Cognitive Psych Final Pt.2
Which of the following would be something stated when using the Gestalt approach to solving a problem?
"Alright, let's think about this another way."
You read the sentence, "When the light brightens, the pupils of the eyes contract; however when it grows darker, they dilate." Which of the following is a contextual inference?
"dilate" means the opposite of "contract"
What is the expected value associated with each of the two gambles? --> Gamble A: Winning $50 with probability .5, otherwise losing $30. Gamble B: Winning $100 with probability .25, otherwise losing $40.
$10 and -$5
Which of the following is the prototype corresponding to these fives items? (1) small black square (2) small white square (3) big white square (4) small white triangle (5) small black triangle
(2) small white square
Identify the correct distance value obtained by comparing two objects: 110 and 010. The formula to compute distance is given below.
*square root* 1
Identify the correct distance value obtained by comparing two objects: 0010 and 1001. The formula to compute distance is given below.
*square root* 3
Which of the following distance values would indicate that two objects are the furthest apart in psychological space?
*square root* 3
Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) presented some participants with the problem shown below. While solving the problem, they provided "warmth judgments" based on how close they are to solving the problem: 1 being cold (not close at all) and 7 being hot (I have solved it!). For the problem below, which ratings would we expect participants to indicate? --> A woman has 4 pieces of chain. Each piece is made up of 3 links. She wants to join the pieces into a single closed loop of chain. To open a link costs 2 cents and to close a link costs 3 cents. She only has 15 cents. How does she do it?
1 1 1 2 2 7
With respect to the study conducted by Wason (1960), the ________ and the ________ and the two cards that you should turn over to ________ the rule: if there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side.
A; 7; falsify
Billy learned that the present and past tenses for the verb "push" ae "push" and "pushed", respectively. When generalizing the past tense to the verb "hit", he incorrectly verbalized "hitted." Which theory for language acquisition is most likely to explain Billy's incorrect usage?
Chomsky's innate biological program
If "soda" is a basic-level category, then ________ would be a subordinate level.
Coca-Cola
Which problem-solving approach assumes that we need to break away from our past representations in order to get to a solution?
Gestalt
Imagine that I have a concept of "dog" that abides by the following definition: an animal that has four legs, fur, and a tail. Which of the following is an example of how this definition fails to meet the sufficient condition of the definitional approach to concepts?
I encounter a cat that is an animal having four legs, fur, and a tail
Imagine that I have a concept of "SUV" that abides by the following definition: a vehicle that has four doors, 4 tires, and can travel long distances. Which of the following is an example of how this definition fails to meet the sufficient condition of the definitional approach to concepts?
I encounter a truck that meets all four criteria
Imagine that I have a concept of "SUV" that abides by the following definition: a vehicle that has four doors, 4 tires, and can travel long distances. Which of the following is an example of how this definition fails to meet the necessary condition of the definitional approach to concepts?
I encounter an SUV that is a vehicle having two doors, 4 tires, and can travel long distances
Tyler and Eric agree that spiders have eight legs, but Tyler thinks spiders are scary and gross, while Eric finds them nice and interesting. What explains the differences between what Tyler thinks and what Eric thinks?
Tyler and Eric have different concepts of spiders
In trying to explain how language develops, which theory purports that we develop and use "inner speech", or speech that occurs internally and is only experienced by that person?
Vygotsky's Social Development Theory
This part of the neuron keeps the cell alive.
What is the cell body?
Which of the following is NOT true?
a category is a sparse mental representation of a concept
Which of these facts undermines B.F. Skinner's theory of language learning as a product of reinforced imitation?
a child can produce words and sentences that nobody has ever said to him or her
A group of scientists notices that people who smoke often develop cancer later in life. To test this, they design a longitudinal study in which they take note of how many cigarettes each participant smokes each day, how many years each participant smokes, and whether he or she develops any kind of cancer at any point. What type of study is this?
a correlational study
The Cognitive Cone is a visual representation of the mental functions that comprise the mind. The byproduct of these mental functions is:
a mental representation of the world that helps us navigate the environment
________ is a tendency to use the same set of solutions to solve similar problems, whereas ________ is using the same solution for two different problems with the same underlying structure.
a mental set; analogical transfer
When attempting to solve a problem, convergent thinkers generate:
a single solution
Which of these examples is the poorest fit for the concept of a game?
a spinning top
When Wason's four-card task is replaced with an everyday problem about checking the age of people who are drinking Coke and beer:
about 75% of participants solve the problem correctly
Rayner, Carlson, and Frazier (1983) presented randomly assigned participants to see one of two ambiguous sentences: "The spy saw the cop with the [binoculars/revolver], but the cop didn't see him." Based on longer fixation time(s) ________, they concluded that both sentences initially have the same structure, but one is non-sensical and the structure gets updated.
after "revolver"
To understand how language comprehension and production interact, researchers have suggested the ________. This asserts that the producer and comprehender have and use different language components which they, through conversation, work to match (or at least be more similar).
alignment theory
While working in a lab, you encounter a problem with your experiment. You spend days trying to figure out what is wrong, and finally, it pops into your head that the temperature in the room is incorrect, causing fluctuations in your results. This is an example of ________.
an insight
When one recalls the solution to an old problem and uses it to solve a new, similarly structured problem one has reasoned by:
analogy
The definitional approach for representing concepts posits that there are necessary and sufficient features that determine category membership. The sufficient condition tells us that:
any object which satisfies the features must be part of the category
The process of language production in which you actually express some language for someone else to comprehend is:
articulation
Most categorization researchers tend to focus on studying ________ concepts (such as geometric shapes) since they are clear-cut.
artificial
The definition approach to concepts works well for:
artificial concepts
Ava recently lost her job and needs to find a new one. She decides to use the same strategies that landed her job she just lost. What kind of approach does this decision best represent?
associationist approach
Over time, as we gain experience with successfully solving problems, we develop a set of solutions that we apply to future problems. This best describes the ________.
associationist approach
Charmaine is afraid of flying but has no fear of driving, even though her friend Dan correctly points out that planes are statistically much safer than cars. Her fear probably stems from a(n) ________ bias.
availability
According to the syntax-first approach, we determine syntactic structure:
based on syntactic information and then, if necessary, context
The game "Family Feud" where the goal is to name the most common object, place, or person in a category, is likely based on ________ concepts.
basic level
Tanaka and Taylor (1991) conducted an experiment to see if experts (e.g., individuals with more experience in a specific domain) categorize objects differently than novices. In general, they found that novices tend to categorize objects using the ________, while experts tend to categorize objects using the ________.
basic; subordinate
The reason we determine whether an argument is valid is so that we can:
be sure the conclusion is true if the premises are true
Dr. Smith believes that overt, observable behavior is the only valid way that we can study people. He is a ________.
behaviorist
Neurons communicate through a process that is:
both chemical and electrical
With respect to syntactic parsing, what do the syntax-first and interactive approaches have in common?
both try to predict how we build syntactic structure
If you perceive the simplest outlines or qualities of an object first, and then you add those parts to help you understand what the object is, which type of mental processing are you using?
bottom-up
How we mentally represent a problem ________ finding the solution.
can both help and hinder
Newt, Luna, Helga, and Mikayla were sorted into House Hufflepuff (i.e., they belong to a specific Hogwarts house from Harry Potter). In the context of Cognitive Psychology, Hufflepuff is considered a:
category
The observable act of placing objects into group is referred to as:
classification
After surviving a stroke, Byron now lives with Wernicke's aphasia. This means he has trouble ________ language.
comprehending
Objects are usually easier to remember because they are ________, whereas concepts tend to be harder to remember because they are ________.
concrete; abstract
The Wason (1966) Four-Card Problem involves participants choosing which cards (A, D, 4, 7) need to be turned over in order to test a rule (vowel implies even number). While most participants correctly identified A, many incorrectly chose the "4". The heuristic which most likely contributed to this incorrect decision is:
confirmation bias
Medin, Goldstone, and Gentner (1993) presented participants with pairs of objects and asked them to identify common and distinctive features. They demonstrated:
context influences our similarity assessments
The dichotic listening task (or shadow task) involved presenting participants with different messages in each ear. Participants are asks to only attend to the message in one ear and ignore the message in the other ear. Results indicated that participants:
could report physical characteristics of the unattended message
Swinney's (1979) study involved participants listening to sentences and then responding to visually presented words. In doing so, they support the phenomenon of:
cross-modal priming
The knowledge needed for addressing a problem includes mentally representing the ________ and ________ states, the rules or constraints; and the allowable operations to solve the problem.
current; goal
Based on morphological complexity, which of the following words would have the fastest recognition?
daughter
The mental activities that take place in choosing among alternatives are collectively called:
decision-making
________ is about absolute truth, while ________ examines the likelihood of a conclusion being true.
deductive reasoning; inductive reasoning
The sentences "Steve Rogers passed the test" and "The test was passed by Steve Rogers" have the same ________ structure but different ________.
deep; syntax
Which approach to concepts has the smallest impact on our memory capacity?
definition
Which of the following is an example of an ill-defined problem?
designing a new all-electric SUV
John went to the bank, where he encountered a very rude, grumpy bank teller. Rather than getting angry and being rude back, John was polite through the encounter while thinking, "This person must be going through a difficult time for her to be so rude, so I shouldn't take it personally." John's attitude best illustrates:
determinism
Superordinate concepts are usually ________, while subordinate concepts tend to be ________.
distinctive but not as informative; informative but not as distinctive
While reviewing the lecture materials, you are taking in auditory and visual information, you are processing language, holding information in memory, and hopefully relating to information already stored in memory. This idea that we can process the same environmental information across different areas of the brain is referred to as:
distributed processing
Madison needs to wrap a present but doesn't have any wrapping paper. She quickly searches the apartment and finds a brown grocery bag to use instead. This is an example of:
divergent thinking
Mirror neurons were discovered using single-cell recording, and refer to neurons that specialize in:
done by me or someone else in the environment
Which of the following is the best example of an ill-defined problem?
dressing to impress
Which of the following answer choices represents a concept that is both abstract and artificial?
emancipation
Which of the following hypotheses is considered falsifiable?
energy drinks improve how much information can be retained
Giorgi recognizes that an animal is a cat by remembering specific experiences he had with other cats. This is an example of a(n) ________ approach.
exemplar
Which of the following approaches best takes our previous experiences into account?
exemplar
Which of the following is an example of a normative theory of decision making, meaning they focus on what choice an individual should make?
expected value theory and expected utility theory
The research on expertise consistently shows that ________.
experts' advantages are limited to problems within their area of expertise
Which of the answer choices below is the least invasive measure of blood flow activity in the brain?
fMRI
Consider the following scenario. You are at work, and the strap on your shoe breaks. You have to figure out a way to fix it; otherwise, you will not be able to walk properly with both shoes. You use a paperclip to hold the strap on. This example rejects the idea of ________.
functional fixedness
The string problem often generates ________ when participants do not think to use the screwdriver as a pendulum.
functional fixedness
You and your friend Mikel are quizzing each other on Cognitive Psychology terms. You describe a time when you went to Disney World and you didn't notice that your brother changed his shirt partway through the day. When you ask Mikel to identify this phenomenon and they still struggle, you tell them "It starts with the letter 'i'." Which effect are you using to help improve their memory?
generation
Deductive reasoning involves which of the following?
going from general to specific statements
My dog, Nala, likes to lay on my lap (and beg for belly rubs), which hides my view of my legs and feet. I don't have to worry about whether my legs are still there because of:
good continuation
________ are mental shortcuts that we use to reduce the processing burden on our cognitive systems.
heuristics
Both expected value theory and expected utility theory assign a value for specific outcomes over many trials. Thus, the optimal choice is the one which has the ________ expected outcome.
highest
Newell and Simon developed the General Problem Solver, a computer program that attempts to mimic how humans solve problems. Problems such as the Tower of Hanoi are used to test this General Problem Solver; humans are still better problem-solvers than this computer program because:
humans can solve real-world, complex problems
How does the ability to categorize help humans?
if we know something belongs to a certain category, we do not need to relearn the properties of that category for that item
To improve your memory of items on your grocery list, you think about where each of those items belongs in your kitchen/home. In doing so, you are improving your memory through the:
imagery effect
Increasing the intensity of a light (i.e., brightness) is associated with what kind of change to the neurons transmitting information?
increased firing of neurons in the occipital lobe
Adrienne visits her girlfriend's apartment and finds her diary, in which she has written about her interest in other people. Adrienne reasons that her girlfriend is cheating on her based on what she has read. What kind of reasoning is Adrienne using?
inductive reasoning
The basis for scientific investigations is:
inductive reasoning
Your cousin meets you for dinner. She says very little, but she is smiling broadly and wearing a new diamond ring on the third finger of her left hand. "You got engaged!" you say. Which interpretation have you made?
inference
When using the means-end analysis approach to solving a problem, you must generate subgoals, which are:
intermediate goals that will help you get to the goal state
The following categorical syllogism is ________ and ________, thus ________.
invalid; untrue; unsound
All the following is true regarding prototypes EXCEPT:
is a member of the category
Which of the following is NOT TRUE of the classical (definition) view of concepts?
it accurately predicts the typicality effect
Broadbent's Filter Model has been shown to have some shortcomings; however, it is important to our understanding of attentional processes because:
it allowed for testable predictions about selective attention
Determine whether the following syllogism is sound. --> Some full-time employees have retirement benefits. All full-time employees are taxpayers. Therefore, some people with retirement benefits are not taxpayers.
it is not sound because it's invalid
Based on the exemplar approach to concepts, we determine category membership of a novel object based on:
its similarity to multiple exemplars
Singers in a choir are grouped based on their singing range. Those who sing the bass parts have the lowest pitches, which means the sound waves they emit have:
longer wavelengths
The availability bias is a heuristic in which examples easily brought to mind are relied on to:
make judgments and solve problems
You have decided to major in Psychology but are then overwhelmed by the number of credit hours you will need to complete. Your advisor helps you come up with a plan to complete those credit hours, using which problem-solving strategy?
means-end analysis
________ is a problem-solving strategy that involves repeated comparisons between the current state and the goal state.
means-ends strategy
Preconceived notions of how to approach a problem based on prior experience is known as:
mental set
The language structure which integrates form, syntax, and semantics is:
morphemes
Wendy's belief that rabbits are cute, fun, and intelligent animals is an example of a:
natural concept
In Strayer and Johnston's (2001) study, participants first completed a driving task and then completed this same task while simultaneously completing another task (phone or radio). For the conditions involving listening to the radio, the results indicate there was/were:
not a significant decline in performance
We have described three models of selective attention. Which of the following is NOT a description of these selective attention models?
our arousal, intentions, and capacity can all influence how we use our resources across several tasks
The main result of the Ebbinghaus' experiment is known as the Savings curve. This shows us all of the following EXCEPT:
our memories can perfectly retain information after any delay
Which of the following statements about categories and culture is TRUE? (Hint: If concepts are pre-linguistic, then how does language/culture affect how we develop concepts?)
people tend to organize concepts into similar categories regardless of the culture they are from or the language they speak
In order to determine if someone said "bark" or "park", you have to discriminate the initial:
phoneme
________ occurs when a person fills in missing speech information.
phoneme restoration
The game "Mad Gab" uses phrases of unrelated words such as "Free Quaintly As Quest Shuns". Team members try to solve that puzzle by determining what that place, person, or phrase the puzzle sounds like. While this could be explained in terms of language, this could also be explained by what other phenomenon?
phonological similarity
You hear your classmate say, "I'm just going to hang around until class starts." Which aspect of language structure helps you understand that your classmate means "waiting" and not actually hanging from a doorway?
pragmatics
People have more difficulty reasoning when working with:
premises that have negatives in them, and quantifiers such as "some"
Proactive interference refers to the fact that:
previously learned material can disrupt the learning of new material
The area of the brain in which we process speech is the:
primary auditory cortex
When trying to determine the requirements needed to obtain your Bachelor's degree, you are overwhelmed by the number of possible classes you can take to fulfill your electives. For example, there are many different languages you can take to fulfill the language requirement. It seems that you are overwhelmed by the:
problem space
Experts generally spend more time analyzing ________, adding relevant knowledge to their representation, and planning their ________.
problems; solutions
In language development, language ________ typically lags behind language ________.
production; comprehension
The idea that concepts are represented based on a typical or average instance of that concept is known as the ________ approach.
prototype
Which approach(es) for explaining how our mind represents concepts is (are) able to explain the typicality effect?
prototype and exemplar
During an experiment, Dr. Doan presents the word "nurse". If she had phonologically primed you, then you would have the fastest reaction time to:
purse
You have found the PERFECT gift for your partner, but you want to make sure (i.e., conclude) that the product works well. While looking at reviews, you can strengthen your conclusion by:
relying on products/vendors with more reviews
Juries are comprised of people ('peers') who render a verdict in a trial. Jurors tend to make decisions on guilt based on how closely the defendant matches their prototype of a guilty person. This exemplifies:
representativeness heuristic
When working through a new Module, you strengthen your understanding and memory for that new information through the process of consolidation. When initially learning this new information, the Standard Model of Consolidation purports that:
retrieving these memories most relies on the hippocampus
Randy was briefly shown the image above and later asked to recall items from the picture. Because he has a schema for "office", this can cause him to create a false memory of:
scissors
The first step to cognition is:
sensation
In psychology, "family resemblance" means that people, objects, or concepts in a category:
share overlapping sets of features
All of the following is TRUE about the tip of the tongue phenomenon EXCEPT:
shows that semantic and syntactic processes are separate
Medin, Goldstone, & Gentner (1993) showed that the features of an object may appear to vary depending on the object it is placed next to. This demonstrates which of the following?
similarity is variable and heavily influenced by context
Schriefers, Meyer, and Levelt (1990) showed participants pictures and asked them to identify the object in the picture. Participants who were verbally presented with a semantically related word just before the picture displays identified the picture:
slower compared to the other conditions
To determine the similarity of two objects, we rely on their distance in "psychological space." Two similar objects have:
smaller distance
Using the premises given below, which of the following is the correct conclusion? --> All smartphones are computers. Some smartphones are expensive.
some computers are expensive
You friend gives you the Venn diagram above and you aren't sure that they've set it up correctly. To check them, you decide to backtrack and try to come up with the original premises. Which of the following would you expect was one of their original premises?
some people who are stressed are not kind
Your friend is struggling with their reasoning and logic homework. They were able to generate this diagram but can't figure out their next step. Which of the following is a valid conclusion? (Hints: What are the premises? The conclusion must relate to which categories?)
some students are not tired people
Sierra's psychology professor asks her to demonstrate categorical perception for the class. This would involve listening to:
spoken words and recognizing them as separate categories
You take a temporary job as a house sitter. The homeowner tells you, "Part of your job will be to feed the dogs." You want more specific information, so you ask, "What kind of dogs?" To a psychologist, what kind of concept are you asking for?
subordinate
In an episode of Grey's Anatomy, Derek asks Izzie to remember three words: dog, plane, and house. Instead, Izzie rehearses schnauzer, 747, and Victorian mansion. In other words, Izzie chose to identify these items using the ________ level of conceptual organization even though Derek assured her that the ________ level was sufficient.
subordinate; basic
You gift your niece a Sudoku puzzle, but she's never done the puzzle before! While explaining how to complete a puzzle, you explain that the operators are:
that no number can appear in the same row, column, or 3x3 square more than once
All of the following are factors to consider when evaluating the strength of inductive arguments EXCEPT:
the availability of information in memory
A person's memory of his or her childhood dog fueling that person's interactions with all future dogs is an example of:
the exemplar approach
The associationist and analogical transfer approaches to problem-solving are similar in that they involve applying a past solution to a current problem; however, they differ in that:
the former is domain-specific while the latter is across domains
Patients are more likely to agree to a surgery that has a 50% success rate than one that has a 50% failure rate. The psychological concept that illustrates this is:
the framing effect
How does someone who has never been to a Starbucks before know to order and pay at the counter and then wait for their food to be ready?
the individual already has a concept for casual dining restaurants and can apply this concept to Starbucks
While sitting in class listening to your professor's lecture, a student sneezes. Miraculously, you still understand the point the professor was attempting to make. This illustrates:
the phoneme restoration effect
When trying to solve a problem like a complicated number puzzle, filling in values through random trial and error will likely lead to frustration. What is the reason for this result?
the problem space is too large
Which of the following is NOT true regarding how humans acquire language?
the rate at which an individual builds their mental lexicon depends on the specific language and culture they are raised in
People are most successful at noticing an analogous relationship between problems if they focus on:
the structural features between the source and target problems
With respect to the typicality effect, the prototype approach can mostly account for this phenomenon because:
the typical objects better resemble the prototype
Which of the following is NOT a problem plaguing the expected value and expected utility approaches to decision making?
there are specific procedures we can implement to determine the optimal choices
Which of the following is true regarding Sudoku puzzles, such as the one above?
there is a single path to the solution
All of the following are TRUE regarding situational models EXCEPT:
they are evoked only for written language
Bird songs and bee dances are not considered to be languages because:
they cannot express infinite combinations of ideas
In Gick and Holyoak's study (1980), what was the key to having participants solve the problem of how to help the patient with the inoperable tumor?
they had to be told that the army story was related
I asked my 6-year-old niece Emmy to draw a "dog" and she drew the image above. Which of the following descriptions is accurate?
this represents her prototype for "dog"
Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) conducted an experiment where they provided insight and non-insight problems to subjects. They instructed subjects to provide "warmth" ratings of how close they were to solving any given problem on a 1-7 scale every 15 seconds until the problem was solved. Which of the following best demonstrates their results?
those solving non-insight problems gave ratings which gradually increased, whereas those solving insight problems gave ratings which suddenly increased
The major difference between the exemplar approach and the prototype approach is that in the exemplar approach, people make comparisons ________.
to memories of actual experiences rather than to an abstraction of those experiences
The word superiority effect is explained by the added ________ processing that allows for the recognition of ambiguous letters within a word.
top-down processing
Which of the following is an example of a well-defined problem?
turning your car on
All the crows I've seen in Athens, OH are black. When I visited my brother in Boston, MA, the crows I saw there were black too. I think it is reasonable to conclude that all crows are black. How can you strengthen the above argument based on the quality of the observations?
use genetic markers that indicate a crow's feather color
All of the following are explanations for why optical illusions can lead to incorrect perceptions EXCEPT:
we are perceiving two senses simutaneously
Cognitive Neuroscientists assume that we create a neural representation of an experience or information. This refers to the idea that:
we can process information that isn't in our immediate environment
All the following are ways we use concepts in a social context EXCEPT:
we choose how we group others in our social environment
Which of the following is FALSE regarding concepts and concept learning?
we start "from scratch" when we encounter new instances of a concept in the environment
A(n) ________ problem has a clear goal, a small set of starting information, and rules about how to attain the goal.
well-defined
________ are problems that have a clearly defined goal state and constraints, whereas ________ are problems that lack a clearly defined goal state and constraints.
well-defined; ill-defined
To overcome the idea of functional fixedness, we develop solutions to problems based in part on ________.
what potential functions objects can perform
Which of these is an example of an unconscious inference we make about the world?
when we see an image of pencils in an opaque jar, we understand that parts of the pencils are inside the jar even though we cannot see those parts
When analyzing a syllogistic argument in terms of truth, we must determine:
whether the premises are true
All the following are examples of "problems' we may experience EXCEPT:
your representation of "dog"
