COM264 Exam 3
In lecture, we discussed two generic sources of power in organizations; what were they?
1. Control of modes and means of production (Marxist theory) 2. Control of organizational discourse (Mumby)
Describe relational barriers to organizational diversity
- Limited access to or exclusion from informal communication networks - Establishing mentor-protégé relationships - Tokenism - women or people in color in managerial positions seen as tokens (rare) - Changing communication style in order to "fit in"
Describe the intellectual framework of feminist organizational communication (see p. 112).
- gender is a primary way identity and power relations are configured - work is a key site where gender identity and power relations are organized - dominant systems of gender privilege men over women - gender, power and orgs are continuously created by communication - material conditions critical for understanding gender, orgs and power
When we describe hegemony as "manufactured consent," what does this mean?
A dominant group leads another group to accept subjugation
Radical feminists
Believe emancipation for women can occur only through destruction of male-dominated institutions or through total separation of women from institutions
Liberal feminists
Believe remedies for female subordination should come from within system and women should work to gain their fair share of control in institutions currently run by men
Describe the key findings of Barker & Cheney's research on concertive control in a team-based organizational system.
Biggest finding: team members are harder on each other than management had been on the employees in previous system Importance on finding: idea of team-based organizations was meant to be empowering, but instead created more harsh rules for the individuals
What do all the forms of feminism above have in common? (in other words, what is feminism?)
Approach to power than begins with basic idea that organizations - in their traditional and bureaucratic forms - are inherently patriarchal and seeks to uncover the power relations that reproduce these structures
Cost argument
As organizations become more diverse, the cost of a poor job in integrating workers will increase; companies who handle diversity well will create cost advantages over those that do not
Describe how the CULTURAL approaches would view organizational diversity processes
As organizations become more diverse, they become sites where organizational cultures intersect with other cultures, sub-cultures, and values
How can workplace bullying best be addressed?
As scholars of organizational communciation: i. Recognize seriousness and prevalence of workplace bullying As organizations: i. Incorporate specific anti-bullying language into workplace policies ii. Provide confidential ways to staff to identify bullying iii. Training to discourage verbal aggressiveness Target's perspective: i. Leaving may be an option ii. Call it what it is iii. Tell your story iv. Seek social support
Postmodern feminists
Attempt to deconstruct male-dominated meaning systems in order to highlight women's perspectives
How does concertive control differ from simple control, technological control, and bureaucratic control?
Concertive control - control in which the locus of power in an organization shifts from management to workers who collaborate to create rules and norms that govern their behavior MORE TEAM BASED: the team disciplines each other
How do critical and feminist approaches view the organization? (hint: see p. 100)
Consider organizations as sites of domination; theorist takes an activist role in instigating and encouraging organizational transformation
How does the role of the theorist (i.e., scholar) differ in the critical approach, as compared to the other approaches we have studied so far (e.g., classical, HR, systems, etc.)?
Critical theorists agree on 3 things: 1. Certain societal structures and processes lead to fundamental imbalances of power 2. These imbalances of power lead to alienation and oppression for certain social classes and groups 3. The role of the critical theorist is to explore and uncover these imbalances and bring them to the attention of the oppressed group 4. THEN, EMANCIPATION IS THEN POSSIBLE
According to critical theorists, what role does power play in organizational life?
Critical theorists see power as a defining, ubiquitous feature of organizational life; Power is important and affects everything that happens in organizations
Marketing argument
For multinational organizations, the insight and cultural sensitivity that members with roots in other countries bring to the marketing effort should improve that effort in important ways; the same rationale applies to marketing in subpopulations within domestic operations
Name four sources of power in organizations, and give an example of each. (hint: see Table 6.1)
Formal authority Control of scarce resources Control of knowledge Information
3 dimensions of burnout
Emotional exhaustion, lack of personal accomplishment, and depersonalization
Which (emotional labor, emotional work or emotions at work) is most closely associated with compassionate communication at work?
Emotional work
Emotions at work
Emotions that emerge from relationships in the workplace
What is alienation, and how might it occur in a workplace setting?
Estrangement workers feel when work becomes repetitive and boring Can occur through repetitive and boring jobs created by technology; worker is separate from work process; being taken out of thinking in workplace
Zoller's research on OSHA terminology illustrates what form of organizational discourse?
Every day conversations; about what you see in rules in policy
Explain each of the three phases in Morrison and Van Glinow's model of workplace development toward becoming the "multicultural organization" (see PPT slides: "The Evolution of Workplace Diversity Initiatives")
First generation affirmative action - organization focused on meeting legal requirements (e.g., hiring practices, quotas) Note: Federal affirmative action laws passed 1960s. Second generation affirmative action - org. has met affirmative action goals in terms of numbers; begins to focus on supporting female and minority employees The Multicultural Organization- organization focuses on creating and enforcing policies that deliberately capitalize on cultural and gender diversity (i.e., diversity as a resource)
Describe how the CRITICAL approaches would view organizational diversity processes
In diverse organizations, subjugated groups must deal with the dominant class. The struggle either perpetuates hegemonic relationships or emancipates individuals from them.
Define ideology. How does it relate to the concept of power?
Ideology - the taken-for-granted assumptions about reality that influence perceptions of situations and events • Ideology involves assumptions that are rarely questioned • Ideologies are often used to justify and legitimize actions The power of ideologies is related to the way in which they are used to justify and legitimize actions
Explain how emotional labor contributes to burnout
It is argued that a major danger of emotional labor is display of emotions that are not truly felt which is a major factor leading to negative consequences such as burnout
Distinguish between the modes of production and the means of production. Which does a manager influence?
Modes of production - refers to economic conditions that underlie the production process Means of production - refers to actual work processes - how products are made and services rendered
Why does workplace bullying too often go unaddressed?
a. Coworkers often act as silent witnesses b. Target's responses likely to be "ineffective" in altering hostile situation c. Policies, expectations rarely address the collective nature of bullying- not just bully and target but many co-conspirators and accomplices d. Organizational policies and procedures may be ambiguous and/or antagonistic to targets e. HR may be powerless to intervene; going to HR may further stigmatize target
Control of modes and means of production
a. Modes of production - economic conditions that underlie the production process (growth, increase profit) b. Means of production - actual work processes; how products are made and services are rendered (makes people feel less treated like a person); Manager influences MEANS of production
Because they aspire to make people aware of and resistant to domination, critical theorists take on the role of...
activists
Stress
aspects of the workplace that are difficult to deal with whereas others use it to refer the negative outcomes that accure from these work conditions
Individual strategies for coping with burnout
Problem-centered coping - deal directly with the causes of burnout (Delegation, time management; reduction in workload?) Appraisal-centered coping - change the way you think about the stressful situation ("The end is in sight"; Change your definition of success) Emotion-centered coping - deal with the negative feelings associated with burnout (Relaxation techniques, exercise, seek social support; Seek counseling?
Radical frame of reference
Radical - organization viewed as battle ground where rival forces strive for achievement of largely incompatible ends; conflict and power seen as reflections of larger class struggles in society
Which frame of reference do the critical and feminist approaches represent? Explain why.
Radical frame of reference by considering organizations as sites of domination; these approaches see theory as a force that can emancipate individuals from dominating org forces or consider how employees resist organizational dominance
Pluralist feminists
Scholars become responsive to needs of organizations that seek social change yet cannot fully embrace anti bureaucratic, counter capitalist ideals and practices
What are the three landmark examples of feminist organizational communication?
Sexual harassment, discourse at women-led businesses, disciplined bodies
How do employees and organizations make sense of, respond to, or resist workplace bullying?
Targets may: i. Resist bullying ii. Feel traumatized iii. Question their personal and professional identities iv. Use narrative, metaphor to make sense of abuse Organizations may: i. Blame the target ii. Take responsibility
In our textbook, Miller says that organizational discourse can be seen as creating and re-creating power structures in the workplace. What does this mean, in simpler terms?
The words and phrases that we all use when we talk about work define and reinforce power relationships
Why is workplace bullying so harmful?
To targets: i. Stigma + trauma ii. Language targets use may reinforce pain, limit possibilities for action iii. Associated harms: post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, suicidal thoughts, physical harm to self and others To organizaitons: i. Bullying harmful not only to targets, but to onlookers 1. Makes onlookers fearful, unwilling to speak up 2. Onlookers may feel extreme guilt 3. Talking about bullying incidents absorbs employee time, attention, emotional energy 4. Team or organizational climate may feel like a "war zone" 5. Erodes workers' beliefs that organization is fair and hard work pays off
Describe how the SYSTEMS approaches would view organizational diversity processes
Today, organizations exist in a turbulent global environment. Diversity is one way to adapt - ideally by integrating diverse individuals into formal and informal networks
Unitary frame of reference
Unitary - emphasis is placed on common organizational goals; conflict is seen as rare and negative and power is the natural prerogative of management
What is organizational discourse? How is organizational discourse related to the use of power?
Organizational discourse - communicative interaction that socially constructs organizational realities that can become sites of domination as they recreate power structures There are a number of ways in which org discourse can be seen as creating and re-creating power structures in the workplace. For example, the use in our culture of particular phrases to describe work can be seen as reinforcing dominant power structures
What is oppression, and how might it occur in a workplace setting?
When there are severe limitations on advancement because of technological achievements Can occur as workers are replaced or limited in advancement by robotics or other technical achievements
Emotional labor
When workers are expected to display certain feelings to satisfy organizational role expectations
Control of organizational discourse
Words, phrases, and narratives produce and reproduce power relationships
How does emotional intelligence relate to emotional rules?
Work relationships produce emotions by: • Public/ private tensions in work relationships • Emotional "buzzing" - news spreading/emotions spreading throughout office etc. • Conflicting allegiances • Perceived violations of "relational morality" in workplace relationships
Recognize and explain the six arguments of the business case for organizational diversity
cost, resource-acquisition, marketing, creativity, problem-solving, systems flexibility
Miller differentiates between ___________, in which workers don't really feel the emotions that they are displaying, and __________________, in which workers manage the real emotions that they feel on the job
emotional labor; emotional work
Depersonalization
feeling dislike, distrust, or disinterest toward clients, patients, students or other parties one serves on the job
Emotional exhaustion
feeling fatigued, frustrated, used up, apathetic
Lack of personal accomplishment
feeling like a failure, incapable of performing job effectively
Stress response
how individual responds to stressors Ex. "fight or flight" response - good for Neanderthals, not so good for working professionals today
Clair's research on the framing devices women used to talk about their experiences of sexual harassment in the workplace illustrated:
how the victims themselves tended to normalize and reinforce patriarchal values
Emotional intelligence
idea that there are some people who are naturally better and understanding and managing the emotional content of workplace relationships and that emotional intelligence is also that can be developed through training people who can understand and follow emotion rules
Prejudice
negative attitudes toward a person based on his/her group identity
Discrimination
observable behavior resulting from prejudice
Social Identity
people make assumptions about others by classifying them into groups
Hochschild compares emotional labor to acting ("surface acting" and "deep acting") to illustrate that emotional labor...
requires workers to display emotions that they don't really feel
Burnout
strain that results from ongoing stressors, such as emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and decreased personal accomplishment
Stressors
uncontrollable or unpredictable events in our everyday lives Ex. Work load, role conflict, role ambiguity, insufficient resources, life events, home/work conflict
Be able to recognize effects of emotional labor on individuals and organizations.
¥ Individual - Emotional labor can produce a feeling of "emotional dissonance," which may lead to feelings of alienation and eventually burnout. Organizations - - Positives: Generally good for the bottom line: satisfied customers, customer loyalty, good reputation, greater profits Sometimes, increased sense of belonging or solidarity among organizational members Result: organizational identification, commitment Negatives: Potential for employee dissatisfaction: burnout, turnover, toxic climate Organizational reputation suffers when members defy expectations Extreme example: "going postal"
Describe the [ideal] multicultural organization
¥ Proportional representation of co-cultural groups at all levels of organization and in all workgroups ¥ Co-cultural group members formally integrated (i.e., into mentoring, developmental opportunities, etc.) and informally integrated (i.e., into friendship groups and activities outside of work hours)
Explain the research topic, the key finding(s) of DISCIPLINED BODIES, and how this research illustrates the critical-feminist perspective.
• Angela Trethewey (2000s) • Studied: o Women's perceptions of how their appearances should communicate professionalism, including: ♣ Appearance not too feminine nor too masculine ♣ Physical fitness symbolizes competence ♣ Nonverbal displays should be strong but nonthreatening ♣ Control anything that would suggest female or feminine bodily functions (ex. breasts, menstruation, pregnancy, crying)
Organizational strategies for coping with burnout
• Clarify role definitions (socialization programs, training, reinforcement) • Monitor, control workload • Provide ways for workers in high-stress/emotional occupations to recharge • Take an active role in helping with work/life balance: (i.e. Alternative or flexible work schedules; Onsite day care; Part-time options; Respect for use of leave time)
What can organizations do to help workers balance work and home?
• May offer "family-friendly programs" such as: a. Flextime b. Onsite day care c. Job sharing d. Family leave policies (e.g., maternity and paternity leave, bereavement leave, etc.) e. Telecommuting (a.k.a. work from home) • Foster a culture that values the complex reality of workers' lives
Communication strategies for coping with burnout
• Participation in decision-making (PDM) (Helps resolve role conflict, role ambiguity; restores sense of control) • Social support (Three common types of support: ♣ Emotional support - verbal message of care or encouragement ♣ Informational support - sharing facts or advice to help the person cope ♣ Instrumental support - providing physical or material assistance) Three common sources of support ♣ From supervisors - usually information and instrumental ♣ From coworkers - usually emotional and informational ♣ From friends and family - usually emotional and instrumental
Explain the research topic, the key finding(s) of DISCOURSE AT WOMEN-LED BUSINESSES, and how this research illustrates the critical-feminist perspective.
• Scholar: Paige Edley (2000) • Studied: o Managerial communication, coworker communication, and workplace climate in a woman-led and majority female small business o Key findings: ♣ Reported to be a cooperative, flexible, family-friendly workplace, but boss often undermined these values ♣ High level of emotion and conflict dismissed as normal due to gender stereotypes
Stereotyping
viewing a group, such as women or people of color, in biased ways that may result in significantly different treatment within the organization
Personal attacks, social exclusion, and hostile interactions are all forms of:
workplace bullying
Explain how the challenge of balancing work and home affects workers of all ages and family situations.
¥ Affects males and females, younger workers and older workers May include: ¥ Caring for children ¥ Caring for aging parents ¥ Caring for pets ¥ Caring for self! ¥ Attending family events (e.g., weddings, funerals) ¥ Integrating volunteer commitments or avocation activities with work schedule ¥ Arranging for car repair, home repair, banking and legal services, etc.
Recognize possible negative consequences of diversity management initiatives in organizations
¥ Can make non-majority employee view self as less capable ¥ Can make other employees view non-majority employee as less capable ¥ Others in organization may see such programs as unfair or unethical
Provide suggestions for dealing with negative consequences of diversity management
¥ Emphasize the use of merit criteria in hiring and promotion decisions (in addition to preferential criteria). ¥ Make information about job qualifications and performance public ¥ Mentoring or networking programs can also help
Creativity argument
Diversity of perspectives and less emphasis on conformity to norms of the past (which characterize the modern approach to management of diversity) should improve the level of creativity
Surface acting
Acting like you feel the emotion even though you don't feel it Ex. Turn that frown upside down
Recognize other forms of diversity beyond ethnicity and gender, and give examples of what discrimination on these bases might look like in a workplace setting
Age, disability, cultural and sexual orientation (examples?)
Systems flexibility
An implication of the multicultural model for managing diversity is that the system will become less determinant, less standardized, and therefore more fluid; the increased fluidity should create greater flexibility to react to environmental changes (i.e. reactions should be faster and at less cost)
Resource Acquisition argument
Companies develop reputations as prospective employers for women and ethnic minorities; those with the best reputations for managing diversity will win competition for best personnel; as the labor pool shrinks and changes composition, this edge will become increasingly important
In the theory of concertive control, what is meant by discipline?
Discipline - through communicative interaction, work groups develop techniques to reward and punish behavior that conforms with or deviates from the values identified as important by the work group
Describe how the HUMAN RESOURCES approaches would view organizational diversity processes
Diverse employees offer diverse perspectives and unique contributions. A more diverse organization will be more innovative and have competitive advantages in the marketplace Diversity is positive and would increase creativity
Describe how the CLASSICAL approaches would view organizational diversity processes
Diversity is distracting; homogeneity is better. Use strong socialization practices to enforce the illusion that everyone is the same Diversity is discouraged
Define emancipation.
Emancipation - the liberation of people from unnecessary restrictions that limit their autonomy and pursuit of happiness
How might organizational members unknowingly reinforce hegemonic control?
Hegemonic control is typically accomplished by shaping ideology in such a way that the controlled group ACCEPTS and PARTICIPATES in the control process
Define hegemony.
Hegemony - process in which a dominant group leads another group to accept subordination as the norm
Problem-solving argument
Heterogeneity in decision making and problem solving groups potentially produces better choices through a wider range of perspectives and more critical analysis of issues
Mumby's research on a famous IBM story and its implications about power illustrates what form of organizational discourse?
IBM story - about stories told in organizations; stories people tell reinforce power relationships in organizations
Explain how the organizational context may limit or discourage organizational diversity
Industry has tradition of including people who look a certain way (sororities?); it has discouraged it because those who are that way are less likely to opt in
Emotional work
Involves people who are not in frontline service jobs but instead hold professional positions in industries such as health care, education or human services
Deep acting
Making an effort to really feel the emotion as part of the role Ex. Trying to sympathize with customer's trouble
What does bullying look like?
Perpetrator's communication toward or about the target may include: - public humiliation - spread rumors - rude, foul language - persistent criticism - explosive outbursts (includes intensity, persistence, power distance between targets and perpetrators)
Pluralist frame of reference
Pluralist - organization consists of many groups with divergent interests; conflict seen positively
Explain how emotional work contributes to burnout
Research provides evidence that emotional communication in workplace can be detrimental but only under certain conditions, specifically when an individual in a caregiving situation feels with the client and communicates, accordingly, burnout is a likely result
Define resistance. Identify at least two forms of individual resistance and at least two forms of collective resistance.
Resistance - the ways in which workers can exert counter-pressure on the exercise of power and control o Collective - unionization, boycott, strike, protest o Individual - use of humor (sarcasm, irony); supporting other individuals' resistance; publicly discussing dissent
Explain how workplace discrimination has disproportionately affected women and minorities
The organizational experiences of members of various co-cultural groups (women, people of color, people with disabilities, LGBTQ workers) are likely to differ substantially from experiences of white men. These employees are confronted with stereotyping and prejudice and lack of legal protection.
The textbook discusses emotion at work, or our feelings related to....
our relationships with co-workers
In a team-based organization with a connective control system, individuals are rewarded or punished by...
their fellow team members
Explain the research topic, the key finding(s) of SEXUAL HARASSMENT, and how this research illustrates the critical-feminist perspective.
• Scholar: Robin Clair (1990s) • Studied: o How women talk about sexual harassment in the workplace ♣ Key finding: framing devices used tended to normalize harassment; suppressed further discussion of harassment as an oppressive feature of the workplace • Harassment is "mere flirting," "the way things are," or "a harmless joke" (pg. 114) o Advice provided in sexual harassment policies of Big Ten universities ♣ Key finding: advice to victims privatized, bureaucratized, and commodified sexual harassment (made it personal problem, report it, keep a record)
Name and define the three types of social support.
♣ Emotional support - verbal message of care or encouragement ♣ Informational support - sharing facts or advice to help the person cope ♣ Instrumental support - providing physical or material assistance