Cognitive Test #2
Experiment: Slameka and Graf generating info
-participants study a list of word pairs in two different ways: 1. Read group: read these pairs of related words. king--crown; horse--saddle; lamp--shade 2. Generate group: Fill in the blank with a word that is related to the first word. king--cr_____; horse-sa____; lamp-shade_____ after either reading the pairs of words (read group) or generating the list of word pairs based on the word and first two letters of the second word (generate group), participants were presented with the first word in each pair and were told in each pair and were told to indicate the word that went with it. Participants who had generated the second word in each pair were able to reproduce 28% more word pairs than participants who had just read the word pairs
Experiment: Craik and Endel Tulving levels of processing theory
-presented words to participants and asked them 3 different types of questions: 1. a question about physical features of the word. For example, participants see the word bird and are asked whether it is printed in capital letters 2. A question about rhyming. For example, participants see the word train and are asked if it rhymes with the word pain 3. A fill-in-the-blanks question. For example, participants see the word car and are asked if it fits into the sentence "He saw a ______ on the street" -the three types of questions were designed to create different levels of processing: 1) physical features=shallow processing; 2) rhyming=deeper processing; fil in the blanks=deepest processing
Experiment: Donald Morris Matching the Cognitive Task
-retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during both encoding and retrieval Part 1: participants heard a sentence with one word replaced by "blank" and 2 secs later they heard a target word. In the meaning condition, the task was to answer yes or no based on the meaning of the word when it filled in the blank. In the rhyming condition, participants answered yes or no based on the sound of the word Part 2: Participants in both groups were presented with a series of tests words. Some test words rhymed with the target word and some didn't. Task was to answer yes if the test word rhymed with one of the target words and no if it didn't The results: participants retrieval performance depend on whether the retrieval task matched the encoding task. Participants who had focused on rhyming remembered more words than people who focused on meaning
3 specific situations in which retrieval is increased by matching conditions at retrieval to conditions at encoding
1. encoding specificity-matching the context in which encoding and retrieval occur 2. state-dependent learning-matching the internal mood present during encoding and retrieval 3. transfer-approaching processing-matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval
Recommendations to improve eyewitness testimony
1. informing the witness that the perpetrator may not be in the line up 2. use "fillers" who are similar to suspect 3. use a "blind" lineup administrator (someone who doesn't know the suspect 4. have a witness rate their confidence
elaborative rehearsal
A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over.
Illusory truth effect
A tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of truthiness.
Oberauer's (2002) Three-Embedded-Components Model
Activated Long-Term Memory (aLTM) • Information in LTM that is activated and available for cognitive processing. Direct Access Region (DAR) • Information from aLTM that is needed to perform the current task. • Information from aLTM is moved into the DAR when it is needed to perform the current task. • Information in the DAR is returned to aLTM when it is no longer needed to perform the current task. • The greater the amount of information in the DAR, the greater the interference between the items of information in the DAR. Focus of Attention (FOA) • Selects a single item of information from the DAR for immediate processing.
testing effect
Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.
A Neural Model of Visual Working Memory
PFC • Stores task goals and task rules/sets. • Stores abstract information. • Controls the DAN. Dorsal Attention Network (DAN) • Is composed of the FEF (left) and SPL/IPS (right). • Orients attention to one or more objects stored in posterior sensory areas. Posterior Sensory Areas • Store the sensory details of visual objects such as an object's location, motion, shape, color, size, and texture. Task Rule 1: Determine whether the cued picture and the test picture are an identical match. Task Rule 2: If the 2 pictures match, press key 1. If the 2 pictures don't match, press key 2. Task Rule 3: If the arrow cue points left, attend to the left picture. If the arrow cue points right, attend to the right picture.
Baddeley's (2012) Multi-Component Model
Phonological Loop Contents: verbal information in a phonological code Maintenance: articulatory rehearsal (requires no attention) Capacity: amount of information rehearsed in 2 seconds Central Executive Controls attentional system Responsible for attentional refreshing Manipulates information in the episodic buffer Visuospatial Sketchpad Contents: visual and spatial information as individual features Maintenance: attentional refreshing (requires attention) Capacity: 2 to 4 items Episodic Buffer Contents: unidimensional and multidimensional feature bindings Maintenance: attentional refreshing (requires attention) Capacity: 1 to 4 items Phonological Loop Contents: verbal information in a phonological code Maintenance: articulatory rehearsal (requires no attention) Capacity: amount of information rehearsed in 2 seconds /r/ /a/ /m/ /p/ /d/ /ay/ /c/ /u/ /p/ Episodic Buffer Contents: unidimensional and multidimensional feature bindings Maintenance: attentional refreshing (requires attention) Capacity: 1 to 4 items ramp + meaning, day + meaning, cup + meaning
Each trial in a masked priming experiment is structured as follows: mask (100 msec), prime word (24 msec), mask (100 msec), target word (500 msec). The target always appears at location X on the computer screen and subjects are instructed to keep their attention focused on location X throughout the trial. On some trials, the prime appears at location X (prime X trials) and on other trials the prime appears at a different location Y (prime Y trials). Also, the prime is identical to the target on some trials (prime same trials) and unrelated to the target on other trials (prime different trials). On each trial, subjects must categorize the target as being from the fruit category or the meat category. Response times (RT) are recorded. If attention is necessary for unconscious perception of the prime, then we would expect the pattern __________.
RT(prime Y/prime same trials) < RT(prime Y/prime different trials)
Experiment: Cahill Emotions
Showed participants neutral and emotionally arousing pictures then had participants immerse their arms in ice water, which causes the release of cortisol and other participants immersed their arms in warm water which doesn't causes the release of cortisol. When asked to describe the pictures, participants who had been exposed to stress recalled more emotionally arousing pictures than neutral pictures
levels of processing theory
The theory holding that deeper levels of mental processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.
retrieval practice effect
Try to recall important concepts from memory; if retrieval is difficult—and you succeed—your learning is enhanced.
Triangle, Square, Oval
Visuospatial Sketchpad Contents: visual and spatial information as individual features Maintenance: attentional refreshing (requires attention) Capacity: 2 to 4 items triangle-green circle rectangle-yellow circle oval-blue circle Episodic Buffer Contents: unidimensional and multidimensional feature bindings Maintenance: attentional refreshing (requires attention) Capacity: 1 to 4 items green triangle yellow rectangle blue oval
constructive nature of memory
What people report as memories are constructed by the person based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person's knowledge, experiences, and expectations.
Whole-Report vs. Partial-Report Procedure (Sperling, 1960)
Whole Part procedure • Subjects recalled, on average, 4.5 of the 12 letters in 50 msec. • However, subjects often commented that they had seen all of the letters, but that most of the letters had faded before they could be recalled Partial Part Procedure High tone - recall top row Medium tone - recall middle row Low tone - recall bottom row • Subjects recalled, on average, 3.3 of the 4 letters in the cued row. • This implies that subjects had 3.3 x 3 = 9.9 letters available in iconic memory. • Suggests that the capacity of iconic memory is approximately 10 items. Partial Part with delay of tone 0, 100, 300, or 1000 msec delay High tone - recall top row Medium tone - recall middle row Low tone - recall bottom row Delay 0 100 300 1000 ---------------------------------------------------------------- Letters available 9.9 7.2 6.1 4.5 (same as whole-report) in iconic memory • Suggests that the duration of information in iconic memory is less than 1 sec.
Flahbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event a person's memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged events
paired-associate learning
a list of word pairs is presented. Later, the first word of each pair is presented, and the participant's task is to remember the word it was paired with
schema
a person's knowledge about some aspect of the environment
cued recall
a testing condition in which people are given an explicit retrieval cue to help them remember
retrieval cue
a word or other stimulus that helps a person remember information stored in memory
eyewitness testimony
an account given by people of an event they have witnessed a crime 1) the eyewitness was able to clearly see what happened 2) the eyewitness was able to remember their observations and translate them into an accurate description of the perpetrator and what happened
retrieval
bringing info into consciousness by transferring it from LTM to working memory
deep processing
close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item's meaning and its relationship to something else
cultural life script
culturally expected events that occur at a particular time in the life span
cultural life script hypothesis
distinguishes between a person's life story, which is all of the events that have occurred in a person's life
effective studying
elaborate-a process that helps transfer the material you are reading into long term memory. Thinking about what you're reading and giving it meaning by relating it to other things -proactive interference-when previously learned info interferes with learning new info generate and test-repeatedly testing yourself on material you are studying -creating material to achieve a strong encoding and good long term retrieval organize-to create a framework that helps relate some info to other info to make the material more meaningful and therefore strengthen encoding -can be achieved by making "trees" take breaks-study in a number of shorter study sessions rather than cramming. Memory is better when studying is broken into a number short sessions with breaks in between avoid illusions of learning-rereading material doesn't help and causes it to be familiar but that doesn't mean you'll recognize it
Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory
exceptionally accurate memory for autobiographical memory, larger temporal lobe, larger caudate
post-identification feedback effect
increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification
shallow processing
involves little attention to meaning -as when a phone number is repeated over and over or attention is focused on a word's physical features
No matter how much info you've encoded,
it won't help you do well on the exam unless you can retrieve it and one of the main factors that determines whether you can retrieve info from LTM is the way that info was encoded when you learned it
free recall
learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order
state dependent learning
learning that is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness -memory is better when a person's mood matches their mood during encoding
In one study, subjects in the meaning condition had to determine whether target words (e.g., train) fit in their corresponding sentence frames (e.g., The blank had a silver engine). Subjects in the rhyming condition had to determine whether target words (e.g., train) rhymed with other words (e.g., Blank rhymes with pain). In a subsequent test phase, all subjects had to determine whether test words (e.g., rain, street) rhymed with any of the target words presented earlier. Performance in the test phase was best for subjects in the __________ condition. The results of the study were NOT consistent with __________.
meaning; the generation effect
repressed childhood memory
memories that have been pushed out of the person's consciousness
source misattribution
memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory
generation effect
memory is better when we generate associations ourselves than when we simply read them
source monitoring error
misidentifying the source of a memory
pragmatic inference
occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or implied by the sentence
Experiment: D.R. Gooden and Alan Baddeley's (1975) "The diving experiment"
one group of participants put on diving equipment and studied a list of words underwater, and another group studied the words on land. Groups were divided so that half the participants in land and water groups were tested for recall on land and water The results show that the best recall occurred when in the same location. Study in an environment similar to the environment in which you will be tested
script
our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience
Experiment: Mantyla Retrieval cue
participants had a list of 504 nouns, such as banana, freedom, and edible. In the test phase, participants were told to write associated words with each noun like yellow, edible, bunches The participants were presented with the three words they had generated for half the nouns and with 3 words that someone else generated for the other half of the nouns. Task=remember nouns The results indicated that self-generated retrieval cues, participants remembered 91%. The other person generated remembered only 55%
Experiment: Tulving and Pearlstone's Retrieval cues
participants in the free recall group recalled 40% of words in the cued recall group who had provided with the names of categories recalled 75% of words
Experiment: Leshikar linking words to self
participants in the study phase of their experiment in the study phase of their experiment look at series of adjectives presented on a screen for about 3 seconds each. Examples of adjectives are loyal, happy, cultural, talkative, lazy, and conformist -self condition-which participants indicated whether the adjective described themselves (yes or no) -common condition-which participants indicated whether a word was commonly used (yes or no)
Experiment: Jacoby Becoming Famous overnight
participants read a number of made up non famous names. For immediate test group, participants were tested immediately after seeing the list of non famous names. They were told to pick out the famous names from a list containing 1) non famous names they just seen 2) new non famous names that they never seen 3) famous names that many recognize. This group correctly identified non famous names as non famous. In the delayed group, who were tested 24 hours after seeing the names. This group were more likely to identify the old non famous names as famous
Experiment: Karpicke and Roediger (2008) retrieval practice
participants studied a list of 40 Swahili-English word pairs, such as mashua-boat, then saw one of the words in each pair and were asked to remember the other word 1. "first study and test"-recalled some pairs and not others 2. "repeat study and test"-had different study and test experiences -Group 1 studied all pairs and tested until they got a 100% -Group 2 the study part of the study-test sequence was changed. Once a pair was answered correctly it was no longer studied. However, all of the pairs were tested during each test session until a 100%. (studied less) -Group 3 the test part of the study-test sequence was changed. Once a pair was answered correctly, it was no longer tested. This group tested on less of the pairs -Tested a week later, Groups 1 and 2 recalled 81% of the pairs but Group 3 recalled 36%. The results show that being tested is more important for learning b/c when testing was stopped for Group 3, performance decreased
Experiment
participants with an average of 54 created "I am" statements such as "I am a mother" that they felt defined them as a person. The average age they assigned origin to was 25, which is within the span of reminiscence bump
Experiment: Bower and Winzenz forming visual images
presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns, such as boat-tree, to participants for 5 sec. One group was told to silently repeat the pairs as they were presented, another group was told to form a mental picture in which the two items were interacting. When participants were later given the first word and asked to recall the second one for each pair, the participants who had created images remembered more than twice as many as words as the participants who had just repeated the word pairs
Experiment: McDermott and Chan Making Inferences
presented participants with a similar task, involving more sentences that you read, and found that errors occurred for about a third of the sentences. The most common were 1) vanished became melted; 2) weakened became collapsed; 3) didn't have became lost; 4) hit became broke or smashed; and 5) stayed awake became cried
self image hypothesis
proposes that memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person's self-image or life identity is being formed
cognitive hypothesis
proposes that periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger encoding of memories
Experiment: Nairne (2010). Relating Words to Survival
proposes that we can understand how memory works by considering its function. memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive, especially in situations experienced by our ancestors, who were faced with basic survival challenges such as finding food and evading predators participants imagined that they were stranded on the grassland of a foreign country w/o any basic survival materials and then they were presented with a list of words. Their task was to rate each word based on how relevant it would be for finding supplies of food and water and providing protection from predators. Later, they were given a surprise memory test that showed that carrying out the "survival" task while reading words resulted in better memory Result=:survival processing" is a powerful tool for encoding items into memory
Organizing material to be remembered
results in substantially better recall
Experiment (Serences et al., 2005)
targets are red letters in central stream target color = red non-target color = green press key 1 if target in first half of alphabet press key 2 if target in second half of alphabet Results Mean percentage of targets correctly classified ---------------------------------------------------------- Condition ---------------------------------------------------------- Target alone 77 Non-target-colored distractors and target 73 Target-colored distractors and target 59 ---------------------------------------------------------- • The IPS, FEF, temporoparietal junction (TPJ), and ventral frontal cortex (VFC) were more active in the target-colored distractors alone condition than in the non-target-colored distractors alone condition. • The body of research suggests that (1) the SPL, IPS, and FEF play a role in voluntary and involuntary shifts of attention, (2) the TPJ and VFC play a role in involuntary shifts of attention, and (3) the SPL, IPS, and FEF play a role in sustained attention (i.e., in keeping attention focused on a particular location, feature, or object). • The SPL, IPS, and FEF form the dorsal attention network (DAN). • The TPJ and VFC form the ventral attention network (VAN).
self-reference effect
tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
reminiscence bump
the fact that experiences from adolescence are generally recalled more than experiences from other stages of life
depth of processing
the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered
transfer-appropriate processing
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match
misleading postevent information (MPI)
the misleading info that causes the misinformation effect
encoding
the process of acquiring info and transferring it to the LTM
source monitoring
the process of making inferences about the origins of memories
youth bias
the tendency for the most notable public events in a person's life to be perceived to occur when the person is young
maintenance rehearsal
type of rehearsal that involves little or no encoding and therefore poor memory
cryptomnesia
unconscious plagiarism of the work of others
narrative rehearsal hypothesis
we may remember events like those that happened on 9/11 not because of a special mechanism but because we rehearse these events after they occur
misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
Experiment (Chen & Cowan, 2009)
• Each trial was structured as follows. Fixation cross (1000 msec) => word 1 (1000 msec) => word 2 (1000 msec) => ... => word n (1000 msec) => "recall words". • From onset of the fixation cross to onset of the instruction "recall words", subjects had to repeatedly say the word "the" at a rate of 2 repetitions per second (articulatory suppression). • There were 4 trials, 1 trial for each of n = 4, 6, 8, and 12. Results Mean number of words recalled from the list ------------------------------------------------------- List length 4 6 8 12 ------------------------------------------- 3.1 2.5 2.5 2.6
Experiment (Lien et al., 2010)
• For half of the subjects, the prime always appeared in the top row and the target always appeared in the bottom row. For the other half of the subjects, the prime always appeared in the bottom row and the target always appeared in the top row. • There were 4 types of trials. • On same trials, the prime and target were the same word. On different trials, the prime and target were from different categories. Specifically, if the target was sports-related, then the prime was not sports-related, and if the target was not sports-related, then the prime was sports-related. • On uncued trials, the cue and prime appeared in different rows. On cued trials, the cue and prime appeared in the same row. Results Mean response time (in msec) ------------------------------------- Same-uncued trials 598 Diff-uncued trials 598 Same-cued trials 588 Diff-cued trials 608
iconic memory
• Holds visual information for a very brief period of time
Experiment (Camos et al., 2013)
• On each trial, a list of 6 words was presented visually and subjects had to recall the words in the order they were presented. There were 4 conditions. (unfilled delay, articulatory suppression, location judgement task, location judgement task and articulatory suppression) D: nothing to do AS: saying "oui" for each tone T: press left key for up and right key for down TAS • There were 8 trials per condition—4 trials with lists of similar sounding words and 4 trials with lists of dissimilar sounding words. Results Mean percentage of words recalled in the correct position D: dissimilar=80 similar=70 AS: dissimilar=60 similar=55 T: dissimilar=65 similar=50 TAS: dissimilar=45 similar=47
Neural Basis of Attention Experiment (Greenberg et al., 2010)
• Subjects fixated their eyes on a central point while 2 sets of dots (a red set and a green set) appeared on each side of the point. • On each side, one set moved in unison and the other set remained stationary. • The moving set changed direction every 1 sec and stopped moving at some point. • When the moving set stopped, the stationary set began moving. • Subjects attended to a set of a particular color on a particular side. • In response to motion cues, subjects shifted their attention to the other set on the same side or to the same-colored set on the other side. • Brain activity was monitored during the task. Attended set moves up => shift side - hold color Attended set moves down => hold side - shift color Attended set moves left, right, diagonal, or stops => hold side - hold color Results • Shifting attention from the left visual field to the right visual field produced (1) an increase (decrease) in activity in the left (right) extrastriate cortex, and (2) a transient increase in activity in the superior parietal lobe (SPL), the intraparietal sulcus (IPS), and the frontal eye field (FEF). • Shifting attention from the right visual field to the left visual field produced (1) an increase (decrease) in activity in the right (left) extrastriate cortex, and (2) a transient increase in activity in the SPL, IPS, and FEF.
Experiment (Serences et al., 2004)
• Subjects watched a stream of superimposed faces and houses. • Each face-house pair was presented in the center of the screen for 1 sec. • Subjects attended to one category (face or house) and when a specific instance from the attended category appeared (a specific face or house) then subjects shifted their attention to the other category. • Brain activity was monitored during the task. If attending to faces, then shift attention to houses when Face X appears. If attending to houses, then shift attention to faces when House X appears. Results • Shifting attention from houses to faces produced (1) an increase in activity in the fusiform face area (FFA), (2) a decrease in activity in the parahippocampal place area (PPA), and (3) a transient increase in activity in the SPL, IPS, and FEF. • Shifting attention from faces to houses produced (1) an increase in activity in the PPA, (2) a decrease in activity in the FFA, and (3) a transient increase in activity in the SPL, IPS, and FEF.
Experiment (Strahan et al., 2002)
• Subjects were instructed not to eat or drink anything during the 3-hr period immediately prior to the experimental session. • At the start of the session, subjects ate two cookies to increase their thirst. • The session was composed of 26 trials. Each trial was structured as follows. Fixation point (1000 msec) => prime word (16 msec) => mask (102 msec) => target (press key 1 if target a word and key 2 if target a nonword). • For half of the subjects (the thirst group), the prime words were thirst-related (thirst, dry). For the other half of the subjects (the neutral group), the prime words were neutral (pirate, won). • After completing the 26 trials, subjects evaluated the taste of two beverages. Subjects were told that they could drink as much of the two beverages as they wanted. The amount of fluid consumed was recorded. Results ?? • A visibility test was administered to a different group of subjects.
Experiment (Persuh et al., 2012)
• The next slide describes the structure of a trial. • There were 2 blocks of 400 trials each. In the easy search block, subjects searched for a pegged circle among smooth circles. In the hard search block, subjects searched for a smooth circle among pegged circles. • 60% of the trials in each block required a target response and the remaining 40% required an orientation response. Results Mean percent correct on target response trials ------------------------------------------------------- Easy search 99.4 Hard search 68.3 ------------------------------------------------------- Mean percent correct on orientation response trials ------------------------------------------------------------- Easy search 70.1 Hard search 52.7
Experiment (Lee et al., 2013)
• The stimuli were 6 images • Each subject performed a visual task and a subcategory task as follows. (24 trials of the visual task => 24 trials of the subcategory task) x 4 • Brain activity was monitored while subjects performed the 2 tasks • Each trial of the visual task image 1 (1 of the 6 images) then + then image 2 (1 of the 6 images. Images 1 and 2 were from different categories) then + cue (The cue was I or II. If I, visual details of image 1 relevant. If II, visual details of image 2 relevant) then + then probe (The probe was a fragment of either the cued image or the other image in the cued image's category) then + (Was the probe a fragment of the cued image? • Each trial of the subcategory task proceeded as follows. image 1 (1 of the 6 images) then + then image 2 (1 of the 6 images. Images 1 and 2 were from different categories) then + cue (The cue was I or II. If I, subcategory details of image 1 relevant. If II, subcategory details of image 2 relevant) then + then probe (The probe was an image of an object from the same subcategory as the cued image or from the other subcategory in the cued image's category.) then + (Was the probe a fragment from the same subcategory as the cued image?) Results • During the visual task, different cued images produced different patterns of activity in lower posterior sensory areas and a similar pattern of activity in the lateral PFC • During the subcategory task, different cued images produced different patterns of activity in the lateral PFC and a similar pattern of activity in lower posterior sensory areas.
Experiment (Cowan et al., 2013)
• The stimuli were 7 shapes (circle, square, triangle, star, cross, hourglass, football) and 7 colors (white, yellow, blue, green, magenta, red, black). • There were 3 conditions. Results Mean number of items in working memory ------------------------------------------------------------------- Condition ------------------------------------------------------------------- Attend color Attend shape Attend combination ------------------------------------------------------------------- 3.0 3.0 1.4
Experiment (Allen et al., 2014)
• The stimuli were 8 shapes (arch, chevron, circle, cross, diamond, flag, star, triangle) and 8 colors (blue, brown, green, purple, red, turquoise, white, yellow). • There were 6 conditions. Color - Articulatory Suppression (AS) Condition / Color - Backward Counting (BC) Condition AS: Begin articulating the number (e.g., "72" "72" "72" ....) BC: Begin counting backward by 2 from the number (e.g., "72" "70" "68" ....) Press key 1 if probe in sequence Press key 2 if probe not in sequence 72 then + then red dot then blank then brown dot then blank then purple dot then blank. Then choose whether the probe was a red dot or blue dot Shape - Articulatory Suppression (AS) Condition / Shape - Backward Counting (BC) Condition 72 then + then triangle on left then blank then cross then blank then diamond on right then blank. Then choose whether probe is diamond or other object Binding - Articulatory Suppression (AS) Condition / Binding - Backward Counting (BC) Cond 72 then + then red triangle on left then blank then cross with brown then blank then purple diamond on right then blank. Then choose whether probe was a brown cross or purple triangle
Experiment (Ortells et al., 2012)
• The target always appeared on the same side of the fixation point as the cue. • There were 4 types of trials. • On related trials, the prime and target were strongly related and from the same category (animal or body part). On unrelated trials, the prime and target were from different categories. Specifically, if the target was an animal, then the prime was a body part, and if the target was a body part, then the prime was an animal. • On uncued trials, the cue and prime appeared on different sides of the fixation point. On cued trials, the cue and prime appeared on the same side of the fixation point. Results Mean response time (in msec) --------------------------------------- Related-cued trials 696 Unrelated-cued trials 720 Related-uncued trials 750 Unrelated-uncued trials 784
Experiment (Baddeley et al., 1975)
• There were 50 lists of words broken down as follows. 10 lists each containing five 1-syllable words (e.g., school, switch, math, scroll, zinc) " 2-syllable words (e.g., college, kettle, physics, essay, carbon) " 3-syllable words (e.g., nursery, radio, botany, bulletin, calcium) " 4-syllable words (e.g., academy, television, biology, dictionary, uranium) " 5-syllable words (e.g., university, refrigerator, physiology, periodical, aluminum) • Reading phase: The 50 1-syllable words were written on a sheet of paper in a random order and subjects read the words aloud as quickly and accurately as possible. Reading time (in seconds) was recorded. The process was repeated for the 50 2-syllable words, the 50 3-syllable words, the 50 4-syllable words, and the 50 5-syllable words. • Memory phase: For each of the 50 lists, each word in the list was presented visually for 2 sec and then replaced by the next word in the list. At the end of the list, subjects recalled the words in the order they had been presented. The number of words recalled in the correct position (out of 5) was recorded. Results Mean reading rate (in words per second) and mean number of words recalled in the correct position (out of 5) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Number of Reading Number of syllables rate words recalled ------------------------------------------------------ 1 2.3 4.5 2 2.1 4.2 3 1.9 3.5 4 1.6 3.3 5 1.3 2.5
