COM 383 Cate Morrison URI FINAL

ESSAY: Toulmin Model

The Toulmin model is a theoretical model used to generate and evaluate informal arguments. The basic model is comprised of three parts: claim (a controvertible statement about a matter), data/evidence (proof to support the claim) and warrant (an explanation of why the data presented sufficiently proves the claim. In other words, it answers the question "why does the data mean that the claim is true?"). The expanded model includes backing (evidence further supporting the warrant, demonstrating that the reasoning is itself true), rebuttal (acknowledgement of and response to possible objections) and qualifier (indicator of the strength of the claim, for example: always, generally, under current conditions, probably, never...). The classic example: Harry was born in Bermuda [data]. People born in Bermuda are British citizens [warrant]. Bermudans are British citizens because Bermuda is a British colony [backing]. While it could be the case that Harry's parents were citizens of another country and Harry never claimed citizenship, [rebuttal], it is most likely that [qualifier] Harry is a British citizen.

How does rhetoric challenge the value-free model of science advocated by logical positivists?

There is no neutrality. -we can't measure love, freedom or justice (etc) -science can not be value-free because humans are the driving force of science and humans can not be value-free -science SHOULD have values: scientists should value human life, animal welfare and good for the planet

ESSAY: Power

For Michel Foucault, power enables the organization of society. It is not set in stone, but changes over time in response to events and circumstances. While some reforms to our institutions may be done in the name of reducing the control of power in the hands of some, or changing its nature, Foucault believes that these reforms and changes ultimately do not eliminate power differentials— they just re-distribute power into other forms and configurations. For example, the shift from sovereign power to biopower reduced power over death held by the king but transformed it into disciplinary power over behavior and action in everyday life. Power is always related with knowledge: Knowledge exercises power, and power is a function of knowledge. We can see that disciplinary power in the Panopticon, Jeremy Bentham's design for a prison that would make its inhabitants feel as though they are constantly being watched. Presuming that the guards were watching, the prisoners would discipline themselves. The observing guards have knowledge and through it power, while the prisoners—unable to see the guards—have neither.

What role do ideographs play in rhetoric and persuasion?

Ideographs in action are terms used to separate people into different groups. (ex: citizen vs illegal alien) (ex: democrat vs republican) -suggests that each member of these communities will be seen as a part of the whole (gestalt) and understand every complex nuance of that group.

ESSAY: Ideology

Ideology is a system of belief that guides one's interpretation of the world. It is closely related to other terms we have come across during the semester: endoxa (commonly held belief), sensus communis (judgment without reflection held by groups of people large and small). The common beliefs of the audience provide both resources for invention (a politician using the collective fear of terrorism to mobilize action on their particular agenda) and limitation (a comedian who goes too far and offends the audience's collective sense of propriety). Karl Marx uses ideology to argue that capitalism is not simply an economic system; it is a way of interpreting, weighing and judging the world that benefits and prioritizes the interests of the ruling class at the cost of the worker, and convinces the worker that their suffering is natural, inevitable and even noble. Following Marx, Bahktin argued that there is no outside of ideology. We all stand on our own slices of ideological ground, and then build bridges between each other using shared language. Jurgen Habermas, on the other hand, considers ideology to be a barrier to communicative rationality and action. He positions ideology as a warping of good judgment—a prejudice in the literal sense of pre- judging. If you are invested in the belief that something is good, you will not be open to reasoned, sincere and truthful suggestions that the thing might be bad. Michael Calvin McGee identifies the ideograph as a symbolic unit of ideology—a concentrated, densely-meaningful symbol like "freedom" or "justice" or "rule of law" that contains deep ideological commitments.

What us 'life-world' and what role does it play in communicative action?

Life-world: spaces in everyday life and interaction, where people meet, speak and coordinate as equals, using informal consensual norms. -different situations, perspectives, opinions, biases, group-think mentalities, etc., make people less likely to feel comfortable and be honest in an exchange of ideas in life world spaces.

What does it mean to have an "incredulity toward meta-narratives" as Lyotard defined post-modernism?

Lyotard defined the postmodern condition as a state of incredulity toward meta-narratives, -having an "incredulity toward meta-narratives" means not believing in traditional means by which we order world.

According to Deirdre McCloskey, how does rhetorical style affect the practice of science?

McCloskey: "the vocabulary of official science Methodology is authoritarian: a method of compelling proof and decisive experimentation aimed at prediction and control. It requires quantitative analysis and hypo-deductive reasoning." -recommends a good use of rhetorical devices for a 'disciplined conversation' -argues that proving hypotheticals in an analytical framework is NOT a constructive method -argues that vast efforts on analytical equations is a waste of time and effort -argues that science is humanistic because that's all humans can be

What is an ideograph? (according to Michael Calvin McGee)

McGee: an ideograph is like the terms; property, religion, freedom of speech, liberty -the basic structural elements of ideology, thus, they may be thought of as ideographs.

What significance does Darwin's use of metaphor have?

Metaphor as a resource for thinking. -natural selection as a metaphor: Darwin suggests that nature selects traits most liked. -the metaphor metasizes into a Cancer: social Darwinism (using natural selection to justify racism, sexism, etc.)

How does Foucault connect discourse, knowledge and power?

Power + Knowledge: -knowledge is an exercise of power -power is a function of knowledge -the 2 together are a balance of constraints and creativity -power produces knowledge & knowledge stabilizes power. -DISCOURSE is a way of speaking or writing about reality. power: which ideas win the game? knowledge: how do you play the game? discourse: what are the rules for this game?

Toulmin Model

Qualifier: extent to which claim holds Data: evidence Claims: conclusion: explicit repeal produced by argument Warrant: carry accepted date to claim under dispute. Rebuttal: possible objections Backing: additional evidence for the warrant

ESSAY: Presence

(in the Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca sense): For Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, we as human beings don't see everything, and all perspectives, in a given situation at once. Some parts are more important than others. They are more present to us—they seem more real, speak to a concern that is more pressing, or address something we are already invested in. To use Daniel Gross's example, the death of Princess Diana was far more present to most people than the death of Mother Teresa on the same day. The audience was more moved by the former's death than the latter—Princess Diana had more presence to an everyday person than Mother Teresa. Thus while there are infinite ways to approach speaking to and persuading others, the key is to find the right way for this audience, about this matter—what arguments or approaches will make our side seem more real to the audience?

What is deconstruction? And what does it seek to do?

-Pushes skepticism and doubt to the extreme, questioning almost everything in the story at hand. -The purpose of deconstruction is to show that the usage of language in a given text, and language as a whole, are irreducibly complex, unstable, or impossible. -Throughout his readings, Derrida hoped to show deconstruction at work.

How was the Enlightenment confidence in Science and reason shaken by the first half of the 20th century, and what effect did that shaken confidence have on the study of rhetoric?

-atomic bomb, world war, communism, dictatorship, totalitarianism -propaganda and rhetoric at the time was leading the "majority" to look down on the "minority" and believe they were fighting for the good -moving from correcting ignorance to responding and participating

Burke's 5 definitions of man

1. Symbol Using-Animal 2. Inventor of the negative 3. Separated from natural conditions, by instruments of his own making 4. Goaded by spirit of hierarchy 5. Rotten with perfection

6 Characteristics of an Argument

1. Take an inferential leap. 2. Justify the leap. 3. Make a choice. 4. Regulate uncertainty. 5. Risk confrontation. 6. Share a frame.

What is a meta-narrative?

A narrative about narratives. Historical meaning, experience of knowledge, which offers a society legitimating through the anticipated completion of master ideas.

Logical Positivism

A philosophical movement sought to align logic and science to create a 'scientific worldview' and system of speaking based on empirical observation and experience.

What does Perlman and Olberchts Tyteca mean by 'presence'?

A rhetorical effect produced by drawing attention to certain aspects of a situation in hopes of making them more real and pressing to the senses. Presence functions psychologically, but also as a part of argument: "I just didn't see it."

Explain each part of Burke's pentad. AND give an example

Act: what was done? Murder Agent: who did it? Wife Purpose: why? Jealousy and rage Scene: when and where? the bedroom, at the moment she found her husband sleeping with another woman (9 pm) Agency: how the agent performed the act? Used the bedside lamp to beat the **** out of this cheater

Dialectical Perspective on Argumentation

Argument as a procedure. -argumentation. helps us understand and evaluate argument as a cooperative method for making critical decisions. (Habermas)

Rhetorical Perspective of Argumentation

Argument as a process. -having an argument. -helps us understanding and evaluate arguing as a natural process of persuasive communication. (Brockreide)

Logical Perspective of Argumentation

Argument as product. -making an argument. -helps us understand and evaluate arguments as products people create when in an argument. (Toulmin)

Which kind of power does Panopticon use? (sovereign power or bi-power?)

BI POWER The concept of the Panopticon design is to allow all prisoners of an institution to be observed by a single security guard, without the inmates being able to tell whether they are being watched. They regulate their own behavior because they think their being watched.

How does Burke define human beings?

Burke maintains that humans are distinct from other creatures BY the virtue they evolve to obtain.

ESSAY: Pentad and ratio

Burke's pentad is a conceptual tool, used to uncover the motives for actions. Every action contains an act [what was/is/will be done], an agent [the one who performs the act], agency [the ability of the agent to perform the act], setting [the situation in which the act takes place], and purpose [an intended aim]. While every action contains each component, components are not equally important in given situations. Elements of the pentad come together in ratios, combinations of elements that have the most influence over the action. For example, one could argue that there is a crucial connection between the setting of the Gettysburg Address, the still-bloodstained battlefield, and the act of memorializing. Had the Gettysburg Address been delivered from the Oval Office, it would not have had the same urgent symbolic power to rally Union supporters. From the battlefield, Lincoln is able show that the fight for a united America as an ideal must be waged from the ground—but when soldiers died on the ground, in pursuit of the higher ideal of America, their deaths were meaningful, almost holy. The speech recommitted Union supporters to making the sacrifices—in lives, labor and money—necessary to win the war on the ground in the name of the ideal.

What is Jurgen Habermas' communicative action, how is it to be achieved?

Communicative action: through communication, people coordinate action and goals on the basis of a shared belief that those goals are reasonable and valuable, guided by communicative rationality. -achieved when participants in argument learn from e/o by reflecting upon their premises.

According to Alan Gross, what is the contextual model of public understanding of science? How does that differ from the deficit model?

Contextual model: -healthy interactions between science and public -public understanding becomes joint creation of scientific and logical knowledge. -emphasizes persuasion + building trust -methods: case studies focused on situations + anecdotes Deficit model: -skepticism and hostility b/t public and science due to lack of information and knowledge -demonstration rather than persuasion -methods: center science, not the public

Define the 3 components of Bitzer's "Rhetorical Situation"?

Exigent: an imperfection, somethings wrong and it needs to be fixed soon-- and it must be capable of being fixed. Audience: those who are capable of being influenced and being mediators of change. You want to and could do something about the exigence. Constraints: beliefs, attitudes, documents, facts, traditions, images, motive and the like. What is incapable of change?

What is the difference between sovereign power and bi-power, according to Foucault?

sovereign power: is that form expressed in recognizable ways through particular and identifiable individuals. bi-power: is a technology of power for managing humans in large groups; the distinctive quality of this political technology is that it allows for the control of entire populations.

Explain Derrida's deconstruction of the Declaration of Independence (DOI).

the "we" of the DOI speaks on "in the name of the people", but these "people" do not exist. They do not exist together, as an entity. If "it" gives birth to itself, as a free an independent subject, as a possible signer to this declaration, the DOI, can only hold its merit on the act of a SIGNATURE. The SIGNATURE invents a SIGNER. and "we the people," didn't sign this thing.

What is identification, according to Kenneth Burke, and why is it necessary for the act of persuasion?

the one who becomes persuaded sees that one party is like another in some way. -Burke suggests that whenever someone attempts to persuade (which is rhetoric), identification occurs. Ex: the politician: I was a farm boy, just like you. Resonate with me and I just might change your mind.

Particular audience

the specific people in the time & place of speech

Self-audience

your own internal judgements.

Universal audience

all reasonable and competent people

According to Wayne Brockreide, where is argument?

arguments are: -in people, not statements. -found and labeled by people. -an open concept that changes. -potentially everywhere, but not everything.

3 barriers to Communicative Action

corporate mass media, governmental bureaucracies and ideology.

How does ideology relate to other terms we've seen used in the study of rhetoric?

endoxa (commonly held belief) sensus communis (judgement without reflection held by groups of people large and small)

How are knowledge, power and discourse connected to "epistemes"?

epistemes: unconscious knowledge (a set of 'rules of formation' which are constitutive of the diverse and heterogeneous discourses of a given period and which elude the consciousness of the practitioners of these different discourses.)

What does subjectivity mean?

indicates that evidence is open to bias and contextual influences and does not mean that it is unreliable.

According to Joseph Wenzel, what are the 3 perspectives on argument, which of these perspectives would Wayne Brockriede fall under?

logical, rhetorical, dialectical (BROCKRIEDE= rhetorical)

What are the 3 types of audiences, according to Perlman and Olberchts Tyteca's "New Rhetoric"?

self-audience, particular audience, universal audience

What does ideology mean?

a set of ideas, description of existing political order, vision of ideals (political order), a means to transform the existing ideal.