boston Marathon terrorist bombings in 2013, -Although flashbulb memories seem very accurate to us, studies have shown that they can be as inaccurate as other episodic memories (Talarico & Rubin, 2003). -Thus, even flashbulb and autobiographical memories can contain errors.

Early Study of Memory Errors: Frederick Bartlett

Frederick Bartlett (1932) Read The War of Ghosts -Asked to recall it about 15-30 mins later, then again at various intervals (months, years) -Reports became shorter after greater delays -Reports also simpler: -supernatural elements lost -bizarre events reinterpreted -details substituted for cultural equivalents

Why does the 'DRM' procedure produce false memories? Theory #2

Fuzzy Trace Theory: -You recall the 'gist' of an experience, but not the details. -Theme items match the gist, so they get falsely recalled, or endorsed as familiar -In practice, Fuzzy Trace Theory and Activation-Monitoring Theory make very similar predictions: hard to say which is 'correct'

Clinical Memory Failure: Amnesia In adults : - damage to .. - causes - can occur in - also occurs in - EX

In adults: -damage to hippocampus in medial temporal lobe -inability to form new, long-term memories -Alzheimer's Disease, stroke, oxygen deprivation, viral encephalitis (attacks hippocampus) -normal aging - Ex. Clive Wearing

Childhood Amnesia - leads to - hypothesis

In children: -inability to form long-term memories that persist into adulthood -hypothesis: hippocampus is not yet fully developed?

Absentmindedness Is this really a memory problem? Failures of ex. absentminded professor

Is this really a memory problem? A problem with attention that causes problems with encoding into memory and thus retrieving from memory, later on. *Failures of prospective memory - things you need to do in the future - the absentminded professor is more like they are so focused on their passion and nothing else

Memory Errors: Jennifer Thompson and Ronald Cotton Memory Error:

Jennifer Thompson raped but survived. Tried hard at time of attack to remember her assailant. Brought in for a photo line-up. The police suspect in the line-up was Ronald Cotton (in fact he was innocent). She identified him as her attacker. Ronald Cotton was convicted. Mostly because of Jennifer's eye-witness testimony. We are going to talk about some of the ways in which memory errors could have contributed to this. -Source misattribution for real lineup (previous photo lineup not actual event). Suggestibility?

The Testing Effect

Learning phase 1: Passive Study (e.g. reading, listening to lecture) Learning phase 2: Passive Study (e.g. reading, listening to lecture) OR Retrieval Practice (e.g., practice test, flashcards, spontaneous free recall) Final Test: Retrieval from memory Learning phase 1 --> learning phase 2--> Final test *retreival practice is much more effective at boosting later retrieval!

Encoding-Retervial interactions -Therefore, Matching the circumstances between study and test, .. --The reason this is important for memory is that..

Matching the circumstances between study and test, whether this be the environment, your mood, or the processing you do, will increase memory performance. -The reason this is important for memory is that you are increasing the overlap in the study and retrieval cues that can help you retrieve information from memory.

*Memory Recap

Memory Structures and Processes -Sensory, short-term and long-term memory -The multi-store model of memory (Modal Model) -Baddeley's model of working memory -Types of long-term memory (semantic, episodic, ...) Long-Term Memory -Encoding effects, retrieval effects -Encoding-retrieval interactions -Mnemonics

*People make memory errors very commonly Why?

Memory is 'reconstructive'

Misinformation Effect -Witnesses are also vulnerable to the misinformation effect when .. -Ex. --They then answered a series of questions about the event depicted in the photos. -Thus, subjects had .. -Studies also suggest that memory errors due to misinformation are..

Misinformation effect: a memory result where subjects have false memories for an event based on suggestive information provided by others -Witnesses are also vulnerable to the misinformation effect when exposed to incorrect postevent information about an event, such as when they hear other witnesses' inaccurate accounts of the event. - For example, Stark, Okado, and Loftus (2010) simulated witnessing a crime by having subjects view photos of a man stealing a woman's wallet. The next day the subjects heard a description of the crime that contained inaccurate information (e.g., the description suggested that the man put the wallet in his pants pocket when the photos showed him putting it in his jacket pocket). -They then answered a series of questions about the event depicted in the photos. When subjects heard inaccurate information about the crime in the postevent description of the crime, they were more likely to answer questions about those details incorrectly. -Thus, subjects had more false memories for details of the crime when they were exposed to inaccurate information after the crime, as might occur if they heard others' inaccurate descriptions of the crime. -Studies also suggest that memory errors due to misinformation are long lasting (e.g., more than a year; Zu et al., 2002) such that they can affect eyewitnesses for the length of a criminal case.

Mnemonics: -They rely on the mechanisms -The bizareness effect -The method of loci is a - Drawbacks

Mnemonics: memory techniques that aid memory performance -They rely on the mechanisms of long-term memory to store information in a way that makes it more memorable. -The human mind notices unusual things, and some types of mnemonics use this phenomenon to help you remember. This is known as the bizarreness effect -The method of loci is a mnemonic technique often used by the memory champions described by Foer (2011) in his book and involves using images to remember items. One can use this technique by creating images in well-known locations involving items one needs to remember. Drawbacks: -One thing you might notice about this technique is that it works well for remembering lists of items, but it is not going to make your memory better for every type of information you try to remember. That is one of the drawbacks to using mnemonic techniques. They work well for lists of items but not as well for general knowledge and specific episodes one wishes to remember.

Moulton and Kosslyn (2009) argued that imagery serves a primary role in .. -They suggest that imagery allows knowledge to be generated about specific events, -In other words, imagery allows for the prediction of -Rule-based strategies are also used , EX - Using a mental imagery strategy is an -Using a rule-based strategy would involve a -Thus, imagery seems to play a role in

Moulton and Kosslyn (2009) argued that imagery serves a primary role in prospective cognition—our ability to make predictions about how things will occur in the future. -They suggest that imagery allows knowledge to be generated about specific events, which then allows for predictions to be made about those events. -In other words, imagery allows for the prediction of various solutions to problems from the knowledge gained in the mental simulation of the problem. -Rule-based strategies are also used in many problems. For example, in the gear system problem, you might know a general rule about gears—that they move in opposite directions where they are connected. This rule could be used to answer the question posed in without creating a mental image of the system and moving it in your mind. - Using a mental imagery strategy is an example of a spatial representation of the problem. -Using a rule-based strategy would involve a propositional representation of the problem. -Thus, imagery seems to play a role in problem solving, regardless of the type of representation (spatial or propositional) from which the imagery is formed.

-Movies often show total loss of all memories before -Type of amnesia shown - they show that - Ex.

Movies often show total loss of all memories before accident + memory fine going forward Retrograde only: Not realistic! - they show that everything is gone before, but thats not accurate ex. The Bourne Identity (2002, starring Matt Damon) -A Christmas to Remember (2016) -But Memento is pretty accurate!

Memories Summary

Our memories can fail in many ways Memories are malleable Memory is reconstructive Some of these failures are 'adaptive' But bad news for use of eyewitness memory These failures can be studied in the lab to tell us about the mechanisms of memory

Nonvisual imagery -Paivio's dual-coding theory, described earlier in this chapter, suggests that imagery has -The nonverbal code can include -In some cases, these nonvisual codes can be easily translated into -But kinesthetic imagery, regardless **Such imagery has been called XXX

Paivio's dual-coding theory, described earlier in this chapter, suggests that imagery has two inherent codes, a verbal code (as in the word label for pictures) and a nonverbal code (as in the visual image of a picture). -The nonverbal code can include visual information or information from other modalities, such as auditory, olfactory, or tactile information. -In some cases, these nonvisual codes can be easily translated into a verbal code but in other cases, verbal translation is more difficult (e.g., explaining verbally what is involved in running). -But kinesthetic imagery, regardless of the verbal access to the imagery, has been shown to influence the way we perform motor tasks. **Such imagery has been called internal imagery (Jeannerod, 1995), as it is experienced from within as if one were performing the action with one's body (i.e., "muscular imagining"; Epstein, 1980).

Pegword mnemonic: - in the pegword mnemonic, - ex. - the creation of images..

Pegword mnemonic: a memory aid where ordinal words (e.g., one, two) are rhymed with pegwords (e.g., bun, shoe) to create images of pegwords and to-be-remembered items interacting - In the pegword mnemonic, specific words that rhyme with numbers are used as place holders in an ordered list (e.g., one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree). These pegwords are then associated with items you wish to remember in order. -For example, suppose you needed to memorize a speech on the lobes of the brain. If the first topic in your speech is the frontal lobe, you might imagine a hamburger bun sitting at your front door to connect the bun (meaning one) with the "frontal" topic in your speech. -The creation of images, especially bizarre images, can help you more easily remember this information.

Improving Retrieval LTM: Primacy and Recency : The Testing Effect: The Encoding Specificity Principle:

Primacy and Recency : The first information encoded will show a memory advantage primarily if the delay between encoding and retrieval is very short The Testing Effect: Reviewing information by means of an intervening test aids later retrieval The Encoding Specificity Principle: Matching the circumstances (environment, mood, processing) of encoding and retrieval aids memory

In general, which type of memory test produces higher scores for studied items?

Recognition

Retrieval:

Retrieval: the process of outputting information from memory - can be intentional or unintentional

Quinn & Mcconell Visuospatial sketch pad : RESULTS

Shows that : -SOME info is stored visually this store is separate from auditory/verbal store -this visual store has limited capacity (or else the interference would not be a problem)

The misinformation effect in the Lindsay study is an example of which sin of memory:

Source misattribution ; by keeping a similar source we increased how much incorrect information that person is regurgitating

Source misattribution could be:

Source misattribution could be: 1.hearing your chem professor say you have a test next week and misrembering that it was your biology professor who said it, 2.having a dream with your two friends fighting and waking up and expecting them to be mad at each other, 3. seeing a photograph of your 5th birthday and later believing you remember something ike the cake from the original experience

Baddeley's model of working memory

Starts with central executive leads to visuospatial sketchpad, episiodic buffer, and phonological loop, which all lead to LTM : episodic memories, visual semantics, and language

Summary of Sensory and STM

Structures, Processes and Systems: -these views of memory are not mutually exclusive -all of these can help explain how memory works Multi-Store Model (Modal Model) of Memory -sensory memory, short-term memory -long-term memory (next time) -evidence that these 3 stores exist, but not ALL aspects of this model are correct (next time)

Mood-Dependent Effects: Research procedure for testing mood-dependent memory effects

Study list of items: 1.Happy Mood ( from music or sentences) 2. Sad Mood (from music or sentences) Test on items: 1. Happy Mood: Happy Mood (from music or sentences- Mood Match) and Sad Mood (from music or sentences-Mood Mismatch ) 2. Sad Mood: Happy Mood (from music or sentences-Mood Mismatch) and SAd Mood ((from music or sentences-Mood Match) *Memory is better when the mood matches from study to test than when mood mismatches *the 'mood effect' is not found as reliably as the 'environmental context effect' (depending on which context manipulation or mood manipulation is used *Need 'strong and stable' mood (mood that can be clearly identified, with specific valence, specific arousal level, does not fade or fluctuate). Hard to achieve, especially 'artificially' such that it can be controlled by experimenter. - Hard to match mood

Craik and Tulving (1975) Word Condition Test Results --Information ...

Subjects studied list of words, each with a question: **word presented: SHARK Conditions: 1.Shallow processing--> is the word in capital letters? (capital) 2.medium proceessing--> Does the word rhyme with PARK? (RHYME) 3. Deep processing--> IS the word a type of FISH? (CAtegory) -Then memory was tested with a recognition test REsults: Category was best remebered -Information encoded more deeply is better remembered

Suggestibility can alter memories by -which one(s) happened to jennifer

Suggestibility van alter memories by : 1.implying that events occurred in a certain way ( the new info that alters the memory doesn't have to be stated explicitly ), 2.presenting new info that fits with already encoded info and can be easily assimilated (added) to existing memory, 3.giving a person more confidence in an (initially uncertain) false memory so that they believe it to be totally true -all may have happened to jennifer

Mnemonics

The bizarreness effect The method of loci These work well for lists of items but not so much for general knowledge or real-life events The other techniques we have learned about should work better for general knowledge (e.g., course material) -Bizarreness: cat rode a bicycle, mailbox danced by the curb, giraffe climbed the tree, hammer sang a song to the table, the man wrote on the cow Trying to remember a shopping list: Peanut butter, blueberries, cookies, cheese, bread, turkey, mayonnaise etc, peanut butter (smear on door), blueberries (conversation), cookies (filling the sink), cheese, bread At retrieval - imagine walking through the familiar place - you won't have forgotten the order of the rooms! - and use each room to cue your memory for the item on the list. Note - you are exploiting the bizarreness effect in the method of loci.

Applications to Eyewitness Memory Research -The changes focus on preventing -For example, many police departments in the United States now require a -Suggestibility is also reduced when -Higher suggestibility may have -Finally, research has shown that -Such sequential lineup procedures are

The changes focus on preventing suggestibility or leading information from the administrators of suspect lineups. The research conducted by cognitive psychologists showing misinformation effects from different types of postevent information has directly led to these specific reforms in police procedure -For example, many police departments in the United States now require a double-blind suspect lineup, where the person who administers the lineup to the witness does not know which person is the suspect to avoid the possibility of biasing the witness to choose the suspect or confirming his or her choice in the lineup as the suspect. This type of confirmation bias occurred in the lineup in the Jennifer Thompson case described at the beginning of the chapter (where a double-blind lineup was not used) and may have contributed to the wrongful conviction of Ronald Cotton. Research has shown that this confirming feedback can increase a witness' confidence in his or her choice, even if that choice is incorrect -Suggestibility is also reduced when lineups are created with similar-looking individuals to avoid the suspect standing out as the only person who looks like who the witness remembers. -Higher suggestibility may have also occurred in Jennifer Thompson's case because Ronald Cotton looked like the actual perpetrator. -Finally, research (e.g., Steblay, Dysart, Fulero, & Lindsay, 2001) has shown that showing possible suspects to the witness one at a time, instead of all at once, decreases false identifications in lineups. -Such sequential lineup procedures are replacing the traditional simultaneous lineup procedures in many police departments. Thus, results from research in eyewitness memory are helping to reduce the problem of suspect misidentification.

Amnesia involving a loss of LTM is usually due to damage in :

The hippocampus and surrounding neocortex ex. HM

Why does the 'DRM' procedure produce false memories? - activation -monitoring account/theory

Theory #1 -Activation of related items at time of encoding -Later the word is 'familiar'; think this is because you actually saw it (source misattribution) -Activation + error in source monitoring = false memory Activation-monitoring Account/Theory- trying to keep track where info came from and you make a mistake *when she says 'activated in memory' (page 163) she's talking about semantic memory, and she's talking about activation that happens at the time of encoding. It would have been clearer to say 'activated in your knowledge networks'. -MEMORY PERFORMANCE, as tested in the DRM paradigm, is talking about 'episodic' memory for the items you studied on this list, in this particular experiment.

Divers participated in Godden and Baddeleys Study

Took men and women from diving club, had them study words and study and read sometimes under water, some studied under water and half above water. Then split those in half and had them record under or above water - so results show that it recall is better if you recall where you study Study condition: -Study underwater - study above water Test conditon: 1. Study underwater- had recall above water (environment mismatch) and recall underwater(environment match) 2. Study above water- recall above water (environment match) and recall underwater (environment mismatch) *Memory is better when the environment matches from study to test than when environment mismatches

Transcience - Define - the longer an.. - mechanism of forgetting.. -Which sin is the opposite of transience? -forgetting function graph :ebbinghaus

Transience - forget stuff. Normal. Most things forgotten. *The longer an item persists, the more likely it is to stick around in memory. Mechanism of forgetting? Probably not decay. Mostly interference, or lack of consolidation. Which sin is the opposite of transience? Persistence *The Classic Forgetting Function Graph: Proportion recalled is high in the 0 day line and at 5 days drops to 20% , after 30 days we remain at 20% recalled -Ebbinghaus -most forgetting occurs in first day

Visuospatial Sketchpad - a - holds - is used for -evidence 1. 2. 3.

Visuospatial Sketchpad -a dry-erase board -holds visual and spatial information -is used for visual-spatial 'operations' by the central executive -Evidence? -Quinn & McConnell (1996) -AND: Mental Rotation: like rotating shapes in visuospatial sketchpad -two tasks: lower task performance indicates more interference. -If lower task performance is observed when both tasks involve same type of info, than when they involve different types of info, that is evidence that the two types of info are processed separately. -Remember a list of words by VERBALLY rehearsing the words OR forming a VISUAL image of the words. - View EITHER a changing visual display, or nothing. - and then if there is more interference , with 2 of the same tasks, shows that auditory and visula are stored seperately

When participants in a memory task, study half the items as pics or word, they usually do better :

When participants in a memory task, study half the items as pics or word, they usually do better : cause picture superioriety effect

When words are encoded into STM , the dominant format of storage is :

When words are encoded into STM , the dominant format of storage is : Auditory, whether you read them or hear them

Which of the other seven sins is opposite of transcience?

Which of the other seven sins is opposite of transcience? Persistence

spacing effect

Why is spaced better? - Probably: greater number of retrieval cues to use at test *cues at test are related to the "context" of study Context can include: environment (where? who with?) -mood -thoughts during study -study technique (flashcards versus passive reading) - different environment -More variety in context gives you a greater number of cues.

Memory Error: Bomber on Roof - you witnessed .. - need to identify .. - the man was - this is an example of

Witnessed bomber on roof and need to take part in eyewitness line up - need to identify which one was the prepatrator - the man was not present in the line up - this is an example of suggestibiility

Snodgrass and McClure: Dual -coding theory - dual-coding theory relies on an important assumption: t -They instructed subjects to study .. -They showed that memory for pictures was - These results suggest that

You may notice that dual-coding theory relies on an important assumption: that pictures will be automatically labeled at study, but words will not be imagined as frequently as pictures are labeled. -Snodgrass and McClure (1975) supported this assumption in their research. -They instructed subjects to study words and pictures under two conditions: either to memorize the label of the item or to imagine the item. -They showed that memory for pictures was similar under these two conditions but that memory for words improved when they were asked to imagine the item. - These results suggest that labeling occurs naturally for pictures (no extra instruction is needed) but that words are not always automatically imagined—an instruction to imagine them is needed to increase their memory to a level similar to that for pictures.

Motor Imagery define -A long line of studies has shown that motor imagery, -Imagery has been classified as either -For increasing performance of motor skills, cognitive imagery that -However, motivational forms of imagery can enhance -Thus, the best form of motor imagery in enhancing sports performance may depend on XXX

a mental representation of motor movements -A long line of studies has shown that motor imagery, in the form of muscular rehearsal within one's mind, can benefit performance in sports such as skiing, gymnastics, and basketball -Imagery has been classified as either cognitive (imagery for specific sports skills or strategies) or motivational (imagery for goals, coping, or emotions that accompany the sport competition). -For increasing performance of motor skills, cognitive imagery that focuses on specific skills seems to be the most effective (Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999). -However, motivational forms of imagery can enhance an athlete's confidence in his or her abilities (Martin et al., 1999). -Thus, the best form of motor imagery in enhancing sports performance may depend on the desired outcome (e.g., increasing performance of a specific motor skill versus increasing one's emotional perspective on the task).

Baddeley

central executive leads to visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer and phonological loop --> this all leads to LTM: episodic, visual semantic, and language

we lose memory through..

decay and interference - but interference is the problem

In Bartletts war of ghosts memory study, he tested participants on their ___ memory and found that it was influenced by their ___memory

episodic memory/semantic memory

In Godden and Baddeley the hypothesis that a good match between study and test context improves recall was upheld by:

finding an interaction between study context and recall context (didn't find main effect of etiher)

*The encoding specificity principle refers to the fact that:

matching the circumstances of encoding and retrieval aids memory

*nontypical memory failures in clinical cases. Such failures take two forms:

nontypical memory failures in clinical cases. Such failures take two forms: (1) a fairly immediate and discrete memory failure, such as in amnesic cases where a brain lesion has occurred due to an accident or disease or (2) a progressive deterioration of memory that becomes worse over time.

If you had to do a distracting task after memory test, it would affect..

recency effect, making you do worse becuase it is in our STM stores

Which of the following gives the correct order of the the different types of memory from shortest to longest duration:

senseory-> STM LTM

The misinformation effect in the Loftus and Palmer study is an example of which sin of memory :

suggestibility

*In the STM task , the second task was easier because:

the letters fell naturally into chuncks because they formed acronyms with associated meanings

Proactive interference is:

when memory for an item gets worse because of other things you studied before you studied for that item\

*Which of the following describes the sin of persistence :

when unwanted or unnecessary memories persist, causing no benefit or even causing harm

*You study a list of words. Then tested. Which of these is a recognition memory test? *Word stem

you are shown some words, one at a time, and asked if each appeared on the study list *implicit memory taask ; more likely to fill word stem with word from on list

Method of loci -define - the more

a memory aid where images of to-be-remembered information are created with locations along a familiar route or place -the more bizarre the images created when using the technique, the better they are remembered. In other words, the bizarreness effect can help one remember lists of items when applied as a mnemonic.

Which of the the following is a component of Baddeleys model of working memory:

visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, and phonological loop

Anterograde amnesia is a loss of memory for:

events occurring after the brain trauma

Digit Span

the number of digits a person can remember

Pro active interference Retroactive interference

* when interferences happens before the (to be rembeered _ item interfering material interfering material--> to be remebered item--> hinders test * Retroactive: to be rembered item is interfered with interefering material before the test to-be remebered item<--interfering material--> hinders test

Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) -Which approach to memory would this come under? -It proposes .. -*environmental input enters.. -Strong serial structure -criticisms

*Classifies/characterizes memory according to duration. Which approach to memory would this come under? (systems)-> both structures and processe . *It proposes different duration storage units but ALSO specifies the order of processing, and some of the processing details. A memory system model. *environmental input enters through sensory memory -sensory memory is 500-1000ms in duration, large capacity (all sensory experience), sense-specific encoding (memory contains unprocessed, low-level sensory features, e.g., visual info or auditory info) - sensory memory is unprocessed, it stays how it is recieved, and not long -STM is 0-18sec, about 4 items (revised since Miller 1956). -can have semantic features; have meaning -LTM is unlimited duration and unlimited capacity. Encoding tends to be semantic (but can be visual/auditory/olfactory) - can last decades; Strong serial structure - can only get information into LTM through sensory and STM Criticisms: evidence that you can get intact LTM with impaired STM (patient KF). sensory stores can lead to (decay or attention): *if attention--> short-term store ( which can have rehersal loop or displacement) *Short term store-->displacement-->response (ex.recall) *sensory store--> attention--> Short term store--> rehersal(-->) or retriveal (<--) --> long term store--> interference

Evidence of multiple stores

*Recall tasks with word lists: serial position effects -Primacy effect - recall more words from early list positions than the middle of the list. -Recency effect - recall more words from late list positions than middle. - if people get a list they will either get primacy or recency effect - more likely to recall primacy effect words than recency effect

Sperling (1960) - Results

*Whole report -subjects recalled ~4 letters -out of 9 = 45% -out of 12 = 33% Partial report -much better performance: 2.5 out of 3 = 83% -can work out how many held in sensory memory -[num recalled per row] * [num rows in display] -[2.5] * [3] = 7 or 8 items *It's like letters are still there for you to look at even though they are externally gone. Persistence in neural representations. Sperling - get 4-5 of 9 with whole report. Expect 1.7 of 3 with partial if they can't use cue. Actually can recall 2.5 of 3. The participants were holding: 7-8 items in sensory memory - With 500 ms or more delay of cue, participants only recall 1.7 out of 3. (Sensory memory has decayed).

Meier and Graf (2000): Prospective memory and Transfer appropriate processing

*examining prospective memory (remembering to perform a future task; have shown that transfer-appropriate processing can influence accuracy in performing this type of memory task. -In one such study, Meier and Graf (2000) used two different types of prospective-memory tasks: respond when you see an animal word as a meaning-based prospective-memory task, and respond when you see a word with three e's as a visual-form prospective-memory task. -In addition, two different ongoing tasks were used in which the prospective-memory task was embedded (decide if words represent natural or fabricated things as a meaning-based ongoing task and decide how many enclosed spaces are included in the letters of the word as a visual-form ongoing task). *They found that subjects remembered to respond to the prospective-memory cue words (animals or words with three e's) more often if the ongoing task matched the type of processing. *Thus, from these studies it is clear that a match in processing between tasks (study and test, ongoing- and prospective-memory tasks) is an important factor in memory retrieval, regardless of the type of memory test one is performing.

serial position curve -Primacy effect: -Recency effect:

*graph depicting both primacy and recency effects on people's ability to recall items on a list -Primacy effect: an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded first -an effect in memory showing the best memory for information encoded last

*What is memory?

*memory = the influence of past experience on current thoughts or behavior Has been defined according to: -duration (LTM, STM) content (episodic, semantic, procedural) -retrieval method (recall versus recognition) -reference to the self (autobiographical) -conscious awareness (explicit versus implicit) -intentionality (effortful versus automatic)

Working Memory System

*processing a unit of information that is the current focus of attention -one system that has been proposed for the control of memories that one encodes in, stores in, and retrieves from STM. -Working memory can be thought of as the system that controls the flow of information in and out of STM, keeping important information active in STM when it is needed and using the information to control the output from STM. In other words, the term working memory describes the system that controls the memories we are currently "working on" or "operating on" in our minds. EX.As you approach an intersection of the path and a busy street, you see another biker approaching from the opposite direction. There is also a person in front of you walking a dog that is on a leash but is rambunctious and veering across the path in an unpredictable manner. You also hear a nearby siren from the street you are approaching, but you do not see an emergency vehicle in the portion of the street you can see. To successfully navigate this scene, you need to be able to briefly store each piece of relevant information by focusing your attention on different parts of the scene and then processing the information such that you can anticipate where objects will be as you proceed on your bike. In this scenario, your working memory is controlling the input of visual and auditory information, coordinating that information to help you decide which way to steer your bike and where you should focus your attention at any given moment to achieve this task without crashing or being hit by cars passing in the street.

transfer-appropriate processing --seems to have a..

*the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match *an effect in memory showing that matches in processing between encoding and retrieval improve memory -seems to have a stronger effect on memory than either environmental or mood-dependent effects.

Mood Dependent Effects - Study done by Eich

- a match between study and mood can aid in memory -Numerous research studies support this idea (Eich, 1995). -One research method used in investigating such effects involves the induction of a particular mood in subjects (e.g., happy mood or sad mood). -This is often accomplished by playing a "happy" or "sad" piece of music or having subjects read sentences that are either on positive or negative topics. -The mood induction is used both at study and at test so that matches and mismatches in mood between study and test can be compared ( -The findings from many of these studies show that a match in mood from study to test results in better memory for studied information than when mood at study and test are different. **This means that it is helpful to be somewhat anxious while you study for a test if you will be anxious while you are taking the test.

STM: Duration Demo of Brown- Peterson Task

- participants were asked to rember sets of letters or nonsense syllables, complete a short distractor task ( counting backwards) and then recall the list of items - the length of the distractor task changes the delay before retrieval Results: showed that info is lost from STM quickly with very little recalled upon delays of eighteen seconds or more - STM lasted about 18 sec- 20 sec - making us count during the delay is articulatory suppression- so as you are counting it is causing interference in the phonological loop - as delay increases, the performance decreases

Implicit Memory Tasks - involves.. -Implicit-memory tasks are designed to measure.. -Implicit-memory tasks typically involve -Stem-completion task: -Perceptual identification task: *Implicit memory is measured in these tasks by the .. -In other words, having .. *Other forms of implicit-memory tests involve ..

- procedural memory that alters performance based on previous experiences -Implicit-memory tasks are designed to measure memory without intentional retrieval. -- -Implicit-memory tasks typically involve a cue, as in the cued-recall tasks described earlier, or identification, as in the recognition tasks described earlier, but no instruction to retrieve a memory is given as it is in explicit-memory tasks. -Stem-completion task: Instead, subjects are asked to complete a task that makes no reference to a previously studied episode. Subjects may be asked to complete word stems (e.g., app-) with the first word they think of that starts with those letters (e.g., apple) in a stem-completion task, -Perceptual identification task: or they may be asked to identify words or pictures that are flashed very briefly on a computer screen in a perceptual-identification task. The key is that some of the stems or items in these tasks correspond to items presented earlier in the experiment. *Implicit memory is measured in these tasks by the advantage (e.g., completion rates, speed of identification) shown for studied items compared with unstudied items. -In other words, having studied some items earlier makes one more likely to complete stems with those items or likely to identify them more quickly. *Other forms of implicit-memory tests involve conceptual cues, such as categories or semantic knowledge questions where category exemplars or the answers to the questions have been presented as studied items.

Working Memory: Phonological loop

- the part of the working-memory system that holds auditory codes of information -but as a storage subsystem for verbal information. -Verbal information is stored in a loop in this subsystem and then is replaced by new verbal information as it comes in. An articulatory control process in this subsystem allows rehearsal of the information to hold the information in the loop for a longer period of time.

How should we study memory?

-As a set of structures? separate "storehouses" (e.g., sensory, long-term) -As a set of processes? how we get information into and out of memory -As a set of systems (a system = some combination of structures and processes) *These approaches are not mutually exclusive

Encoding specificity principle: -Based on the results of these studies, it is clear that --These circumstances can involve the -We now consider three examples of this phenomenon:

-Based on the results of these studies, it is clear that matching the circumstances of encoding and retrieval aids memory. -Encoding specificity principle: the idea that memory is best when the circumstances of encoding and retrieval are matched -These circumstances can involve the stimuli in the environment; one's mood, thoughts about the information, and physiological state; and processing type. -We now consider three examples of this phenomenon: environmental effects, mood effects, and processing effects.

Short-Term Memory: Capacity

-Capacity = about 7 chunks (± 2) Miller (1956) -But, this estimate revised since 1956: more like 4 chunks with long-term and sensory contributions eliminated (Cowan, 2001) ( we get contributions from sensory memory and LTM, but if you remove that you only really remeber abot 4 chunks in STM ) -In line with Sperling (1960) result that participants reported ~4 letters in whole report (i.e., 4 = capacity of STM)

Sensory Memory Properties that we now know:

-Capacity: relatively large -Duration: very brief; 500-1000ms -Format: low-level sensory features -Iconic - visual memory -Echoic - auditory memory

Other Models of Working Memory

-Cowan (1999) has suggested that instead of being a separate system of memory as Baddeley's model proposes, working memory is simply the part of long-term memory that is currently activated in our attention. -In other words, long-term memory is the main memory system with working memory operating on a portion of long-term memory currently active in our attention. *Another approach to describing working memory is through neurobiology: - Jonides and colleagues (2008) examined the neural activity that accompanies the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information over the short term, with an emphasis on brain activity that occurs when information is the focus of attention and binding the features of the information when it is stored. The researchers rely on studies using the techniques of cognitive neuroscience to support their approach to working memory. Thus, the study of working memory is being conducted from multiple perspectives.

Craik and Tulving (1975)-Encoding for memory

-For example, Craik and Tulving (1975) had subjects study words (e.g., SHARK) while answering different questions about the words. -Some questions involved fairly shallow processing (e.g., Is the word in capital letters?). -Other questions involved a moderate level of processing (e.g., Does the word rhyme with PARK?). -And other questions involved deep processing (e.g., Is the word a type of FISH?) that required the subjects to consider the meaning of the words. - Craik and Tulving (1975) showed that as the depth of processing at encoding increased, memory performance on a later recognition test increased. . *Studies like this one helped show the now classic level-of-processing effect in memory: Encoding information according to its meaning aids long-term memory.

Forgetting: -Forgetting is a .. -The inability to retrieve information generally seems --Ebbinghaus (1885) first showed that -1.Forgetting occurs when there is .. -Interference occurs when -For example, 2. Another cause of forgetting is.. -Consolidation is.. -Initially, memory storage relies on a brain structure .. -However, over time, memories are stored .. *This is the process of systems consolidation and can take -a second type of consolidation occurs on a .. -Synaptic consolidation occurs .. -___________important in aiding the consolidation process. - This has been shown in numerous studies..

-Forgetting is a natural process that occurs when information is unable to be retrieved from memory. -The inability to retrieve information generally seems to increase as the time since the information was learned increases. -Ebbinghaus (1885) first showed that forgetting follows a typical pattern where a lot of information is forgotten very quickly after study, but then the rate of loss slows as the length of time since study increases. 1, -... interference -Interference occurs when other information prevents the retrieval of the target information -For example, if you learned that the capital of Brazil is Brasilia and then later learned that the largest city in Brazil is São Paulo, you might have interference when you attempt to retrieve the name of the capital of Brazil and mistakenly retrieve São Paulo. 2. -is lack of consolidation. -neural process by which memories are strengthened and more permanently stored in the brain -Initially, memory storage relies on a brain structure called the hippocampus, long known for its importance in memory functioning. -However, over time, memories are stored elsewhere in the cortical areas of the brain, allowing for more permanent storage *This is the process of systems consolidation and can take days, weeks, or months to complete -a second type of consolidation occurs on a shorter time scale: synaptic consolidation. -Synaptic consolidation occurs within and across neurons, the individual cells that make up the tissue in the brain. *Sleep seems to be important in aiding the consolidation process. thus, sleeping between a study episode and testing will aid long-term memory. *This has been shown in numerous studies where subjects are asked to learn some information, followed by half of the subjects being asked to sleep while the other half stay awake. After the same delay, both sets of subjects are tested on the learned information. The group that slept generally shows less forgetting than the group that did not sleep.

Duration of STM

-Information enters STM when we focus our attention on specific information in our sensory memory. -It disappears from STM when our attention moves on to the next thing we are thinking about. -Thus, memories are held in STM for as long as our attention lasts. -If we intentionally hold information in our focus of attention for a longer than usual period of time, we can increase how long that information stays in STM. -This typically occurs through active rehearsal, which means repeating the information within our mind.

phonological loop

-Like Visuospatial sketchpad, for verbal info -Rehearsal via 'articulatory control process' holds info in the loop for longer -The dominant store for words -New info displaces old info Evidence? -more errors recalling similar-sounding items (C mistaken for T, but C rarely mistaken for X) -articulatory suppression (e.g. counting backwards) -articulatory suppression makes it harder because: -Puts more items in the loop to remember capacity exceeded new info displaces old info -studied information cannot be rehearsed to maintain it because loop is being used for something else

phonological similarity effect

-More errors occur when recalling items that sound alike (e.g., C and T) than when recalling items that do not sound alike (e.g., C and X). -This result occurs even when the items are presented visually because it is assumed that visual information involving language is automatically translated into verbal codes in working memory and stored in the phonological loop. -Similar verbal codes (i.e., items that sound alike) can then become mixed up when recalling information stored in the phonological loop. This is known as the phonological similarity effect

Sperling- Results

-Partial report helps even though cue appears after letters have disappeared (if delay < 1 sec) -Cue directs attention to letters still in sensory memory (so you can transfer them to short term memory) -By 500-1000ms sensory memory is gone - cue doesn't help *Also provides evidence for multi-store model of memory

Multiple store explaination of serial position curve:

-Primacy - items from early list positions; rehearsed more often get into long-term memory -Recency - participants start recall phase by reporting items still in short-term memory ( it is still in your STM; and so you say those items) *seperate things in seperate areas

-Primacy effects are.. --Recency effects, on the other hand, may be..

-Primacy effects are quite strong and seem to be due to the greater likelihood of storage in long-term memory for information studied first. There is nothing to interfere with the first items of a list, and they are more likely receiving deeper encoding than later items in a list. -Recency effects, on the other hand, may be due to retrieval from short-term memory and can be eliminated with a delay or intervening task (such as backward counting) between the end of an encoding episode and retrieval of that episode.

-Proactive interference:

-Proactive interference: when old information interferes with the storage or retrieval of new information - can also be a factor in forgetting from STM -Keppel and Underwood (1962) showed that in the Peterson and Peterson (1959) study, regardless of delay to recall, letter strings studied first had an advantage over letter strings studied later. This result suggests that proactive interference occurred such that early items in the list kept new information from being fully stored in STM, giving the early list items an advantage.

Einsten and McDaniel (1990): Prospective Memory Study

-Prospective-memory tasks have been studied by researchers in two ways: as they occur in everyday life (e.g., remembering to call someone at a specific time) and as they occur in laboratory tasks (e.g., remembering to press a key when one sees a specific word in a task). -Einstein and McDaniel (1990) developed a frequently used laboratory procedure to study prospective-memory tasks. - In this lab-based method, a prospective-memory task is embedded within an ongoing task to simulate the remembering of a prospective-memory task within the typical tasks of everyday life. -The prospective-memory tasks given in studies employing Einstein and McDaniel's methodology typically involve asking subjects to make a certain response (e.g., press the 5 key) when they encounter a specific word (e.g., rabbit) or specific type of word (e.g., animals). -The subjects are then asked to perform an ongoing task (e.g., rate the pleasantness of words or decide if a string of letters is a word) while they attempt to remember the prospective-memory task.

Recall Task -Free Recall task - Can also be used (..) - EXAMPLES

-Recall tasks are intentional-retrieval tasks that either provide specific cues to aid retrieval (cued-recall tasks) or do not provide specific cues, as in free-recall tasks. -In free-recall tasks, one is asked to retrieve information without any additional context for the information. -Free-recall tasks can also be used for retrieval of semantic memories. EX. In a standard episodic-memory experiment, this typically involves having subjects study a list of items and then (after some delay) asking them to recall the items without any additional information. Ex. When you complete a short-answer question for an exam, you are typically completing a free-recall task. Ex. If you'd been asked, "What is the capital of Romania? It starts with a B," this would be a cued-recall task because the first letter that is given serves as a cue for remembering the correct city name.

Evidence for multiple stores

-Recall yesterday's memory demos: Ex. Vast, purple, attitude, rock 5 3 9 1 3 5 (digit span) You remembered the words for minutes because they made it into long-term memory (especially people who rehearsed / made a sentence) -But you forgot digits in seconds because they remained in short-term memory *lots of evidence that these 3 stores exist -new evidence that not ALL aspects of this model are correct -e.g., there is interference between STM and LTM

Other Environment Dependent Retrieval : -Some studies (e.g., Isarida, Isarida, & Sakai, 2012) have shown that other contextual cues ( -other types of context provide - However, given the number of studies showing environmental-context match effects -You might also consider other contextual cues such as

-Some studies (e.g., Isarida, Isarida, & Sakai, 2012) have shown that other contextual cues (e.g., how meaningful the information is) can reduce the effects of environmental matches between study and test on memory. -other types of context provide better cues for retrieval, the environmental cues become less important. - However, given the number of studies showing environmental-context match effects in both recall and recognition (see Smith & Vela, 2001), matching the environment from study to test may help you when other contextual cues fail to aid your retrieval of information you need during an exam. -You might also consider other contextual cues such as what you are eating/drinking during encoding and retrieval. A match in these cues can aid retrieval as well. For example, if you drink caffeine when you study (many students do), then you should also drink caffeine just before your exam as well to help you remember more easily!

-The level-of-processing effect seems to .. -Thus, information that is encoded according to meaning connects Issues: -One issue, however, with this encoding technique *Clearly, meaning is *Researchers have -Thus, using deep encoding techniques may only

-The level-of-processing effect seems to work because long-term memory is organized primarily according to the meaning of information (e.g., see Figure 5.1). -Thus, information that is encoded according to meaning connects better with knowledge already stored in long-term memory, making it easier to retrieve that information later on. -One issue, however, with this encoding technique is that an exact definition of depth has never been fully described. *Clearly, meaning is important, but what type of meaning is most important? -Is a categorization task (e.g., Is this word a FISH?) deeper or shallower than a sentence-completion task (e.g., Does the word fit in this sentence: "He ate the _________ for dinner last night"?) or than a living/nonliving judgment (e.g., Is a SHARK a living thing?)? How do we know how "deep" encoding is? *Researchers have not been able to clearly answer these questions. In addition, it seems that the type of retrieval used in remembering the information is also important in defining which encoding tasks are best -Thus, using deep encoding techniques may only aid memory in certain situations.

Blaxtons (1989): Transferring appropriate processing study

-The type of test (explicit and implicit) did not affect results very much, but a match in processing between study and test resulted in better memory. - Blaxton's (1989) study, subjects studied items by either reading them as they were presented (e.g., cold) or generating them from words that had the opposite meaning (e.g., hot - ?). -In other words, the study task involved a visual presentation of the words that did not involve automatic processing of meaning (saying the words out loud) or the meaning of the words with no visual presentation of the words (generating opposites). -Memory depended both on study task and type of test. -For tests that involved the visual form of the studied items like recalling them from cues of similar looking words (e.g., cost) or solving word fragments (e.g., c_l_), the read study task resulted in better memory. * But for tests that involved the meaning of the studied items like free recall and answering general knowledge questions (e.g., What type of environment do penguins live in?), the generation study task resulted in better memory. ***These results show that the processing match between study and test is important, regardless of the type of memory test used for retrieval.

phonological loop: word length effect

-The word length effect also supports the dominance of verbal coding in working memory and the existence of the phonological loop. The word length effect is seen when longer words (e.g., words with more syllables) show lower recall rates than shorter words. -Baddeley, Thompson, and Buchanan (1975) showed this effect -In other words, the word length effect is due to the longer words being forgotten more quickly because more time is passing when they are rehearsed in the phonological loop than for shorter words. -Fewer of the longer words can be rehearsed before they are lost from short-term memory. -This effect has been generalized to show that the length of time it takes to speak is related to recall span such that adults have a faster speech rate and higher recall span than children (Hulme, Thompson, Muir, & Lawrence, 1984). - Further, recall span is higher for speakers of languages with faster speech rates (e.g., Chinese) than for speakers of languages with slower speech rates (e.g., Arabic or Welsh; Ellis & Hennelly, 1980; Naveh-Benjamin & Ayres, 1986).

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966): SErial Position Effect --However, a study by Bjork and Whitten (1974) *In summary, the first information encoded will..

-These researchers asked subjects to study lists of fifteen words. -After study of each list, they were asked to immediately recall the list, complete a distractor task for ten seconds and then recall the list, or complete a distractor task for thirty seconds and then recall the list. -Their results for the immediate recall condition showed what is known as a serial position curve with items in the beginning of the lists illustrating the primacy effect and items at the end of the lists illustrating the recency effect -For the two distractor task conditions, the recency effect was reduced. The recency effect was reduced the most for the longest delay condition (thirty seconds, see the red line in Figure 6.6). - shows the mean recall results by list position for these three conditions. -However, a study by Bjork and Whitten (1974) also showed that recency effects can be produced after a distractor-filled delay before the recall task, suggesting that long-term memory may also contribute to recency effects seen in the serial position curve. **In summary, the first information encoded will show the best memory. The last information encoded will show a memory advantage primarily if the delay between encoding and retrieval is very short.

Larry Jacoby & Colleagues(1989): Implicit Memory Study

-They presented both famous and nonfamous names for subjects to study. -They then asked subjects to identify famous names among a list of famous and nonfamous names; some were famous and nonfamous names that had been presented in the study list, and some were new famous and nonfamous names. -Their results showed that having seen the nonfamous names in the study list made the subjects more likely to call them famous later on, showing that their implicit memory of the names they had studied influenced their judgments of fame. -In other words, names became "famous" simply because they had been studied previously and retrieved unintentionally.

Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977): Transfer-appropriate processing

-They varied level of processing at study: Subjects performed a sentence-completion task (deep processing) or a rhyming task (shallow processing). -They were then given either a typical recognition test ("Was this a studied item—yes or no?") or a rhyming recognition test ("Does this item rhyme with a studied item—yes or no?"). -The results of the study : When subjects studied the items with meaning-based (deep) processing, standard recognition, which relies on such processing, resulted in higher memory scores. -However, when subjects studied the items with rhyme-based processing, the rhyming recognition test resulted in higher memory scores.

Duration of STM without rehersal

-Without rehearsal, the duration of STM is set by the typical time your attention stays focused on the information. -But this attention can be given to information in degrees (as anyone who has worked on two tasks at once can attest). - Thus, information is lost from STM gradually, rather than instantaneously. -This was shown using a method originally developed by J. Brown (1958) and Peterson and Peterson (1959). -participants were asked to remember sets of letters or nonsense syllables, complete a short distractor task (such as counting backwards) and then recall the list of items. The length of the distractor task changes the delay before retrieval. Peterson and Peterson's (1959) experiment showed that information is lost from STM quickly with very little recalled upon delays of eighteen seconds or more.

Type of LTM: Procedural Memory

-aka implicit memory -involves "how to" instructions for skills and tasks. ex.Knowing how to ride a bike or drive a car involves procedural memories once that skill is learned and can be performed somewhat automatically. -These memories can be retrieved without us even intending to remember anything. Our abilities just seem to "flow" as we perform a task we know how to do, without much effort in retrieving the procedural steps. -ex. In fact, even amnesic individuals who lack the ability to intentionally retrieve episodic and semantic memories show retrieval of procedural memories. ex.clive wearing playing piano

Testing Effect - Reviewing information by

-an effect in memory showing better memory for information that has been tested in the retention interval as compared with other encoding of the information; aka retrieval practice - Reviewing information by means of an intervening test aids later retrieval.

The causes of forgetting STM

-decay or interference -, with decay responsible for a small amount of forgetting and interference responsible for most of the forgetting that occurs. -They also suggest that interference comes in the form of temporal confusion: In order to recall items from a list just presented, you have to remember that it was on the most recent list and not on a list further in the past. -Some studies (e.g., Neath & Knoedler, 1994; Turvey, Brick, & Osborn, 1970) have shown that changing the delay during the task can either decrease or increase recall, depending on whether the change in delay makes the items less or more temporally distinctive

Refining the Multi-Store Model of Memory Does information travel in a strict serial order?

-evidence from amnesics, e.g., patient KF; that there are other ways to store LTM -More than one type of STM -More than one type of LTM Model has strong serial structure - says you can only get information in through sensory and STM Criticisms: evidence that you can get intact LTM with impaired STM (patient KF - damage in left inferior parietal lobe).

Another factor is more likely the cause of forgetting from STM: -Retroactive interference:

-interference -Retroactive interference: when new information interferes with the storage or retrieval of old information -Encoding makes use of the different features of information (verbal, visual, meaning) to store that information in STM, but verbal features seem to be most important. Many studies have shown that subjects make more errors in STM retrieval based on similar verbal information than on other features of the information -confusing BAKE and RAKE from a list of words; e.g., Conrad, 1964; Hanson, 1990; Healy, 1974) and show higher recall for information that has a verbal feature than for information that does not have a verbal feature (e.g., Zhang & Simon, 1985). However, there is also evidence that visual and semantic (i.e., meaning-based, such as the connection between the items RAKE, LEAVES, and AUTUMN) features are also stored in STM

Types of LTM: Semantic Memory

-involves general knowledge we have but does not contain information about the time and place we learned that knowledge. -You may know that Earth is the third closest planet to the sun, but you probably do not remember the day and place you learned that fact. -Semantic memories contribute to many of our other cognitive abilities such as language, and concept formation, they also seem to be important in the formation of some types of false memories -The key difference between episodic and semantic memories is that episodic memories contain contextual information (e.g., time, place, mood) about the formation of the memory, whereas semantic memories do not contain this contextual information.

Sensory memory

-is the briefest form of memory. It includes memories of raw, unprocessed sensory information. - It is a visual representation of the scene that exists in its sensory form and is lost from memory within a second or two. -Sensory memories can be stored for very brief periods of time for each of our senses, but these memories have been very difficult for researchers to measure because of their brief duration.

Baddeley's Model of Working Memory

-it contains multiple storage subsystems for different types of information. -dominant theory in the field of working memory. Consists of the central executive which acts as supervisory system and controls the flow of information from and to its substorage systems: the phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer

Quinn & McConnell (1996) - Visuospatial sketchpad

-learn a list of words -2 learning strategies: visual and verbal -2 "task" conditions: visual interference or none -two tasks: lower task performance indicates more interference. If lower task performance is observed when both tasks involve same type of info, than when they involve different types of info, that is evidence that the two types of info are processed separately. Remember a list of words by VERBALLY rehearsing the words OR forming a VISUAL image of the words. View EITHER a changing visual display, or nothing. * when there was no display=70% of words recalled by being told verbally or imaging visual object * when there was visual display= visual intereference only caused trouble wehn using visual learning strategy ( not verbal learning cause they were using their phonological loop instead-didnt hinder them )

Roediger and Pyc (2012): Explanatory Questioning

-learning that involves processing known as explanatory questioning will be most effective. -This type of learning involves the student considering why an answer is correct (explaining it to oneself) and considering what the student already knows and does not know. -Thus, if you incorporate retrieval practice into your study techniques, you should consider the type of retrieval practice you do. -Mixing the topics in each study session, doing an active analysis of why answers are correct or incorrect, and considering which material you could not correctly retrieve will be most effective in increasing your later retrieval of that information for an exam. -You should also consider the type of test you will be taking (e.g., multiple choice, short answer) because encoding and retrieval can interact to affect long-term memory, as we discuss in the next section.

Two kinds of interference in the Brown-Peterson task: Pro active interference Retroactive interference

-people did better on the first few trial s than the last Pro-active Interference, from LTM: -items studied in early trials interfered with items studied in later trials performance worse on later trials -this interference is from Long-Term Memory Retro-active Interference, within STM: -counting backwards task was designed to prevent rehearsal... -But it also caused interference within STM (overwrote the contents of the phonological loop ex. counting in in-class experiment

*The likelihood of intentionally retrieving an episodic memory sometimes depends on the type of retrieval task that is given: - this was proved by a study done by

-recall or recognition. -Eagle and Leiter (1964)

Prospective Memory Tasks -It is an intentional task but requires .. -prospective-memory task: --Thus, accurate retrieval of an intention depends on .. --Time-based: -There is some evidence that..

-refers to remembering to perform a task at some point in the future. Tasks like remembering to stop at the store on your way home to buy milk, call your mother on her birthday, or take medication at 9:00 p.m. every night are prospective-memory tasks. -It is an intentional task but requires that one remember the intention to perform the task. -prospective-memory task: is known as an event-based task because some type of event (e.g., seeing the commercial or the store) cues the retrieval of the task you intend to perform. -Thus, accurate retrieval of an intention depends on how that retrieval is initiated. This can occur through cues in our environment. For example, seeing a picture of someone blowing out candles on a cake in a TV commercial might cue your retrieval of your intention to call your mother on her birthday. -Time-based: Another type of prospective memory is time based in that you intend to perform that task at a specific time in the future. For example, taking medication at 9:00 p.m. is a time-based task and involves monitoring of the time in some way to perform it accurately. -There is some evidence that event-based tasks are easier to remember, but this question is still being investigated.

Eagle and Leiter (1964) : Recall Vs. REcognition Study

-showed that recall and recognition are affected in different ways by subjects' knowledge of the upcoming memory test when items are studied. *In their study, different groups of subjects were given different instructions when they studied the list. -Half of the subjects were told they would need to remember the words for a memory test. In other words, they performed an intentional learning task. -The other half of the subjects were given a task to perform on the list items (e.g., classify them by parts of speech) and was not informed about the later memory test. This group performed an incidental learning task. -The results in this experiment showed that recall was higher for the intentional study condition than for the incidental study condition. **However, recognition was better for items studied in the incidental study condition than the intentional study condition (i.e., they found an interaction between study condition and type of test). *These results showed that knowing about the upcoming memory test helped when that test was a recall test but hurt when the test was a recognition test (see Figure 6.1). *A similar effect was shown when common (e.g., boat) and uncommon (e.g., feat) words were studied. Common words were more likely to be recalled, but uncommon words were more likely to be recognized (Kinsbourne & George, 1974). **Thus, the retrieval test used to measure memory can influence one's ability to remember. Implicit-memory tests illustrate this point even further.

visuospatial sketchpad

-stores visual and spatial information -It acts as a type of dry-erase board for visual and spatial information that can be written on, stored for a brief time, erased, and rewritten on. - The researchers then look for interference in the tasks, depending on the type of tasks the subjects are asked to perform (e.g., two visuospatial tasks, versus one visuospatial and one verbal task). In other words, if lower task performance (i.e., more interference) is seen when both tasks involve the same type of information (two visual tasks) than when the two tasks involve different types of information (one visual task and one auditory task), then these results provide evidence that the working-memory system includes different subsystems for visual and auditory information. - Quinn and McConnell (1996): They asked subjects to remember a list of words either by verbally rehearsing the words (in their heads) or by forming a visual image of the words. While subjects were learning the words, they were also presented with a changing visual display (seemingly random visual block patterns) or no visual display. -These results showed that when irrelevant visual information is displayed during a visual learning task, subjects cannot perform the task as well as when they are doing a verbal learning task or when no irrelevant visual information is displayed. -These results show that when two tasks both rely on brief visual storage of information, they interfere with one another, supporting the notion of a separate storage subsystem in working memory for visuospatial information that has a limited capacity. * Shepard and Metzler (1971) asked subjects to judge whether two three-dimensional objects were the same or different (see Figure 5.8). The objects were rotated in space to different degrees. -In other words, subjects were creating an image of the objects in the sketchpad subsystem of working memory and rotating those objects within the sketchpad to determine what they would look like when rotated to the same orientation as the comparison object. -The more they had to rotate them mentally, the longer it took them to make their judgment. This is exactly the sort of task the visuospatial sketchpad is proposed to be useful for, and these results suggest that this subsystem of working memory is able to hold and manipulate this type of information.

phonological loop:articulatory rehersal

-studies have shown that having subjects repeat a word or phrase out loud while they learn from a written list reduces recall for those items. -This is an effect known as articulatory suppression: articulatory rehearsal of list items is suppressed by the articulation of the irrelevant, repeated word. -With both the repeated word and the items to be remembered stored in the phonological loop, it becomes overloaded and recall for the studied items is reduced. - The list information cannot be rehearsed in the loop while it is also producing a verbal response.

More recently, researchers have attempted to better understand how information is lost from sensory memory. One proposal is..

-that there are two stages of sensory memory storage of different durations (Cowan, 1988). In the first stage, the raw, unprocessed perceptual information is stored, and in the second stage, the perceptual information connects with information stored in long-term memory that allows for interpretation of the stimuli. -The duration of one second for visual sensory memory reported by Sperling (1960) represents the first stage of sensory memory, whereas the longer durations reported for auditory and tactile sensory memory represent the second stage of sensory memory. -that visual sensory memories in individuals with mild cognitive impairments (such as those shown by individuals with early stage Alzheimer's disease) decay faster than comparison individuals without these impairments.

Working Memory: Central Executive

-the part of the working-memory system that controls the flow of information within the system and into long-term memory -the manager -This subsystem does not store information as do the other subsystems. -Instead, it controls which information in the other subsystems is in our current focus of attention. -However, as our attention is limited in what it can handle at any one time, the central executive also has a limited capacity in what it can control at any time. - It is limited by the limits of our attention. -ex. For example, Baddeley (1998) has suggested that Norman and Shallice's (1986) model of the control of action that includes a supervisory attentional system could describe the functioning of the central executive. In this model, many tasks are proposed to rely on automatic functioning (e.g., routines) with the supervisory attentional system coming into play when automatic functioning is not sufficient for a task. Baddeley argues that this model of attention can account for performance in tasks where the central executive would be expected to play a role (e.g., driving, playing chess, reading)

Working memory:Episodic Buffer

-the part of the working-memory system that holds episodic memories as an overflow for the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad - For example, when performing articulatory suppression, one's loop is completely engaged with the verbal repetition task and is unable to verbally store a list of items one wishes to remember. -Thus, the list items are being stored in another subsystem of working memory. Researchers have ruled out the sketchpad as a storage place for the list items during this task (Nairne & Neath, 2013); thus, a different storage subsystem is needed. -Baddeley suggested that the episodic buffer serves in this role by briefly storing episodic memories with visual and verbal codes integrated from the other two storage subsystems. -In other words, it can bind information with different codes (verbal, visual, semantic) to hold the combined information temporarily. -It also serves as a link between working memory and long-term memory, allowing information stored in long-term memory to be used in the storage and retrieval of information in short-term memory.-Baddeley's work (e.g., Baddeley, Hitch, & Allen, 2009) has shown that short-term memory for sentences is better than short-term memory for lists of words, indicating a role for binding of words using language knowledge and semantic information that increases the overall recall of words in sentences -Baddeley's work (e.g., Baddeley, Hitch, & Allen, 2009) has shown that short-term memory for sentences is better than short-term memory for lists of words, indicating a role for binding of words using language knowledge and semantic information that increases the overall recall of words in sentences. -Thus, binding of features seems to occur automatically without requiring resources from the central executive and does not rely on the visuospatial sketchpad or phonological loop.

1. yes-no recognition test 2.two-alternative forced-choice test.

1. In a standard recognition task in a memory study, subjects are asked to study a set of items. They are then given a list of items (typically one at a time) with some items that were on the list and some that were not on the list. Subjects are asked to judge whether each item was on the list (an "old" item) or not on the list (a "new" item). 2.In another variant of this type of test, subjects are presented with two items at a time, one old item and one new item, and their task is to choose the item that is old. -For example, they may be asked to rate their confidence in their judgment (e.g., on a 1-to-5 scale). Or for items they judge to be old, they may be asked about whether they "remember" the item (i.e., they can remember details about the item such as position in the list or perceptual details) or if they just "know" the item was on the list (i.e., they cannot retrieve the details of its presentation, but they are sure the item was on the list).

Sperling (1960) Why is it important that cue comes after display disappears? (two reasons)

1. fixation--> on cross 2. flashed briefly (Letters) 3. delays of 0.15 sec to 1 sec --> blank field delay (variable interval) 4. low,medium,high indicates row--> cue tone Note: cue comes after display disappear Why is it important that cue comes after display disappears? (two reasons) - if during, it would be testing attention not memory - if the cue comes too late, you will lose your memory 1. using the tone is used retroactively to try and remeber whhich letters were at the bottom row 2. cue comes at the right time so you can rustle through your memory and transfer to next memory system

Types of LTM: Episodic memory

1.episodic memory: involves episodes from one's daily experiences. ex. Remembering what you did last Tuesday, the atmosphere of a party you went to last weekend, and the day you fell off the jungle gym in elementary school are all episodic memories. -Some episodic memories are also autobiographical memories, because they allow us to do a kind of mental time traveling back to a particular episode in our lives. - However, not all episodic memories are autobiographical. We can remember what we had for breakfast yesterday without feeling as if we have been mentally taken back to the point in time yesterday when we ate breakfast.

Godden and Baddeley (1975):Environmental Context Effects - Study Conditions -Test conditions Results

Context dependent forgetting -conducted one of the classic studies showing this effect with divers. -This subject sample allowed for two study conditions, 1. underwater 2. above water, Test conditions: 1. underwater 2. above water, -Thus, half of the subjects heard a list of words underwater while diving and half heard a list of words above water after diving. -Then half of each of these groups (underwater study, above-water study) were tested in each environment (underwater test, above-water test). -Overall, no effects of study condition or test condition alone were found on recall performance. In other words, being underwater did not reduce recall. -However, the study and test conditions interacted such that there were different results when the study and test conditions matched and when they did not match. **RESULTS: Memory performance was higher when the study and test conditions matched (i.e., underwater study and test, above-water study and test) than when they did not match (i.e., underwater study and above-water test, above-water study and underwater test). These results show the importance of matching the environment of study and test. - These results suggest that a match in environment between your study locations and your testing locations will provide the best condition for memory retrieval.

STM - Duration Formation Provides the link to ..

Duration: upper limit about 18-20 sec Format: meaning and perceptual features. Auditory code particularly important. Provides the link to awareness. Contents can shape immediate thoughts and behaviors.

Encoding

Encoding is the process by which information enters our memory. -However, in order for information to be encoded, attention to the information is often required Ex. reading

LTM : Types Episodic Memory Semantic Procedural

Episodic -flashbulb: memories encoded after just a single, emotionally intense event. As though a flashbulb came on and illuminated everything brightly for a second and thereby 'froze' it perfectly into your memory. Seem highly vivid (may not be accurate). -always contain contextual information (time, place, mood) -not acquired permanently until about 3 or 4 yrs of age Semantic -general knowledge -not encoded with context in which learned -acquired from very young age Procedural -'muscle memory' (motor skills) -very different brain regions from Episodic and Semantic

How do we know the duration and capacity of sensory memory? Study: Problem Solution

How do we know the duration and capacity of sensory memory? -Sperling (1960): Partial Report Method: -Sperling (1960): briefly flashed letters -Sperling - 50 ms presentation (letters flashed up briefly). -3 rows of 3 letters. -Cue is a tone of varying pitch. Problem: -sensory memory is very short (500ms?) -you can only utter 4 or 5 letters in 500ms -after that, sensory memory has faded and you can only report letters that made it to short-term store -so we're really testing capacity of short-term store Solution: Partial report: report only letters indicated by a cue (like arrow in our example)

-In the 1970s, researchers discovered something interesting about memory performance: -Depth of encoding in this case means .. -elaborative encoding -shallow processing -Deep Processing -Level of Processing Effect

In the 1970s, researchers discovered something interesting about memory performance: The "deeper" information was encoded, the better it was remembered. -processing of the meaning of the information (also called elaborative encoding). -processing of information according to its meaning to allow for longer storage in memory -Shallow processing: encoding information according to its surface features - encoding information according to its meaning -an effect showing better memory for information encoded with deep processing than with shallow processing

long-term memory (LTM)

Long-term memory: long-term (i.e., lifetime) storage of memory after some elaborative processing has occurred -Thus, it is generally thought that LTM has both unlimited storage capacity and unlimited duration of storage. -What one can retrieve from LTM at a given time is limited. Retrieval of information from LTM depends on many factors that contribute to the context in which retrieval takes place.

Summary of Memory 2

Modal (Multi-Store) Model of Memory -evidence that these 3 stores exist, but not ALL aspects of this model are correct Long-term memory has many forms -episodic, semantic, procedural Baddeley's Model of Working memory -short-term memory is a dynamic system, not just a storehouse 'working memory' -working memory allows us to decide, think and act -there are multiple, separate subsystems within working memory

partial report method

Procedure used in Sperling's experiment on the properties of the visual sensory memory (iconic memory), in which participants were instructed to report only some of the stimuli in a briefly presented display. A cue tone immediately after the display was extinguished indicated which part of the display to report. -subjects were presented with arrays of letters for a very brief time (only 50 ms in one experiment) and then asked to report just one row of letters according to a tone (low for first row, medium for middle row, and high for top row). -. With the partial-report method, Sperling showed that the capacity of the visual sensory memory is fairly large and much larger than had been measured previously. - In these experiments, he learned that visual sensory memories are held for about one second. -studies using the partial-report method that focused on auditory sensory memory (also known as echoic memory) reported that these memories could last as long as four seconds -Studies of tactile sensory memory (e.g., Sinclair & Burton, 1996) suggest that these memories last as long as five seconds.

Short term memory -working memory -info in STM..

Short-term memory (STM) is an intermediate memory storage that begins processing of perceptual information transferred from sensory memory. Information that becomes the focus of attention moves from sensory memory to STM. -working memory is also used to describe the system that controls the processing and activation of the information held in STM -Information in STM can be held for a short time if it remains in the focus of attention (e.g., by rehearsing the information), but in order to store information for a longer period of time, the information must be transferred to long-term memory (e.g., by connecting the information to other information already stored in long-term memory).

Spacing effect: -- Spaced repetitions result in better .. --One reason studying over time is typically better than .. -If you study at different times, you are likely .. *All of this contextual information is ..

Spacing effect: an effect showing better memory when information is studied in smaller units over time instead of all at once, as in cramming - Spaced repetitions result in better memory than massed repetitions. -One reason studying over time is typically better than cramming is that multiple study episodes provide more varied retrieval cues (i.e., pieces of the circumstances that existed when information was encoded, such as things in the environment or thoughts you had about the information) that can be useful when information is retrieved from long-term memory. -If you study at different times, you are likely changing some of the circumstances that exist during study, such as your environment, your mood, your thoughts during study, and perhaps even your study technique. *All of this contextual information is stored with the material you are studying. When you attempt to retrieve the information, these contextual cues can help you connect to information you are trying to remember.

Storage

Storage is the process by which information is kept in memory. -Connecting with one's preexisting knowledge seems to be important in the retrieval process, as information seems to be stored with related concepts -the storage of memories seems to be distributed across multiple brain areas. -Specific brain areas (e.g., the hippocampus) are involved in pulling the pieces of a memory back together when it is retrieved

Word Length Effect - Baddeley also proved this

The notion that it is more difficult to remember a list of long words than a list of short words. - less fit in our phonological loop;That is, we can rehearse (and maintain in memory) fewer words when they are longer. Evidence that : -phonological loop exists -that it has limited capacity -That verbal coding is dominant in working memory * in experiment, less five-syllable words are recalled than one-syllable words

chunking

The process of organizing information into fewer meaningful units is called chunking. -"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two" that represents the average capacity of STM. -Chunking works with other types of information as well. Letters can be grouped as words and words can be grouped as sentences to hold more items in STM. -Miller measured STM capacity in a particular way. His seven-plus-or-minus-two number is based on the average number of items his subjects could recall accurately in the correct order 50 percent of the time. -More recent research also suggests that STM span may be closer to three to five chunks in some cases, and that limits on our attention (i.e., information in our attentional focus at a given time) are linked to the number of chunks that can be successfully stored in STM (Cowan, 2001). - -Thus, the capacity of STM can depend on factors like the type of information and our attentional limits.

Baddeley's Model of WM: visuospatial sketch pad

Visuospatial Sketchpad a dry-erase board holds visual and spatial information is used for visual-spatial 'operations' by the central executive Evidence? Quinn & McConnell (1996)

Model of Working memory (Baddeley)

Why "working" instead of "short-term"? Conceptualizes STM very differently: active Breaks it down into sub-systems -working implies that it's the forefront of our consciousness, our dry-erase board for the present moment, our control center. - Almost better described in terms of attention, or executive function. - Memory just refers to fact that we've got a bunch of information loaded up that we're operating upon, with our mental activity.

Modal model of memory

describes these types of memories along with hypothetical structures that hold memories for different lengths of time. -The modal model of memory shows separate memory stores: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Input from the senses goes into sensory memory. Information we pay attention to is transferred to short-term memory. Information can be held there through rehearsal or output from there as a response. Information in short-term memory that is connected to other information we know can be easily transferred to long-term memory, where it can be held indefinitely and often retrieved when needed.

*In the word length effect, we rember fewer words from the long-word list because:

each word takes longer to articulate and so not as any words fit into our phonological loop

Three important processes in memory are..

encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Roediger and Karpicke (2006): Testing Effect - one possible reason for the effect is suggested to be the... Other reasons: - **As yet, researchers do not know if one (or more) of these mechanisms is the primary underlying cause of the testing effect. It is clear, though, that

enhanced performance due to retrieval practice -asked subjects to read two passages (one about the sun and the other about sea otters). -For one of the passages, the subjects were asked to reread the passage for seven minutes, and for the other passage, the subjects were asked to recall the information in the passage for seven minutes to provide retrieval practice. -They were then asked to complete a final recall test of the information in the passage (regardless of which task they did after the first reading) either five minutes later, two days later, or one week later. -Their results,clearly show that for the longer delays (two days and one week), subjects remembered much more of the information when they recalled the passage after the first reading than when they simply reread the passage after the first reading. - For delays longer than five minutes, recalling information after reading it showed a memory advantage over rereading the information for the same amount of time. -depth of encoding involved in the additional recall task (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006b), because the intervening recall task involves more effortful processing than simply rereading the passage. Other Reasons: -For example, retrieval practice may strengthen memories by strengthening the connection between the cues for retrieval (e.g., thoughts about the material) and the information to be retrieved (Karpicke & Blunt, 2011). *As yet, researchers do not know if one (or more) of these mechanisms is the primary underlying cause of the testing effect. It is clear, though, that practicing retrieving information is an effective means of increasing the likelihood of retrieving that information in the future.

*Patient KF

had a focal brain region, had imparied short term memory, but LTM was fine - this is a problem for the multi-store model of memory - which means that we can get stuff from the sensory store to the LTM store, so this model is not fully correct * Also things from LTM can interfer with STM , which is not how the model shows this occurs -

REcognition Tasks Ex.

recognition tasks one is not asked to generate any information. Instead, one is asked to verify whether information has been experienced before. Ex.When you take a multiple-choice exam, you are completing a recognition test, because you are presented with the correct answer among other choices and you need to "recognize" which answer provided is the correct one.

Declarative memory is a term that has been used to describe a subset of LTM . It includes:

semantic and episodic memory

Memory has been classified according to duration:

sensory memories, short-term memories, and long-term memories that describe very brief memories, fairly brief memories, and longer-held memories, respectively.

The digit span task measured __ whereas the word recall task required the use of ___:

short-term; long-term memory

Sperlings partial report method was critical for measuring the true capacity of sensory memory because:

there is not enough time to report all the information in sensory memory before it fades from sensory memory ( what we store is more than what we can report from our sensory memory)