Combo with "Chapter 10 test prep" and 13 others

Peace of Amiens

between France and Great Britain was truce. Napoleon's ambitions shattered hope that it would last. Sent army to restore rebellious Haiti. Aroused Brit fears that he planned new french empire in 'murica.

diets

bodies dominated by Junkers and exercised advisory function. Old bonds linking to monarchy, army and landholders in Prussia had been reestablished. Oppose German nationalist threats to conservatives.

Edward Seymour

duke of Somerset earl of Warwick duke of Northumberland during reign, six articles of Henry are repealed Edward is defender of the faith

Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)

example of 19th conservative ; devoted servant of Hapsburg emperor; excersise chief control over the forces; feared the national groups would fight their battles internally at the cost of Austria's international influence

William Harvey

famous for discovery of circulation of blood through the body

Louis XVIII

fat ugly man became political realist during 20 years of exile. agreed to become constitutional monarch, under constitution of his making called the CHARTER.

1378

"Ciompi Revolt" lasted four years due for three reasons: 1)Old Rich and New Rich were headbutting 2)Anarchy after Black death took 1/2 of people 3) Bardi and Peruzzi (bank houses) collapsed

Giotto

"Father of Renaissance Painting". Known for his portrayal of emotion in his paintings.

1689-1697

"Nine years war" was when England and France fought over America.

Sankar Muthu

"The first and most basic idea is that human beings deserve some modicum of moral and political respect simply because of the fact that they are human.": Enlightenment Critics wanted a form of shared humanity that 16th century European conquerors and their successors in the Americas and in other areas of imperial conquest had ignored

Pope Julius II

"Warrior Pope", suppressed the new land of Borgia Family and drove Venetians from Romagna in 1509

Carbonari

("charcoal burners") one of several secret republican societies established in Italy following the Congress of Vienna

Tycho Brahe

(1546-1601) A Danish astronomer. He did not accept Copernican system. Mercury and Venus revolved around sun, but moon and sun and other planets revolved around the earth.

Giuseppe Mazzini

(1805-1872) and Young Italy Society=became the most important nationalist leader in Europe. the goal was to drive Austria from the peninsula and establish an Italian republic. Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) led insurrections in Italy to promote unification

Thomas Wentworth

(AKA earl of Strafford) imposed strict efficiency and central government and exploited legal fundraising device, enforcing laws and extending taxes to new places.

flying shuttle

(increased weaver produce)John Kay created imbalance between weavers and spinners in the 1730s.

Polish Patriots

(nobles) who issued new constitution that replaced hereditary for elective monarchy, which had elective monarchy and authority in monarch and made bicameral diet, no more liberum veto. Frederick William II of Prussia=This guy promised to defend Polish constitutional order. Believed that stronger Poland was in Prussia's interest vs. Russian power. 1722=After first partition, Polish leaders commenced reforms for stronger state. 1794=Polish officers mutinied efforts of solidarity with Russian army. Tadeusz Kosciuszko Leader of Russian Army and veteran of American Revolution. Kosciuszko returned to Poland w/ troops. Language and symbols of French Revolution in Polish cities. Prussia, Austria, and Russia sent troops to Poland. November 4 Bloodiest day: Russian troops killed over 10,000 Poles outside Warsaw. Kosciuszko ended up in Russian prison. Austria, Prussia and Russia divide Poland after last partition.

Baroque Art

-Roman Catholic Roots -splendor, grandeur, dramatic -depicted everyday life St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582). Santa Maria de la Vitoria in Rome has a sculpture of this lady by the baroque artist Bernini. Represents religious ecstasy. 1649=By funding for a Roman Catholic artist, Charles I was executed for having Catholic sentiment. Hall of Mirrors Runs across entire rear of the palace was a grand display of light. Gardens at Versaille had mythological deities as the fountainheads.

Preconditions of Swiss Reformation

1. Growth of national sentiment and popular opposition to foreign mercenary service 2. A desire for church reform since councils of Constance (1414-1417) and Basel (1431-1449).

1457

1/3 of Florence (13,000 people) listed as paupers without any money

émigrés

16,000 aristocrats leave France because the political and social order underwent change. Went to French Boarder. King's younger bro the count of Artois went too. In 1791, his agents and Marie made the king leave Paris

Act of Settlement

1701 English crown can go to Protestant House of Hanover in Germany if Anne (second daughter of James II) and heir of William III dies In 1714, Anne dies. Elector of Hanover is King George I of Great Britain, (England and Scotland combined thru Act of Union in 1707)

1761-1792

500,000 acres were enclosed thru Parliament Acts compared to 75,000 acres between 1727-1760

Enlightened absolutism

=form of monarchical gov't in which central absolutist admin was strengthened at cost of lesser centers of power (aristocracy, church, parliaments, diets) Frederick II, Joseph II, Catherine II.

John Constable

A conservative painter who made "Salisbury Cathedral, from the meadows. Stable world where there were no politics nor industrial development challenged religion. Saw the church and British constitution related. Religious institutions were barriers to political radicalism. Liberals were the devil. Idealized rural life and opposed urban life.

The Great Reform Bill

A limited reform of the British House of Commons and now a major legislative body, expansion of the electorate - 12% of population can vote now but didn't not eliminate property qualifications for voting or grant suffrage for women. The vast majority of individuals were unable to vote; so the size of the English county electorate in 1831 has been estimated at 200,000, almost 50%. Big bourgeoisie, so they couldn't be ignored. Whigs (protectors of constitutional liberty) Rotten boroughs=places that were over represented in the House of Commons, few voters representatives from unrepresented manufacturing districts. The vast majority of individuals were unable to vote; so the size of the English county electorate in 1831 has been estimated at only 200,000.Rottenburgh=places that were over represented in the House of Commons.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

According to him, artist's imagination was God @ work in the mind. Expressed views that imagination was repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act of creation in the infinite I mind of the IAM. Poetry ain't idle play. Master of Gothic poems like "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner", which is a story about a mariner killing an albatross. Crime vs. nature and God and raises guilt, punishment, and redemption (humility and penance).

The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform (1815-1832)

Although conservatism was deeply entrenched across the Continent by 1850, many of the liberal and nationalists goals of the early nineteenth-century had been achieved. Italy and Germany were each united under constitutional monarchies.The Habsburg emperors accepted constitutional governments and recognized the liberties of the Magyars of Hungary. France had become a republic. Liberalism and democracy flourished in Great Britain. Most liberal and nationalist developments in Europe occurred under conservative political leadership. Leaders had to find new ways to secure the loyalties of their subjects. Mazzini="Spirit" Garibaldi="Sword" Cavour="Mind"

1558

Anne of Boleyn's gal Elizabeth I worked out religious settlement

Cato Street Conspiracy

Arthur Thistlewood lead radicalists who plotted to blow up British cabinet. Leaders were arrested and tried, 5 were hanged. Discredit movement for parliamentary reform. The plan foiled and leaders were arrested and tried and 5 were hanged

Organic Articles of 1802

Articles in which gov't issued authority without pope's word. Laws applied to Jews and protestants reducing privileged positions of the Catholic Church. Catholic church is controlling education, they get the religious majority. Church subordinates to the state. Toleration replaced monopoly of religion by an established church. Continental system demonstrated NB's rule was intended to enrich France. Plebiscite ratified Napoleon as consul for life. Made another constitution that granted him what amounted to full power. Set about reforming and codifying French Law. Napoleon sent army to Haiti and captured L'Ouverture, b/c his example would undermine French elsewhere in Caribbean and North America..

Milan Decree of 1807

Attempt to stop neutral nations from trading with Britain to cripple it financially and commercially, but brits survived. Wanted to make the peeps happy, so he said that he could replace everything the Brits made, but can't replace sugar b/c they were from Americans, and Brits controlled the seas. So Brits told us not to trade with France and that leads to the War of 1812. Control of seas assured access to markets of North and South America.

Lorenzo Valla

Author of standard renaissance text in Latin. Protestant Reformers looked up to him, though he led a Catholic life. He is famous for finding errors in religion, like the translation of the Bible.

Josephinism

Based on Enlightenment and pragmatic policy of toleration, he practiced religious toleration. Extended freedom of worship to Lutherans, Calvinists and Greek Orthodox. Have places of worship, sponsor schools, enter skilled trades, academic appointments and positions in the public service. Right of private worship for the Jews. Reduced financial and social burdens on them too. Joseph brought Catholic Church directly under royal control. Bishops can't talk to the pope directly. Dissolved 600 monasteries, replaced with 8 seminaries under government whose purpose were for parish duties.

Romantic Movement

Basic features in Germany was emergence of nationalism, which went through two distinct stages. 1) Nationalistic writers emphasized German Culture, prevailed until Napoleon's humiliation of Prussia at Jena in 1806

1571

Battle of Lepanto, Ottoman empire retained control of east Mediterranean Sea.

1709

Battle of Poltava, in Ukraine, Peter the Great prevails

Friedrich Hegel

Believed that thought develops from the clash of thesis and antithesis into a new intellectual thesis. associated with the theoretical political and religious ideas of conservative class

Thomas Carlyle

British historian attributed new positive qualities to Muhammad himself. Didn't like Enlightenment's disparagement of religion and spiritual values. "On Heroes and Hero=Worship" presented Muhammad as the embodiment of hero as prophet.

1744

British-French conflict expanded out of Continent when France supports Spain vs. Britain in New World. French Military and economic resources were badly divided. France didn't give strength to colonial struggle. France lost.

French Arms and Diplomacy

By 1795 French arms and diplomacy shattered enemy coalition, but France's annexation of Belgium guaranteed continued fighting with Britain and Austria. Aimed to take Austria's rich northern italian province of Lombardy. Bonaparte crushed Austrian and Sardinian armies in lighting battles.

The Rights of Man

By Thomas Paine response to Burke and in defense of revolution. "From what we now see, nothing of reform on the Political world ought to be held improbable. It is an age of revolutions, in which everything may be looked for."

1534, May

Calvin experienced conversion to Protestantism, heart made teachable by God. He surrendered benefices that educated him and joined Reformation in Geneva.

1490

City-States at war, French decided to invade Italy

1531, January

Convocation (legislative assembly for clergy) says Henry is head of the Church.

Pan-Slavic Congress

Czech nationalist formed this to call for national equality of Slavs and protest the repression of Slavic people

Czechs, the Ruthenians, the Romanians, and the Croatians

Czechs, the Ruthenians, the Romanians, and the Croatians opposed the compromise as it allowed German-speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars to dominate all other nationalities within the empire.

Olympe de Gouge

Daughter of a butcher from Montauban in northwest France was a radical in Paris. Addressed to Marie Antoinette. Women wanted to be citizens, not just mother, daughter...etc. Simple listing of rights created structure of universal civic expectations even for those who didn't. French Women hoped French Revolution promises would apply to them. Property, inheritance, family, and divorce. Rights and protection of citizenship.

Disraeli in Office (1874-1880)

Disraeli succeeded Gladstone as prime minister in 1874 Both men believed social reform was necessary but disagreed on the means. Whereas Gladstone looked to individualism, free trade, and competition to solve social problems, Disraeli believed in paternalistic legislation to protect the weak and ease class antagonisms.

1534

End of clergy payment and laity in Rome, Act of Succession (Elizabeth legitimate heir), "Act of Supremacy", Henry is "the only supreme head in earth of Church of England". 1536 and 1638=Parliament dissolved England's monasteries + nunneries

Pope, Emperor, The Guelf and The Ghilbelline

Endemic warfare between these people assisted growth of city-states

Samuel Johnson

English essayist, critic, dictionary author. Published collection of essays that appeared in newspapers. Wrote first English dictionary. Blind in one eye, color blind in another eye.

Prejudice

Europeans considered Africans savages or less civilized. Others were snobs because they were slaves. Christians and Muslims shared this prejudice in el mundo Mediterráneo.Languages, cultures negatively connate darkness and blackness. Subservience=Racially conscious kept Africans back. Slave Selection Chose 16 year old boys, 7 year working capacity. Women were expensive, because they produced slave offspring. Women became more valuable if they were pregnant earlier.

Adolphe Thiers

Executive power given to him (1797-1877) Thiers negotiated the settlement with Prussia Parisian response to the siege of Paris Having suffered during the siege of Paris, the people of Paris scorned the monarchist National Assembly—which operated from Versailles—and created new municipal government called the Paris Commune.

1521

Exsurge Domine. Condemned Luther for heresy, gave 60 days to retract, excommunicated in the same year, months later. He then hid in Wartburg Castle under disguise. While hiding, he translated New Testament into German using Erasmus Greek and Latin bible editions.

1453

Fall of Constantinople, which shrinks Italy's trade

1701

Fate of army rests on Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, who gives Frederick the title "King in Prussia". He would not be king of prussia until 1722.

Organic Statue

Feb. 1832 issued by Nicholas declaring Poland to be an integral part of Russia Empire. Guaranteed certain Polish liberties the Russian government ignored them. Ensures Russian domination of Poland

Christine de Pisan ;)

First European feminist. Daughter of King Charles V, a physician and astrologer. Wrote "Treasure of the City of Ladies", which was a chronicle of the accomplishments belonging to women in history.

Menno Simons

Founder of Mennonites, example of non-provocative separatist Anabaptism.

1792

French invade Belgium and revolutionary reorganization of territory. These events woke up Europe to hatred.

Banalités

French peasants who had feudal dues included used-for-payment of lord's or seigneur's mill to grind grain and oven to bake bread seigneur need # days of peasant labor

Spinning Jenny

From "Engine" Weavers could produce as much of fabric as they need. Spinners don't have machinery to produce threads. James Hargreaves, permits spinning of numerous spindles of thread on a single machine. 16 spindles of thread but at end 120 spindles.

1671-1831

Game Laws. Legal right of English Landowners to hunt game animals-hares, partridges, pheasants, and moor fowl. More laws allowed hunting of deer, which was a capital offense by anyone but nobles. people excluded from laws=people who rented land, city merchants, poor people in cities, villages, country poor=elite thought that they would undermine their work habits. merchants=landed gentry in Parliament wanted to demonstrate superiority of landed wealth over trade. poor people had killed animals for food. poaching > in hard times. Black Market:Game animals were in demand for lux meat. Possibility of poaching for profit and meant stealing or killing. higglers=local peeps from both the country and villas who stole the game and sold to intermediaries who were the higglers. Later known as coachmen. Smuggles fame to cities where poulterers sold at premium price. rural poor (lacked rights to communal land from landowners) hated Large game preserves. Became hunting grounds for poachers

1589

Henry IV became king, pursued religious tolerance, French nobility had military forces at hand and fought the king.

1593

Henry IV turned Catholic and the Jesuits (who were loyal to the pope), monopolized education of French rich fellows.

1450-1527

High Renaissance

Eastern Question

How should European countries respond toward Ottoman inability to administer its landholding in the Mediterranean? What should the European powers do about the Ottoman inability to assure political and administrative stability in its possessions in and around Mediterranean? conflicting interests and distrust prevented intervention for Greece. Britain, France and Russia agreed Greece would benefit interests and not threaten domestic security.

1550

Images and altars were removed from church

Elections of 1827

In this election, liberals had seats in Chamber of Deputies to compel the kings to compromise. Less conservative (well he's a liberal, that's why!). Laws vs. press were eased, and gov't dominance over education. Liberals wanted constitutional regime. IN 1829, king replaced moderate ministry with ultraroyalist cabinet with Prince de Polignac.

Irish Problem

Irish nationalists wanted independence or at least big measures of self-government. Haunted Brit politics for the next two centuries.

February Patent (1861)

Issued by Francis Joseph Established a bicameral imperial parliament, or Reichsrat, with an upper chamber appointed by the emperor and an indirectly elected lower chamber Magyars, again, rejected it and sent no delegates to the legislature This government prevailed in Austria proper until 1918. Civil liberties were not guaranteed, armies could be levied, and taxes raised without parliamentary consent.

1494-1527

Italy's Political Decline: The French Invasions

1603

James VI, son of Mary Queen of Scots, succeeds Elizabeth I. impositions=James I's source of income by levying custom duties, tariffs on everything that is imported. Saves him from dependence on Parliament. 1604, January=Hampton Court Conference where James rebuffed Puritans and declared that Anglican episcopacy is here to stay. James failed to arrange marriage between his son Charles and Spanish princess, and then Charles' marriage to Henrietta Marie, Henry IV's daughter=increased religious concern.

Four Ordinances

July 25, 1830 issued by Charles X staging a royal coup d'etat: restricted freedom of the press, dissolved the recently elected Chamber of Deputies, limited the franchise to wealthiest members, and called new elections, provoked swift and decisive popular reaction; 1,800 people died during ensuing battles Liberal newspaper rejected this -Aug. 2 Charles X exile to England

Treaty of Tilsit

July 7, 1807=This confirmed France Gains. Prussia loses half of land. Alex's support kept it from extinction.

Tennis Court Oath

June 20th, Members of National Assembly wrote a constitution. Clergy and Nobles joined in defiance of Louis XVI. Now is National Constituent Assembly. Aristocrats in National Constituent Assembly=These people tried to stop riot in countryside. Liberal aristocrats and clerics rose in Assembly and renounced their feudal rights, dues and tithes. Surrendered hunting, fishing, judicial authority, and legal exemptions. Received financial compensation for losses

Gracchus Babeuf

Led the conspiracy of equals. Wanted more radical democracy and distribution of equal property. Socialists look to him for inspiration. What a fat cow.

Alexander Herzen (1812-1870)

Lived in exile in London Published a newspaper called The Bell that proposed reformist ideas Impact of Herzen Populism=Student revolutionary groups formed who sought a social revolution based on the communal life of Russian peasants. Land and Freedom was the chief radical society. Unsuccessful Attempt to Spread of Revolutionary Ideas to the Countryside. In the 1870s, hundreds of young Russian men and women took their revolutionary message to the countryside. They intended to live with the peasants and gain their trust, but most of the peasants distrusted the revolutionaries and turned them over to the police. 200 students were put on trial and most acquitted as the courts hoped this would lessen public sympathies for the revolutionaries. Revolutionaries use terrorist tactics

Madame de Maintenon

Louis influenced policy through mistress turned wife Madame de Maintenon, who was a pious Catholic. She was a governess for madame de montespan, a frivolous basket case. Maintenon banned protestants from printing and medicine. She was Louis's last wife, he depended on her.

1685, October

Louis revoked Edict of Nantes which was a mistake, because 1.75 million or 9/10 of France was Huguenots. No Huguenots in government, laity who didn't convert are slaves, no public worship, no fortification for Huguenots

Sun King

Louis' nickname after his temple to royalty, built with the glory of Sun king (Louis XIV). 1676-1708=Building of the palace of Versaille on outskirts of Paris. It is a central image of monarchy, biggest secular building in Europe. Physical setting exerts his political control. Louis' home after 1682. Palace of Versailles's stables could hold 12,000 horsies, nobles serve as candle holders and la petite coucher, nobles become dependent on Louis XIV, 100,000 lives to make this, cleared out a swamp. Louis XIV curtailed parlement's power by requiring it to register laws before raising questions.

Frederick I

Lutheranism thrived under him, joined Schmalkaldic league

1531, February

Lutherans formed alliance with Schmalkaldic Augsburg Confession which was a moderate statement of Protestant beliefs that had been spurned by emperor after the diet. 1547=Imperial armies crushed Schmalkaldic League, capturing John Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse. Protestants had to revert, but they had some changes: it was allowed for clerical marriage and communion with both bread and wine. Magdeburg, Germany was a refuge for Protestant exiles. 1538=Lutherans drew up Schmalkaldic Articles. Lutheran's educational reforms=compulsory primary education schools for girls a humanist revision of traditional curriculum instruction of laity in new religion.

Magyar Revolt

Magyar liberals who wanted their aristocratic liberties guaranteed against the central government of Vienna; also led to the proposed "Magyarzation" of other eastern European ethnic groups by means of nationalism to create an independent Hungarian state within the Hapsburg domains.

Northwestern Europe Household

Married couple+children thru early teenage years+ servants. No more than 5-6 peeps. Rare for more than two generations under one roof to live. High mortality, late marriage prevents families of three generations or more. grandparents don't live in same household as grand kids: nuclear. not extended. early teenagers left home to work as servants in other households. Child of artisan remained w/ parents only rarely would one kids do so, because kids earned more money outside of house.

1553

Mary I, Catherine of Aragon's daughter, succeeds Ed, restored Catholic Doctrine and practice. Is famous for the child rhyme: Mary, Mary, quite contrary how does your garden grow? with silver bells and cockle shells and pretty maids all in a row. Also known as Bloody Mary.

A Vindication of the Rights of Women

Mary Wollstonecraft, brought Rousseau judgement of rational Enlightenment ideal of progressive knowledge. Opposed policies of FR that were unfavorable to women. Died of puerperal fever (unsanitary conditions at childbirth). Accused Rousseau for narrowing women's vision and limiting their experience. Opposed to sensual slaves to men, wanted women to be out of domestic sphere. Wanted women's education, liberty for women. Was a philosophe.

1552

Maurice of Saxony was chosen to rule Saxony, but was forced to relent to protestants. In consequence, Charles reinstated Protestant Leaders and Lutheran freedoms

Division of power

Most influential idea in government. Executive power should be with the kings. Legislative branch=Parliament. Judicial Branch=Courts. Check and Balance power between branches. dêja-vú.

Bill of rights

Netherlands is a Republic and religiously tolerant, unlike most of monarchy structured Europe where there's one ruler and one religion

Dynastic Crisis

November 1825. Death of Tsar Alexander. Resulted in 1) Dynastic Crisis, because he was heirless. Bro Constantine (commander of Russian Forces in Poland) married a muggle, so he wasn't royal anymore. Alexander named Nicholas as the new tsar. 2) Decembrist revolt

Vendémiaire

October 5,1795-13: sections of Paris led by royalists rose against Convention. Convention turned artillery against the royalist rebels.

1517, October 31

On All Saints Day, Luther posts 95 theses against Tetzel's indulgences on the door of Castle of Wittenberg 95 theses circulated by Nuremberg humanists. It was a competition to become cardinal by raising most money.

Belgium Independence 1830

On August 25, 1830: Brussels had riots after an opera about rebellion in Naples under Spanish Rule. Sparked from July Revolution: Former Austrian Netherlands, Belgium was part of Holland in 1815. Different language, religion and economy. King Wiliam I of Holland sent military against Belgium. IN November 10, 1830, Dutch had been defeated. 1831: belgian constitution. Upsetted Congress of Vienna Boundaries.

Active Citizens

Only men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages could vote. Chose electors who voted for members of legislative assembly. Only 50 thousand peeps out of 25 million were active. Accumulation of wealth from land and commercial property, not hereditary privilege or purchase of titles, offices, would lead into authority of politics.

Militia Ordinance

Parliament has authority to build an army.

1524-1525

Peasant's revolt against landlords. Between 70,000 and 100,000 died did not want to be involved with revolt, Luther wanted release of guilt.

Vernacular

Peasants want good preaching in the vernacular, they want to be able to understand what is being preached, and took initiative to endow special funds for preaching in cities and towns to ensure it

Sans-Culottes

People of Paris, name means "without breeches" from long trousers that working people wore instead of aristocratic knee breeches. Shopkeepers, artisans, and wage earners even factory workers. Lack of food and inflation made lives hard. REPUBLICANS! Peeps should make choices. 1792-1794=Sans-culottes' desires and ideals were primary factors in the internal development of revolution. Sought relief from food shortages and rising prices through price controls. Right of subsistence and hated social inequality. Advocated community of small property owners who were in politics.

creoles

Persons of European descent born in Spanish colonies. These people felt that they were 2nd class. Resentment provided source to wars of independence in 19th century.

Quadruple Alliance

Renewed on November 20, 1815. It was much a coalition for peace as it was pursuing victory over France. Important new departure in European affairs.

Proportionate Representation

Representative based on population. This is an idea used in USA government, so that smaller states with less people do not have as much influence. They want the vote from where da peeps are. People gotta be represented.

Russian Unrest in the Army

Russian forces drove NB's army away, and occupied France. Exposed to ideas of French Revolution and Enlightenment. Nation was backwards. Alexander had repressive policies, and so they formed secret societies. Southern society=Lead by Pestel advocated representative government and abolition of serfdom. Favored Limited independence for Poland and democracy. Northern Society=More moderate, liked constitutional monarchy and abolition of serfdom, but wanted to protect interests of aristocracy.

Simon Bolívar

Several attempts for Latin american freedom from spanish. did not hold back cruelty or barbarity. Hispanic-American.

Charles VIII

Son of Louis XI, accepted Ludovico's request. In five months he had crossed the alps and conquered Florence and Naples and the Papal States.

1450

Sovereign rulers are set in motion. Different from feudal system, the Feudal Monarchy characterized by the division of the basic powers of gov't betwixt King and semi-autonomous vassals

1722

Table of Ranks=person's social position and privileges according to rank in bureaucracy and military.

Jose de San Martín

The Leading general of the Río de la Plata forces, led an army in a daring march over Andes Mountain and occupied Santiago in Chile. Organized fleet in 1820, carried his army by sea to Peru. Drove Royalist forces from Lima and became Protector of Peru.

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey

The chief minister of King Henry VIII+Thomas More. 1523="Response to Luther" was written by Thomas More

1527

The end of the Renaissance; Spanish soldiers (bored and underpaid) looted and torched Rome.

White Terror

The execution of former terrorists (leaders and deputies of the terror) marked beginning of this time. Jacobins were executed with little more due process than they had extended to their victims a month ago. Convention approved of trials. Youths with connextions or avoided serving army roamed streets beating Jacobins. after Napoleon's defeat at waterloo. against revolutionaries and supporters of NB. King could do little. Supported by Chamber of deputies.

mechanism

The proponents of the new science sought to explain the world in terms of mechanical metaphors or the linguo of machines. "I am much occupied with the investigation of physical causes..."Johannes Kepler. God as a divine watch maker arranged world as a machine, physical nature from a realm where they looked after utility for usefulness (utilitarians).

Treaty of Luneville

This made after Marengo in 1800, took Austria out of the war. Britain was now alone and two years later Treaty of Amiens brought peace to all of Europe.

Thomas á Kempis

This man wrote the philosophy of brothers of common life in "Imitation of Christ", which was primarily written for nuns, monks, but became a book for lay people to live religiously. He started the Conservative Movement.

Waterloo

Wellington with Prussians under Field Marshal von Blücher defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium on June 18,1815. Napoleon abdicates, again and exiled to St. Helena where he died in 1821. Waterloo, is a defeat that you can't come back from. French borders go back to what they were in 1789, the year of the French Revolution.

Ptolemy

a mathematical astronomer-1.150 AD, Almages-provided explanation of Earth's position 2.Ptolemaic System=mathematical calculations relating to astronomy 3.Geocentrism=The assumption that earth is in the center of the universe

Marquis Cesare Beccaria

an Italian aristocrat and philosophe published On Crimes and Punishments. About probs in making punishments. Laws of monarchs and legislatures to conform with rational laws of nature. Criminal justice system should have SPEEDY TRIAL and punishment of intent of punishment should be to deter further crime. Secure highest healing good for humans.

King Charles Albert of Pidemont

he gave Italians hope ; he was supposed to annex the capital of Milan and help push Austria off of Italy peninsula. However he was defeated by Count Joseph Wenzel Radetcky

Kingdom of Netherlands

included Belgium and Luxembourg in the north and added the important port of Genoa to strengthen Piedmont in south. Austria has full control of northern Italy so that repetition of NB's conquests wouldn't happen. Venerable Holy Roman Empire= dissolved in 1806, was not revived. rule of legitimate monarchs and no republican or democratic policies.

Napoleon's new army

inexperienced and ill equipped. Generals lacked confidence and tired. Emperor was worn out and sick. But there was a skilled campaign nonetheless in central Europe and defeated allies at Dresden. Combined armies of enemy decisively defeated him at Leipzig in what Germans called Battle of the Nations. They were scared that if Napoleon died that there would be a civilian uprising, but the French only were loyal to france.

Women were excluded from intellectual life

institutions of Europe excluded women not admitted into universities (save some in Italy) Women exercised influence over princely courts where Galileo and other natural philosophers were. Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds=Bernard de Fontenelle, wrote for women. Newtonianism for Ladies= 1737 Francesco Algarotti

King Christian II

introduced the reformation to Denmark

Two-Thirds Law

law that sought to foster community and get rid of favorite politicians, undermined public faith and constitutional order. which enabled members to maintain their seats for prolonged periods of time

Jethro Tull

man that devised the seed frill which increased wheat crops by planting seed deep in the soil rather than just casting it randomly on the ground. Willing to conduct experiments and finance experiments of others. Rejection of manure as fertilizer were wrong. Iron plows to turn the earth and planting wheat by frill than casting seefs were innovative. Methods allowed that land to be cultivated w/o leaving it fallow.

Creole elite

merchants, landowners, pros who were spanish led movements against SPain and Portugal. Indians in the Andes in 1780 to 1781 rebellion inspired by Haitian Revolution

Bourgeoisie

middle class associated with industry and commerce. This group brought upon capitalist and oppression workers; 19th this group has a struggle between the proletariat

Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895)

middle-class German, father owned a textile factory Manchester, England "The Condition of the Working Class" in England showed devasting picture of industrial life 1848 both published " The Communist Manifesto" in German

Six Articles

mild concessions to Protestant sentiment, forbade English clergy to marry and threatened 2x concubine offenders, reaffirmed Transubstantiation, denied Eucharistic cup to laity, Celibate vows inviolable, provided for private masses, oral confession. Known as "whip with six strings"

The marquise de Pompadour

mistress of King Louis XV, played key role in efforts to censor Encyclopedia. SHe also hindered publication of works attacking the philosophes

Austro-Germans

often hated the non-German national groups of the empire and many were anti-Semites.These sentiments influenced a young Adolf Hitler. Unresolved problems in central and Eastern Europe and directly led Europe into World War I, then World War II, and many of these same ethnic resentments continue to fester today.

whigs and tories

peeps who supported the monarchy. French Revolution violence. whiggs=killed people for no reason. stereotypes tories=irish catholics who stole from people. named after gangs.

Bourbon Ferdinand VII of Spain

placed on throne, promised to govern according to written constitution. dissolved Cortés and ruled alone.

Castlereagh

refused alex's proposal. said 4 alliance was intended only to prevent French aggression.

sumptuary law

regulating the dress of different classes remained on the books laws forbade peeps in one class from wearing clothes like those worn by their social superiors individual rights= Each state or community was considered a community composed of numerous smaller communities, but they did not have individual rights community=included village, municipality, the nobility, the church, the guild, a university or the parish

Enlightenment Monarch signs

religious toleration science and arts economy prosperity centralization concern for the people. Look onto them as if they were your children.

Magistrates on Religion

restricted growth of church properties and privileges Holy places of "sacral peace" withheld from taxation: asylum, churches, monasteries. Clergy did not affiliate with military positions, labor, watchmen, or civic obligations: "did not want dirty work"

Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz

selling of indulgences=joint venture to Albrecht, the Ausburg Banking House of Fugger, and Pope Leo X.

Congress System

series of international meetings among the European great powers to promote mutual cooperation 1818-1822. first congress 1818 at Aix-la-Chapel in Germany near the border of Belgium - as a result the 4 major powers removed troops from France because paid war reparations which made France good

Burshenshaften

student association formed by university nationalist groups wanted an united Germany ; disliked Jews ; replace old provincial attachments with loyalty of united german ; Karl Sand member assassinated the conservative August von Kotzebue ; dissolved by Carisbad Decrees

Charles VI

succeeded Joseph, had no male heir. Sought family approval in document called Pragmatic Sanction.

Encyclopedia on Women

suggested to improve women lives, but didn't address the condition that needed conform. Contibutors were men. No need to have lady articles. Subjects showed physical inferiority: menstruation and childbearing. General sense that women were frivolous and unconcerned. Women only in the domestic affairs. Double standard. Illustrations of Women deeply involved in economy. Lower class and working class women included

Socialism

system of social organization that advocates the ownership and nationalization of the means of production in community as a whole ; putting control under workers

Louvois

the French Secretary of State for War for a significant part of the reign of Louis XIV. Achieved secure international boundaries for France, Spanish Netherlands, the Franche-Comté, Alsace, and Lorraine.

Châteaux

the destruction of legal records and documents, refusal to pay feudal dues. Peasants wanted food supplies and land that they considered to be rightfully theirs. Retaining rights and property that they lost through feudal system and anger against injustice.

Conservative governments

the domestic political order no written constitutions=opportunities for liberals believed in monarchy, leviathan history, aristocracy religion by state all about land. that's the job of the government. base of monarchy, established churches. press censorship=tried to undermine the traditional system. Even in America. on board with all of the platforms. tyranny of the majority (modern day turkey) In a democracy, the majority of the citizens is capable of exercising the most cruel oppression upon the minority.

Louis Philippe (r.1830-1848)

the duke d'Orléans, new king ; liberal government and regime July Monarchy , "King of the French " Politically - new constitutions the right of people, Catholicism religion of majority, censorship abolished, electorate(franchise) expanded, but restricted , cooperated with Chamber of Deputies Socially(conservative) - government no sympathy for the working class, government corrupt, money important, hereditary peerage was abolished Feb 24, 1848 Louis Philippe abdicated and fled to England due to the crowd that erected barricades and numerous clashes because the forbade banquets

vingtiéme

twentieth, income tax that was not paid in full round up money from inferiors.

CONGREGATIONALISTS

votes to decide beliefs, leaders, excommunication, gets involved in proving predestination

Electoral laws

wealthy electors 2 votes, press censorship and people who were supposed terrorists were easy to arrest. 1821=government placed 2ndary control under catholic bishops

English Parliament, French Estates General, Spanish Cortés

what were representative assemblies created to thwart centralization of royal power into united nation?

Proletariat

workers in the industry; group had a struggle with the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie oppression them. Marx contended they finally overthrew owners of means of production ( bourgeoisie ) ; eventually created a propertyless and classless communist society

Sir Robert Walpole

(1676-1745) British Prime Minister

Emilie du Chatelet

(1706-1749) Aided Voltaire in his composition of an important French popularization of Newton's science. She was better at math than he was. Crucial for writing his book.She translated Principia by Newton into French.

Prince Wenzel Anton Kaunitz

(1711-1794) Foreign minister who was delighted by Maria Theresa's despondency over Convention. Hoped for alliance w/ France to dismember Prussia. Convention made this a possibility.

Robert Bakewell

(1725-1795) British improver of agriculture. New methods for animal breeding that produced better animals and mo milk and meat. Got rid of the weak and bred only the alpha and the elite.

Steam boat

(by fulton), I can steam stuff up and down. 30 mph is crazy fast, even for horses. I can move people over long distances=> more population because of a bigger pool of people to chose from.

corvées

(road work) nobles ain't liable for forced labor or public works (reserved for the peasants) could collects feudal dues from their tenants, exclusive hunting and fishing. Forced labor by Seigneurs. Peasants had to rent land for their families.

Deist Creed

1) belief in existence of God, contemplation of nature could empirically justify. Deity also must like rational morality, so 2)belief in life after death, when rewards and punishments would be meted out to virtue of people's lives led on earth. empirical, tolerant, virtuous hoped to end rivalry, fanaticism, and need for priests and ministers Based on nature, not on faith. Deism. Not revealed religion. Understand that there is something out there. In england, anglican church peeps did popularize Newton.In France leading philosophes were Catholic priests. sought religious without fanaticism and intolerance and life would substitute human reason for authority of churches. Newtonian world view=Convinced writers that nature was rational. God created nature must be rational, So religion must be rational. Newton believed that God could interfere with natural order, but deists believed that God was a divine watchmaker who had created mechanism of nature, and then departed.Christianity to Mysterious by John Toland indicates tenor of religious outlook. Promoted religion as natural and rational, not supernatural and mystical nonsense.

Treaty of Lodi

1454-1455: Milan and Naples allied with Florence against Venice.

Second Holy League

1511=Venice, Julius, Ferdinand, the Swiss and Maximilian I joined an alliance. In a year they would scare off the French.

Margaret Cavendish

1623-1673) As a girl she was tutored and well read. Married the duke of Newcastle, who showed her a group of philosophers. understood new science, and argued with ideas of Hobbes and Decartes. Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy=1666 by Margaret Cavendish. Grounds of Natural Philosophy=1668 by Margaret Cavendish. Description of a New World, Called the Blazing World= 1666 by Margaret Cavendish. This book introduced women to science: "I had rather die in the adventure of noble achievements than live in sluggish security".

Tsar Peter III

1762=Empress Elizabeth of Russia died, Tsar Peter III (murdered the same year) admired Fred II, Made peace with Prussia. had a trial for a rat that bit the head off of his toy soldier in his 20s. Hung the rat in mini gallows. Angered Russian population, wife Catherine the Great kicks him out of palace.

Citizen Capet

1792, December=Louis XVI was "Citizen Capet" the medieval name for royal family. Girondists wanted to save his life. But mountains and sans-culottes dominate Convention and revolution. Convicted for conspiring against liberty of peeps and security of state. 1793, January 21 Louis is beheaded.

French Nobility

40,000 nobles were divided into nobles "of the sword", nobles from military service, nobles "of the robe", acquired titles by being or buying roles in bureaucracy divided between those who held office or favor with royalty at Versaille and those who didn't. hereditary privileges set French aristocracy apart.

Levée en Masse

A military requisition on the pop conscripting males into the army and directing economic production to military purposes. enemy should be driven from earth. Frenchmen are in permanent requisition for the service of the armies. Young men can be enlisted. married men forge arms. women make tents/ clothing and be nurses, children make linen to lint. March in columns: Red rover, red rover send ___ over. Unique France, nationalism. 1793, June 22=sans-culottes invaded Convention and expelled Girondists. Mountain complete control. A military requisition on the pop enlist males into the army and directing economic production to military purposes. Convention wanted democratic constitution. Frenchmen want armies. Young men can be enlisted. March in columns: Unique France, nationalism. 1793, September 29=Convention that established a ceiling on prices in accord with the sans-culottes demands. Armies crushed counterrevolutionaries in provinces. In 1794 army had over a million men. Largest organized army in Europe EVER.

Common Sense

A pamphlet by Thomas Paine, galvanized public opinion to separate from not-so-Gr8 Britain. Organized da troops. Traditional monarchy is corrupt, because the Americans are not being treated as British citizens. Could not participate in the military. Not All men have the right of life, liberty and property. Property is being taken away by taxation.

Peace of Nijmegen

A treaty signed by different parties in different years (1678-1679). Ended Franco-Dutch War formally.

1536

Anne of Boleyn executed for alleged treason + adultery, daughter Elizabeth, like Mary, is declared illegitimate.

1780s

Appointments to the church, the army and the bureaucracy tended to go to the nobles in court circles.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Best minister of Louis, economic policies of his allowed Louis to supply an army, made France sell luxury items.

Catherine the Great of Russia

Born a German princess, understood fragility of Romanov dynasty's base of power. 1725 Death of husband Peter da Great, After which court nobles and army determined Russian succession. Succeeded to people with no aptitude (Catherine I, his wife, and Peter II his grandson).. This lass understood Polish state would destroy Russian influence in Poland and eastern Europe. 1730 Crown devolved on Anna, niece of Peter da Gr8.1740-1741=Ivan VI, less than a year old was nominal ruler. 1741-1762=Peter the Great's granddaughter, Elizabeth, came to throne. Office ended when court was a shambles of political and romantic intrigue. Power of tsar possessed at the beginning was gone. Marriage to German princess born in Anhalt Zerbst. Catherine lived in misery and danger for 20 years. Befriended nobles of import, read philosophes' books. Shrewd. Experience in court was surrounded rumors, intrigue, and conspiracy: but that's how she survived. Peter was deposed and murdered. Catherine became empress. 1767=Catherine summoned legislative commission to advise her on revising law + gov't of Russia. Catherine issued instructions beforehand, contained ideas from political writings of philosophes. Commission considered instructions well, but complaints were raised. 1768=Catherine dismissed commission before key committees had reported. meeting was not for nothing, gathered info about local admin. conditions and economic life in Russia. Russians saw no alternative to autocratic monarchy. 1775=Cathy reorganized local gov't to solve problems the legislative commission brought up. Local offices in nobles' hands. Economic Growth of Catherine=Catherine suppressed internal barriers to trade. Exported flax, furs, and naval stores. Liked expansion of small Russian urban middle class that was vital to trade. Maintained ties of friendship to philosophes. They would be flattered and put in a good word for her in Europe. Warm Water Ports=Goal required warfare with Turks, in 1769, there was a revolt of a minor Russian incursion. Ottoman Empire went to war. Russia had strategic military moves up its sleeves.1769-1770=Russian fleet sailed from Baltic Sea to East Med. Army won several maj wins that by 1771, gave Russia control of Ottoman provinces on Danube River and Crimean coast. 1774=Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardj, guaranteed Russia direct outlet on Black Sea, free navigation rights, free access, through Bosporus. Crimea is independent state. Catherine annexed it in 1783. Catherine is now protector of Orthodox Christians living in Ottoman Empire.

Johann Gottfried Herder

Critic of European colonialism. Resented French Cultural dominance in Germany, Napoleon and impact of FR, because he thought it was tyranny over individuals. "On knowing and feelings of the human soul". rejects mechanical explanation of nature. Saw humans as developing organically. Elan vital, almost. Grimm bros, Jakob and Wilhelm were followers. German who used Romantic and Gothic interchangeably. Arab culture was communities that composed human race and manifested human spirit. Muhammad drawn them from a polytheistic faith to a great monotheistic vision

1521

Diet of Worms, German nobility presented 102 wrong things about the Roman Catholic church.

1781

End of War when George Washington defeated Lord Cornwallis of Yorktown. By aid to Amrita, Frances debt was huge budget was in surplus if America wasn't there. Neckers report also said that money went to pensions for aristocrats and other favs. 1778 france joins, 1779 Spain joined war vs. Britain.

1800

England brought Ireland under direct rule :'( Abolishing separate Irish parliament and allowing Irish to elect members to the British Parliament in Westminster.

1526

German Diet of Speyer: each German territory was free to enforce Edict of Worms final settlement of religious conflict in the empire.

Junkers

German noble landlords received right to demand obedience from serfs. Increasingly dominated army officer corps. local admin=tax structure men.

Girondist

Group of Jacobins, named after Gironde, France. Took leadership of assembly. Opposed Counterrevolution, not just aristocratic peeps. Émigrés must return. Clergy must support Civil Constitution or lose state pension. King vetoed. Believed war would keep revolution from foes and revolutions to power. 1792, April 20=Girondists led Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria, by Francis II and allied Prussia. Started a long period of conflict until defeat of France at Waterloo.

Spiritualists

Group of Protestant dissenters believed in religious authority was Spirit of God.

Putting Out System

Hiring men, paying him for doing the job of "putting out" (getting the best deal for negociating) and going around to many artisans. Worked with many people to do this, and many people wanted to participate.

Giovanni Boccaccio

His "Decameron" explored sexual and economical situations with sympathy. Also wrote encyclopedia of Greek and Roman mythology.

Hands of Jesus

In Lyons, Toulon, and Marseilles these youth groups dragged terrorists from prisons and murdered them much as alleged royalists had been murdered during Sept. Massacre.

Storming of Bastille

July 14, 1789: Parisians Shop-keepers, artisans and wage -earners. Not the poorest peeps. Acted because they wanted weapons for militia: wanted protection from Poor people rising up and doing something stupid, if king army wasn't going to do it, they would have to protect their property. Inside Bastille is tax money. Prison guards are the last people to be payed by king. Family, friends and acquaintances were kept in the Bastille: sign of power that wasn't used to protect them. King Louis XVI was unaware, because he was hunting: symbolically changed everything. New government (national assembly). Then the militia was called National Guard offered command to Marquis de Lafayette (cockade)

Organized Confederation of Rhine

July 1806=This organization included most of the western German Princes. Withdrawal from Holy Roman Empire led Francis II to dissolve that ancient political body and call himself emperor Francis I of Austria.

July Revolution

King decied to attempt a royalist seizure of power, instead of accepting Chamber of Deputies. In july 1830, Polignac sent naval expedition against algiers (AKA ottoman rule but was a pirate state and stole from merchants).Founded french colony in North Africa, called Algeria. Euphoria this victory created was used by Chuck to issue the four ordinances

1515

Lord Chancellor and papal legate since 1518, Henry hates Wolsey.

Ultimatum

Made out of fear, but Napoleon ignored it. So Will Pitt the Younger returned to office as prime minister in 1804 and made third coalition. Persuaded Russia and Austria to move against France.

French Nationalism

Militia of Paris, now known as The National Guard, offered command to the liberal Marquis de Lafayette. He gave guard new insignia with red and blue stripes that were the color of the Paris Arms and white stripe of the royal flag. These three colors became France Flag

Raphael

Most famous for painting "School of Athens" (1510-11) in the Vatican Palace in Rome. Depicted Greek philosophers like Plato whose works were recovered by Humanists.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Most important German historian of the time. Believed that ideas develop in an evolutionary fashion that involves conflict. Belief that all periods of history have been of equal value because each was necessary to the achievements of those that came later. Islam was stage of development of world spirit. Believed that ISlam had fulfilled role in history and no longer was important.

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu

Most positive commentator on Islamic Faith. Lived in Istanbul, Turkey as British Ambassador with Hubby. Wrote Turkey Embassy Letters, which was praise for Ottoman society and wanted English to use vaccination against smallpox, like the Muslims did. Montagu thought that Noble Muslim women were relatively free and well treated, despite the clothing. Though anonymity of clothing allowed Turkish women to move freely around Istanbul.

Polish Rebellion of 1863

Nationalists attempted to overthrown Russian dominance in Poland.

1532

Parliament publishes grievances against church same year is "Submission of the Clergy"=canon law under royal control and clergy under royal jurisdiction.

1695

Peter the Great began war with Ottomans

William Pitt the Younger

Prime minister who had unsuccessfully supported moderate reform of Parliament, turned against both reform and movements. Gov't suppressed London Corresponding Society as a working class reform group. Pitt secured parliamentary approval for acts suspending habeas corpus and making the writing treasonable. Pitt also curbed freedom of the press. Any media opposed would face sedition. 1780, April= Commons passed resolution that < power of crown. 1782=Parliament adopted economical measure for reform: abolished prtronage at disposal of monarch. Did not hold back george III from picking fav. ministers. 1783=Shifts in Parliament obliged Lord North to form a ministry w/ Charles James Fox (critic of George). George is upset. George wants lil' Bill to manage House of Commons. 1784=During this election, Pitt got patronage support from crown. House of Commons is controlled indirectly by Monarch. Pitt wanted to formulate popular trade policies. 1785=Pitt tried a modest measure of parliament reform, but failed:(

ANTI CATHOLIC

Protestants hated papists, people who followed pope. Pope needs a ton of bodyguards in London. Ulster Plantation=Elizabeth sends English peeps to Northern Ireland, to christianize Catholic Ireland.

1713-1740

Prussian army grows from 39,000 to 80,000. Prussian army is fourth/ third best, population is 13th. officer corps=highest social class of state. built best army in Europe, averted calamities.

Popular Sovereignty

Quality of the people not the rulers determine a national character. Confusion and Conflict because of minorities. In a territory with one national group predominate, there will always be minority ethnic enclaves that the majority has had every intention of governing.

Joseph Mallord William Turner

Rain, Steam and Speed=The Great Western Railway of 1844. Recently invented railway engine through storm.

1375-1527

Renaissance in Italy, a century of creativity.

Cosimo de 'Medici

Wealthiest florentine. banker and statesman. Manipulated the constitution and influenced "Signoria" elections. brought stability to Florence, ending Ciompi Revolt

1539

William Tyndale's English New Testament grew into Coverdale Bible. Great Bible, mandated for each parish, waited 4 Henry's death

Abbé Siéyés

a director that proposed new constitution. Wrote What is the Third Estate?, and now wanted an exec. body independent from politics. Gov't based on principle of confidence from below, power from above. Change needed another coup d'etat with military support. Thought that Napoleon could be used and dismissed. Misjudged him. Constitution divided the exec. authority among 3 consuls. Bonaparte quickly pushed sieyes back and issued the Constitution of the year VIII.

European aristocracies

believed that no form of genuinely representative govts would protect property and influence. Conservatives spurned idea of written constitution unless they were permitted to write the document themselves.

"Capital" (Vol. 1,1867)

by Marx, ideas derived from German Hegelianism, French utopian socialism and Britain classical economics

Elizabetha and Johannes Hevelius

hubbie-wife astronomy team

Émile

in 1762, Rousseau wanted women to be educated for lowly positions. About a girl named Emily who had an education. Separate spheres. Only needed for domestic affairs. Please the men. Weaker in his eyes, except for showing love and sex. Only men could populate the world with citizenship, political action, civic virtue. Roots in ROman Law. Influenced FR leaders. Achieved following among women, persuaded thousands of upper class ladies to breastfeed, not to get wet nurses. Emotions: role of wife and mother is a fulfilling vocation, gave them a purpose. Previous education was over religious. reject ascetic views of sexual relations. Philosophes had traditional views towards women. Montesquieu maintained that the status of women in a society was the result of climate, the political regime, culture, women's physiology. Believed women weren't inferior, wider part in society. Rousseau's view on how the individual could develop to lead a good and happy life uncorrupted by society. Rousseau stressed difference between children and adults: stages of human maturation and urged kids be raised with max individual freedom (if only). Allowed to grow like a plant, learn by trial and error what reality is and how to deal with it. Teacher helps by providing needs of life and warding off bad things. Adult should stay out of the way.

Combination Acts

in 1799 outlawed worker's organizations or unions. During war, wage protection had been removed. Taxpaying classes wanted to abolish Poor Law that provided public relief for destitute and unemployed.

taille

land tax that French nobility did not have to pay

Polish Diet

on December 18, declared that revolution and nationalist movement. Diet deposed Nicholas as king of Poland. Tsar sent troops and suppressed the revolt.

Berlin Decrees

on November 21, NB issued these forbidding his allies from importing Brit goods. On jUne 13, Napoleon defeated the Russians at Friedland and occupied East Prussia. Master of all Germany

Jacques Danton

provided heroic leadership and served on Committee of Public Safety. Was accused of not being militant during war. He profited from war. Executed.

Industrialization

that achievement of sustained economic growth made possible the prodcution of more goods ans services. Raised standard of living."humble goods"=furniture, rugs, kitchen utensils, clothing, buttons, toys, china, candlesticks, brassware, silverware, pewterware, glassware, watches, jewelry, soap, beer, wine and food.Fashion publications made all levels of society aware of new styles. Servants dressed well or luxuriously. New foods meant new food vessels. Tea and coffee were staples, new kinds of cups and mugs

French Government Wane

unable to direct resources against English in America. Admin. was corrupt, divided in Canada, couldn't supply NA forces. 1755-1760 Value of French colonial trade fell more than 80%. 1759, September, On Plains of Abraham, Brit Army under James Wolfe defeated French under Joseph de Montclan. French=waning. 1757 Brit forces under Robert Clive defeat France Indian allies. Battle of Plassey in India. Domestic Crises= Defeat convinced French of need for political and admin. reform. Debts of wars surprised contemporaries. Power had to increase revenues to pay off debts and finance new wars.

Latin american merchants

wanted trade more freely within region and with NA and European markets. Commercial regulations what would benefit them no Spain. Hated tax levying by Spain crown.

1762

"Peter III" exempted the greatest nobles from compulsory state service. Claimed he was Peter III. Catherine the Great of Russia excluded Jews from manifesto that welcomed foreigners to Russia. Peter III succeeded Elizabeth. Weak ruler, reportedly mad. Exempted nobles from military service and made peace with Frederick the Great of Prussia.

Niccoló Machiavelli

(1469-1527), this man held ancient Roman ideals and was a republican. Wrote "The Prince", a satire on how rulers should behave, was dedicated to Ludovico il Moro, the grandson of Lorenzo the Great.

Queen Isabella of Castile

(1474-1504) commissioned Columbus, legal link to New World and Spain, was crown of Castile. Castilian monarch assigned government of Spain (Mexico) and Peru. Viceroys were chief execs. in Americas and executed laws of the Council of the Indies. Viceroyalties were divided into several judicial councils known as audiencias.

William Pitt the Elder

(1708-1778), egotistical and genius. Pumped sums into confers of Fred II. German conflict=diversion for French Resources and attention from colonial struggle. Won america on plains of Germany. 1757, William Pitt became secretary of state in charge of war. North America was Center of Pitt's concern. East of Mississippi land he wanted for Brits. sent 40,000 troops against French Canadians. Defeat of French. Pitt's Colonial Vision=Extended beyond St. Lawrence valley and Great Lakes Basin. French West Indies => Brits, Income of capture sugar financed Brit war effort. Brits take French slave trade

Symbiotic Relationship

(1st estate) clergy responsible for pestilences, diseases, too much bad weather the clergy was blamed because they were supposed to keep them close to God, (2nd estate) nobles duties were peace, security, order, protection, supplied food in famines. If simony is gone, a wealthy family could buy Church Office; one brother is a noble another is priest. Neither estate wanted to be taxes. (3rd estate) everyone else had to provide food, clothing for everybody. Peasants never became nobles, unless they obtained wealth

Maria Winkelmann and Gottfried Kirch

(official astronomer of the Berlin Academy of Sciences) = hubbie-wife astronomy team. 1702=Maria Winkelmann discovered a comet. 1710=Winkelmann's husband died, so she asked for permission to continue the work, so that they could complete observations needed for an accurate calendar. She was rejected, because she was a girl, even if they knew what she had accomplished. She returned to Berlin Academy as assistant.

1700

1/2 of arable land in England was farmed by open field method. Rising price of wheat encouraged landlords to consolidate or enclose land to increase production. Europe's population (including Ottoman Empire) was betwixt 100 million to 120 million. 100% growth rate. London grew from about 700,000 people to almost 1 million in 1800. French Revolution=Paris had more than 500,000 inhabitants.

Abolition of Serfdom

1/6 of dirt above water is in Russian Empire It was abolished because Russia was the only region in the country that still practiced serfdom. Serfdom was economically inefficient. Serfs gained the right to marry without their lord's approval, to buy and sell property, to sue in court, and to pursue trades. Serfs, however, were not granted free title to their land but had to make payments to the landlord over a period of 49 years After suffering another defeat in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905

Pope Sixtus IV

1476=extended indulgences to all the unrepented Christians. Indulgences given to Crusaders, who could not receive penance after death.

League of Venice

1495: Venice, Papal States, and the Emperor Maximilian I against the French. Ludovico il Moro joined as well, realizing he had started the problem.

Pope Leo X

1517=revived a Plenary Jubilee Indulgence initially by Pope Julius II, proceeds went to rebuild of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome promised forgiveness of all unrepented sin after completing tasks preached on borders of Saxony in the territories of Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz.

Popish Plot

1648 Titus Oates vowed that Charles's II Catholic wife was plotting with Jesuits and Irishmen to kill the king, then James would be on the throne. Several people were tried and executed. Anti Catholicism rose. Led by earl of Shaftesburg, Whigs (opposition of Parliament) tried to get James out of the picture for heirdom.

Cardinal Fleury

1653-1743, First minister of Louis XV. Convinced by court aristocrats to abandon naval attack on British trade and support Prussia against Austria (enemy of France). 1726= maintains power of the monarchy with repression of Jansenists, saves nobles' interests. Fleury can't prevent France from World wide colonial conflict

Treaty of Dover

1670=a secret, England and France are allies against the Dutch.

Louis XV

1770 appointed René Maupeou as chancellor. Determined to break parlements and increase taxes on the nobility. Minister was determined to break parlements and increase taxes on nobility. Abolished parlements. Despotic Monarchy=Acting arbitrarily in defiance of the law. Drew arguments of philosophes. Parlements though completely aristocratic used language of liberty and reform. 1781=By aid to Amrita, Frances debt was huge budget was in surplus if America wasn't there. Neckers report also said that money went to pensions for aristocrats and other favs.

Bernardo O'higgins

1778-1842) was a Chilean independence leader who, together with José de San Martín, freed Chile from Spanish rule in the Chilean War of Independence. Although he was the second Supreme Director of Chile (1817-1823), he is considered one of Chile's founding fathers, as he was the first holder of this title to head a fully independent Chilean state. O'Higgins was of Spanish and Irish[1] ancestry.

Laws of Poaching

1790s Penalties against poaching after French Revolution. Poaching in bad econ. increase. Britain;s wars put great burden on poor peeps for food in increasing population. In 1820s Landowners and reformers called for law change. 1831 Parliament rewrote game laws, retaining landowner's game, permits them to allow other peeps to hunt too. Poaching continues, but exclusive rights are gone.

Flight to Varennes

1791, June 20=Escaped house arrest, incompetent moderates. They were miles away from Paris, when they were stopped at a tavern.People had seen his face on a coin, so he was busted. This meant that the rulers had abdicated and worked for the other side. Lost the trust of the people. 1791, June 24=Soldiers led royals to Paris. NCA said that king had abducted the capital. Public fiction (expedient) did not hide the fact that king is head of counter-revolutionary force. Constitutional Monarchy can't last long now, suckers!

Battle of Trafalgar

1805, October 21, British admiral Lord Nelson destroyed the combo of French and Spanish fleets. Ended hope of invading Britain and guaranteed Brits sea control. Lord Nelson Died.

French Sympathies

1855: Cavour helped the French and British in the Crimean War by sending 10,000 troops to help them capture Sebastopol and subsequently earned a spot at the peace conference where his artful diplomacy impressed Napoleon III of France. By opposing Mazzini and his nationalist uprisings, Cavour preached a moderate liberal, monarchist alternative to both republicanism and reactionary absolutism in Italy. Cavour and Napoleon III met in 1858 and worked out a plan to bait Austria into a war in Italy. July 1858=Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III. Piedmont was potential ally against Austria.

FOUR OFFICES

5 pastors teachers or doctors elders, 12 laypeople deacons to dispense church goods to poor/ sick

Napoleon Bonaparte

5-c's Coup Consulate Concordat of 1801 Code Napoleonic=opportunities toward merit. Continental System The general in charge of the French Invasion of Italy, sent subordinate to Paris to guarantee the success of the coup. Born in 1769 to family of lesser nobles at Ajaccio. France annexed Corsica, so he went to French Schools. French artillery officer. Jacobin. recover port of Toulon from British. Brigadier. 1797=Bonaparte saved day for gov't installed in Thermidorian Reaction

October 5, 1789

7,000 Parisian women armed with pikes, guns, swords and knives marched to Versailles wanting more bread. Next day Louis XVI and family appeared before crowd on balcony. Wanted more bread. Paris demanded Louis to return to Paris.

Juntas

=political committees that claimed the right to govern regions of Latin Latin America. Said that they were ruling in name of Spanish Bourbon, Ferdinand VI> Spain never effectively reestablished authority in SA. Ended privileges of the peninsulares whose welfare depended on throne. 1808, local governing junta, that had undertaken measures. Miguel Hidalgo y Costila in 1810, issued a call for rebellion to the Indians in his parish. Black and mestizo urban and rural workers responded. He set program of social reform and hinted changing in landholdings. Leader of 80k followers. Captured cities and marched to Mexico City. In 1811, the priest died and leadership goes to José maría Morelos y Pavón. 1810, Junta in Buenos Aires not only thrust off Spanish Authority, but sent forces into Paraguay and Uruguay to free from Spain. Defeated. Spain lost control of areas and Brazil took over Uruguay. Río de la plata, modern day Argentina, center of revolt was Buenos Aires, whose citizens fought brit off and learned they could protect themselves.

James Edward Oglethorpe

A British general, Member of Parliament, philanthropist, and founder of the colony of Georgia. As a social reformer, he hoped to resettle Britain's poor, especially those in debtors' prisons, in the New World. got them bad ladies out in Georgia. Sent out Quakers (to Pennsylvania), Pilgrims, misfits.

Girolamo Savonarola

A Dominican preacher who exiled de 'Medici. He wanted the french king to rule Florence, claiming he was a godsend. After french were kicked out of Italy, he was executed in 1498.

Indulgence

A remission of the temporal penalty on penitents by priests as a work of satisfaction for their confessed mortal sins. Included prayers, fasting, almsgiving, retreat, pilgrimages. They were an aid to lay people for not fretting about future suffering in purgatory by way of almsgiving, small cash payments.

1820

A troublesome revolt. Louis died in 1820 and replaced by Charles X of France, the last Bourbon Ruler. He wanted to turn the clock back, dressed up like a super king.

Sejm

AKA "Diet" was a Central legislative body made of nobles and representatives from corporate bodies (towns). "Liberum Veto"=staunch opposition of any single member could require body to disband. "Exploding the Diet"

Brothers of the common life

AKA Modern Devotion, a boarding school for Reform minded peeps. Began in Zwolle and Deventer in the Netherlands. The brothers were educators, copyists, sponsors of religious/ classical publications, ran hospices for poor students, conducted schools for the young.

Four-stage Theory

According to this theory, human society was hunter-gatherers, pastoral or herding, agricultural or commercial. H and G were nomadic. Pastoral groups were nomads that tended herds and had property. Agriculture societies had settled had property arrangements. Commercial state includes advanced cities and manufacture numerous items for wide selling, trade, forms of property and financial agreements. Human society was a passage through these stages from barbarism. Evaluated later stages of economic development and peeps dwelling in them as higher more progressive and more civilized than earlier ones. Commercial Stage was there in northwestern Europe. Justified European domination around the world. Portrayed themselves as bringing higher level of civilization to people elsewhere who according to four-staged theory lived in lower stages of human social and economic development.

"Euro-African phenomenon"

African slaves' numbers were equal to or more than the white American numbers in multiracial societies. Native American labor was still exploited on South American continent. During late 17th century # of slaves decreased in Spanish South America. Caribbean Islands is world center of sugar production and chief supplier for growing demand for it. Opening of new areas of cultivation and other economic enterprises required additional slaves during the 18th century. The prosperity of sugar islands. Exploited in late 17th century, as well as sugar, coffee, tobacco regions of Brazil=>gold mining needed more slaves. Higher prices for slaves. Big increase of slaves occurred in 18th century. 20,000 slaves a year in the West Indies were imported.

Mercantilism Decay

American Revolution, how they handled their victory, British could no longer depend on America resources. Lost monopoly in 1776. They made a boo boo. Gained "something better": controlled the rest of the world and Mississippi territories. Bigger broader and longer lasting. Competition.

1613

Assembly of nobles elected a tsar, 17 year-old Michael Romanov. Michael Romanov, Alesei and Theodore II brought stability and centralization to Russia.

Declaration of the Rights of Men

August 27=Assembly issued Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The declaration drew on the political linguo of Enlightenment and DoRoM that Virgina had adopted in June, 1776 natural rights="born and remain free and equal in rights""liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression" Gov't had duty to execute those rights. Political sovereignty lived in nation and representatives. "Equally admissible to all public dignities, offices, and employments, according to their capacity, and with no other distinction than that of their virtues and talents," Taxation should be proportionate. Freedom of Religion. Directed in large measure against abuses of old French monarchical and aristocratic regime, but to universal language. Ideas set forth in declaration could go across borders. CIVIC EQUALITY AND POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY. Established set of values against which it could itself be measured. Liberty, and those whom it didn't cover could complain until they were. Males everywhere:, Revolution went everywhere exclude women because they were scum bags. Every man is supposed to be free, but there are chains. August 4, 1789=French subjected to the same and equal laws. Sales of gov't offices was also abolished, events of that night opened political and military positions, careers and advancement to talent rather than birth/wealth. National Constituent Assembly decided that b4 writing constitution, it should publish statement of broad political principles.

Jansenists

Augustinian tradition, source of alternate Catholic doctrines

1792, April

Austrian War. Monarchies realize ideas and aggression of FR. Turned to repressive policies. The same year Conservative Polish nobles opposed reforms invited Russia to restore old order.

Marie Louise

Austrian duchess Marie Louise, Josephine de Beauharnais' daughter and Napoleon's wife. Jo was 46 and had no children, so he married Marie Louise who was 18 years old. Napoleon also considered marrying Tsar Alexander's daughter but was rejected.

Prince Klemens von Metternich

Austrian foreign minister. Would've been happy to make peace that would leave NB on a throne of a shrunken and chastened France, than see Russia dominate Europe.

Metternich

Austrian prince who epitomized conservatism. A devoted servant of Habsburg emperor had been, along with brit's viscount Castlereagh. Who was chief architect of Vienna settlement. Seemed to exercise chief control over the forces of European reaction. Austria also dominated those parts of the Italian peninsula that it didn't rule.

Ferdinand of Aragon

Based in Sicily, this man created counter-alliance, after discovering that he was endangered by Chuck the eighth's march through Italy.

Charles Maurice Talleyrand-Périgord

Bonaparte's foreign minister termed the German invasion as "worse than a crime-a blunder, b/c it provoked outside opposition. Legitimacy. Louis XVIII is the legitimate heir, a bourbon. representing France at Vienna, suggested weight of France added to that of Brit and Austria could bring Alex to senses. So he agreed to be leader of Poland and Prussia got a part of Saxony. France is now a 5 power in deliberations.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

Came from the Junker nobility. Attended a university and displayed an interest in German unification. In the 1840's he was elected to the provincial diet and earned a reputation for being reactionary but later mellowed into a conservative. He became Prussian ambassador to Russia and France. Bismarck was appointed prime minister in 1862. He immediately moved against the liberal Parliament. Bismarck claimed that the Prussian constitution permitted the government to carry out its functions on the basis of previously granted taxes; therefore, taxes could be collected and spent despite parliamentary refusal to vote them.The army and bureaucracy supported this interpretation of the constitution. Bismarck sought ways to use German nationalism as a strategy to enable Prussian conservatives to outflank Prussian liberals.

Garibaldi's Campaign

Cavour decided to pursue complete unification of northern and southern Italy. Cavour sent Garibaldi with 1,000 troops to capture Palermo and went on to capture the kingdom of Naples and most of the territory in the Papal States, except Rome itself which was reserved for the papacy. In 1860 Naples and Sicily voted to join a united Italy.

Law of the Maximum

Ceiling Price on something. Only can come up to this price, cannot be sold above this price. Bread, if bread is too cheap there is not enough bread. This creates a black market. Tighten your belt, wear clothes over again, SACRIFICE!

Coffeehouses

Centers of discussion of writing and reading, served coffee, and philosophes had to drink it slowly and had time to be rational, communicate and think. Lodges of Freemasons are also meeting places for members of a movement that began in Britain, for secular ideas and books

15th century

Century that brought scholar rebirth, classic knowledge and ancient languages back to Europe

Count Montesquieu

Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu=A lawyer, noble of the robe, and member of provincial parlement. Belonged to Bordeaux Academy of Science, before which he presented papers on scientific topics. The Persian Letters= 1721 written by 2 Muslim Persians visiting Europe, Charles de Montesquieu (A philosophe) used Islam as a foil to criticize European Society.Montesquieu published Persian Letters, to make a joke out of institutes. Cutting edge criticism and exposition of the cruelty and irrationality of European life. Spirit of the Laws=1748 by Montesquieu, associated Islamic society with passivity that the ascribed to people subject to political despotism. Montesquieu believed that excessive influence of Islam leaders prevent Ottoman Emp. from adapting itself to new advances in technology. most influential book in the century. Shows internal tensions of the Enlightenment. Empirical Method uses historical evidence of modern and ancient governments. No single set of political laws could apply to all peoples at all times and in all places. Political life depends on relationship among political variables. Philosophical Thought in France=Montesquieu favored monarchical government balanced and checked by intermediaries including aristocracy, towns, and other corporations. Might be said to represent segments of general pop. Parlements (aristocratic forts) 's role was to limit the monarchy and preserve liberty. Was a conservative, (c'est moi) and hoped to achieve reform, cause the chief reason for degraded France was oppressive monarchy. Wrote "The Critique of Pure Reason" and "The Critique of Practical Reason". Sought to be rational like enlightenment philosophes and to preserve human freedom, immortality and God. Argued for subjective character of human knowledge. Human mind doesn't reflect the world like a mirror. It imposes on world of sensory experience. "Forms of sensibility"and "categories of understanding". Internal mental categories. Perceptions are product of mind activity as senses. "When America, the Negro Communities, the spice islands, the Cape, and so forth were discovered, they were to them, countries belonging to no one since they counted the inhabitant as nothing."

The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Conflict between Austrian and Prussian troops erupted over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein. One June 1, 1866, Austria appealed to the German Confederation to intervene in the dispute. Bismarck claimed that this request violated the provisions of the Convention of Gastein and declared war on Prussia. Seven Weeks' War Prussia defeated Austria at Koniggratz in Bohemia.. Treaty of Prague Austria only lost Venetia Permanently excluded the Austrian Habsburgs from German affairs and established Prussia as the only major power in Germany,

Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) and the expansion of suffrage

Conservative leader in the House of Commons who proposed a reform bill in 1867 that was amended by Liberals so much that increased the number of voters from approximately 1,430,000 to 2,470,00 Thus, large numbers of working class males joined the ranks of the electorate. Disraeli, knowing reform was inevitable, decided that the Conservatives should take credit for it and believed it would help solidify Conservative control in British government.

Treaties of Basel

Convention ended peace with Prussia and Spain. Legislators feared a resurgence of radical democrats and royalists in the election of Council of 500. Atleast 2/3 of legislator served in Convention.

1792, September

Convention met to write democratic constitution. Day before, French army halted Prussian advance @ Battle of Valmy. Victory confirmed win of democratic forces. France is a republic.

1792, November

Convention said it would help peeps who didn't like monarchical or aristocratic oppression. Convention issued declaration of hostilities in Feb. 1793

1780-1800

Cotton output increases 800% composed of 40% of value of British domestic exports 1830=over 50% of British domestic exports are cotton 1780's =End of Industrial Revolution. Cotton Gin and Standardization of Parts= Eli Whitney created this for guns and the guns work, they did not half-cock or blow up in your face.

Atheism

David Hume=a scottish philosopher who wrote "Of Miracles" a chapter in Inquiry into Human Nature".no empirical evidence supported divine miracles Greatest miracle=that people believed in miracles. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire=Edward Gibbon an English historian.this book explains rise of Christianity in terms of natural causes, not influences of miracles. Christianity made them weak and mild, from turning the other cheek. Roman Empire fell from blood thirsty polytheistic. Julien Offray de la Mettrie=embraced positions closed to atheism and materialism.

1661

Death of Cardinal Mazarin, Louis XIV assumed personal control over gov't, no chief ministers. Ruled thru councils, army, domestic administration, economic regulations. Crown conferred with with religious judicial bodies, called parlements.

1685

Death of Charles II, Catholic deathbed conversion. Succeeded by brother James II.

1537

Death of Jane Seymour, after birth of Edward VI.

John Locke

Defender of Moderate Liberty and Toleration (1632-1704)=John Locke is the most influential philosophical and political thinker Criticized absolutism, provides foundation for liberal policies in Europe and America. Screw him, Puritan sentiment family. English Civil War=Locke's father fought for Parliament. Deeply entrenched in English Restoration Period. Natural human state according to Locke= Perfect freedom and equality, natural rights of life for all! Creatures of reason and goodwill. Able to do things about peace w/o gov't. Locke's government has limited authority.When rulers lose subject's trust, he can be appealed.

Convention of Westminster

Defensive alliance aimed at preventing entry of foreign troops into the German States. George II feared attack on Hanover, Fred II feared Russia and Austria alliance. Met in Great Brit. Austria's ally made alliance with worst enemy. Factors that saved Prussia=Frederick II's stubbornness: after war he was gr8, Britain Furnished financial aid,

Admiral Horatio Nelson

Destroyed French fleet at Abukir on August 1, 1798. French army cut off from France. Invasion of Egypt alarmed Russia, who wanted to conquer east. Russians, Austrians, and Ottomans made the second coalition. Defeated French in Italy and Switzerland.

Conditions of Slaves

Division in slave population= New Africans, old Africans and the creoles. Plantation owners like the latter two groups more, more accustomed to slavery.More African men than women, so traditional extended African family structure was ruined. Separated families, so that they could not communicate. Seasoning=A process for a new African slave in which they were prepared for the laborious discipline of slavery. Sold at higher prices. Involved new names, work skills, learning local European language. "Prodding a horse", naked in front of everyone. No connections, separate different so that they could not communicate.

Pragmatic Sanction

Document which provided legal basis for single line of inheritance through Charles's VI's daughter Maria Theresa.

Royal Academy

Dominated by Church. Voltaire wanted reason and logic, not something that was dogmatic from the church. Philosophes argue that predestination denied that virtuous behavior in this life could affect the fate of a person's soul after death. Intolerance, bigotry, torture, war and other suffering. Church Enmeshed in power structure of Old Regime, large amounts of land and got tithes from peasants before secular authority got taxes. Clergy were exempt from taxes and made voluntary grants to government. Political High Clerics bishops were in Brit house of lords, and cardinals and bishops advised rulers or sovereign princes on the Continent. Protestant countries, landowners appointed parish clergyman. Britain and Continent=state church conferred political and social advantages. Clergy gave smart justifications for social and political status quo.

The Second Reform Act (1867)

Due to the rise in social respectability of the working classes in England, many in England agitated for the expansion of the franchise. Reform League Organization led by John Bright (1811-1889) brought this issue to Parliament and in 1866, Lord Russell's Liberal ministry introduced a reform bill that a coalition of traditional conservatives and antidemocratic liberals defeated

1731

During a board operation, there was a fight and Spaniards cut off the ear of an English captain named Robert Jenkins. Carried ear in a jar of brandy. 1738=Jenkins appeared before Brit. Parliament, brandished his ear as an example of Spanish atrocities in West Indies. British Merchant and West Indian planters were lobbyists to relieve Spanish intervention of trade.

1602

Dutch East India Company, the dutch vehicle for penetration of East Asia, prevented English from dominating.

Frederick William I

Eccentric monarch to rule Hohenzollern domains organized bureaucracy along military lines.

1736

Empress Anna reduced such service to twenty five years

French Farming

Enclosures are restricted French wanted improvement benefited wealthy because better agriculture=big income and mo FOOD!

Childbirth

Fear and vulnerability. Contagious diseases could harm mom and baby. Not all midwives were practitioners. Immense penury and bad housing environments. Child sent to a wet nurse for convenience. Structure did not encourage moms to care fully for children because of economic necessity. Children=represent economic burden, illegitimate bastards. Infanticide=parents might smother infant or expose it. Results of ignorance and prejudice around contraception. seventeenth century=interest in pro-life. illegitimate kids parents couldn't support them. Sometimes would leave saints's medals on baby in vain hope that they would reclaim baby. That was rare when they were reclaimed. 10% of abandoned kids lived until 10.Paris Foundling Hospital 1670: Cared for 1,700 kids per year and in 1772 (peak year), number was at 7,676 children. Not all were from Paris. London Foundling Hospital=1739: lacked income to deal with all children. hospital compelled to choose children from lottery system.

The Estates General Becomes the National Assembly

First estate=clergy Second Estate=nobility Third Estate=Theoretically everyone else in the kingdom, representatives were drawn from wealthy members.

1757

France and Austria made alliance to destroy Prussia. Sweden, Russia and Germany joined.

1791, August 27

France waged war with Austria and Prussia, There was a declaration of Pillnitz which declared the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and of Prussia for King Louis XVI of France against the French Revolution.Calling on European powers to intervene if Louis was threatened, this declaration was intended to serve as a warning to the French revolutionaries not to infringe further on the king's prerogatives and to permit his resumption of power. Leopold II of Austria (bro of Marie and King Fred II of Prussia) issued Declaration of Pillnitz. Monarchs agreed to intervene in France for protection + preserve monarchy. Great Britain couldn't agree, so it was all for nought.

1740

Fred William I dies and legacy is passed on to Frederick the Great (II), a military machine. Fred II invaded Silesia and crystallized Austrian-Prussian rivalry for control of Germany. In Prussia, after accession of Frederick the Great, Junker noble's position is stronger. Wars needed full support. Officers are junkers.

Mannerism

Freedom to perceptions and feelings of artist. Example of artist that used this technique are Michelangelo, Tintoretti, and el Greco.

1791-1804

French Haiti gets revolution sparked by policies in French Revolution, African slaves could demonstrate a revolt against white masters. and mulatto freemen. relationship=violent. masters were racist (mulattos and blacks are separated). French National Assembly in 1791 gave mulattos freedom had same rights as white plantation owners. Colonial assembly resisted. 1791-slave rebellion

1649-1652

Fronde=widespread rebellions among french nobles (after slingshots of boys).

San Martin

General from Argentina, Fought against Napoleon. Fought in Europe and South America for freedom. Involved in the organization of a liberating junta in Caracas, Venezuela as royalists, slaves and llaneros challenged republican government, went into exile. Captured Bogotá, (capital of new granada: Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador), to secure base for attack on Venezuela. In 1821, Bolívar forces captured Caracas and was prez.

1761-1770

George tried each ministry: failed to be popular. Attempting to impose tyranny.George III believed that ministries bullied his predecessors. Believed that he should have ministries of choice and Parliament should be under Royal management. Sought aid of politicians whom Whigs hated.

Frederick the Great

Great Elector's son, Least Prussian of them all. Founded Halle University in 1694, and patronized arts.

1521-1559

Habsburg Dynasty and Valoi Dynasty fought 4 maj wars over Italy and along borders

Anti-Corn Law League

In 1846, Goal of abolishing tariffs protecting domestic price of grain. Lead to lower food prices, 1846= Repeal of Corn Law b/c of Irish Famine. Brits opened ports to foreign grain to feed the starving Irish

The North German Confederation

In 1867, Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse Kassel, Nassau, and the city of Frankfurt, all of which supported Austria during the war. All states north of the Main River were referred to as the North German Confederation Militarily it was united with Prussia President of the Confederation was the King of Prussia and Bismarck was named chancellor Two house legislature Bundesrat (federal council) composed of members appointed by the governments of the states Reichstag (lower house) Chosen by universal male suffrage. Chancellor had to propose all laws which limited the power of the Reichstag Bismarck crushed the Prussian liberals by making the monarchy and the army the most popular institutions in the country.

Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on working women

In pre industrial Europe, women were important work force. They worked/ gleaned grain left over from harvest, milk and cheese production as well. Machinery replaced women in the fields. Non mechanized labor favored men. Heavy scythes wielded by men replaces lighter sickles that were for women who harvest grain. Drive to max. profits led to enclosures and they lost right to glean in textile industry women were displaced. Women turned to knitting, buttons, sew plaiting, bonnet making, glove stitching, earned them less than former occupations. Spinners or farm workers moved to cottage industries. But now the profit of the jobs were inferior. Women engaged in criminal activity and prostitution.

The Civil Constitution of Clergy

July 1790=National Constituent Assembly issued Civil Constitute of Clergy. Transformed Roman Catholic Church into branch of secular state. Civil Constitute of Clergy=major blunder Laws reduced bishoprics from 135->83. One diocese for each department. Everyone was married to Jesus, but not they had to take the oath of the Civil Constitute of Clergy. Refractory Clergy=Not a bureaucrat, did not want to be told how to live. The pope did not support the gov't, supported the rebelling clergy. Prepared to defend and be offended. Counter Revolution=Huguenots could worship in public. Assembly dissolved churches, except those that cared for the sick or ran schools, Didn't consult with Pope Pius VI nor French Clergy King approved.

1683

King John III Sobieski led the Polish Army who had rescued Vienna from Turks. The Turks unsuccessfully tried to besiege Vienna.

Bishop Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet

King Louis XIV's tutor, believed in "divine right of kings". Old testament had examples of rulers appointed and answerable only by God. Only God could judge king. "King by Divine Right": "L'état, c'est moi" (I am the state). Louis XIV's job was absolutism, war and peace making, religion, & economic action

Moses Mendelssohn

Leading Jewish Philosopher, made outlines for an assimilationist position, advocated for entry of Jews into European life went against Spinoza by saying that Jews could combine loyalty to Judaism and to Enlightenment values. Jerusalem (On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism)= Most influential work. argued for toleration and religious distinction for Jewish communities. Unlike S- M wanted religious toleration and wanted to sustain traditional religious practices of Judaism believed Jewish communities should not excommunicate ppl

political system of National Assembly

Legislature Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage Senate chosen indirectly President Elected by members of the two legislative houses By 1879, Mac Mahon resigned and republicans held firm control over the national government.

1699

Leopold got Ottoman attention 4 sovereignty of Hungary extended territories of Balkan Pen. and west Romania Mediterranean trade through the port of Trieste. Treaty of Carlowitz, document required Ottoman empire to leave locations in central area of empire.

Spiritual Exercises

Lessons on self discipline. mastery of you. Any person could shape behavior through study and practice. when Bible+Church Dads were read, they be read under the theologians: Peter of Lombard, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas

Louis was good for France but bad for the French

Louis XIV made France a world power, but also took away religious freedoms and levied taxes on peasants. In the 1660s France is highest nation in population, has administrative bureaucracy, army, national unity.

October 6, 1789

Louis XVI's carriage followed the crowd to the city, where the family stayed in old palace of Tuileries in the heart of Paris. There before Louis XIV built Versaille. There in house arrest. Marie Antoinette was very aware of her situation, she was not stupid. National Constituent Assembly moved there too. There was peace, until summer of 1792.

1672

Louis invades Netherlands. William III of England forged alliance with the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and Brandenburg against Louis XIV. Louis XIV's armies invade Netherlands Prince William III (Grandson of Bill Orange) stadtholder of Holland rallied the Dutch and led European coalition against France.

1522

Lutheran translations of New Testament found in homes. Clergy married and paid taxes and punished for crimes in court.

coup d'etat

Made to preserve republic and prevent a peaceful restoration of the Bourbons, the anti monarchist Directory staged this on 18 Fructidor (September 4, 1797). Put supporters into legislative seats that opponents won. Imposed censorship and exiled some of their enemies.

NB returns from Elba

March 1, 1815. Coalition dissolved in Vienna. Napoleon escaped to France and regained power. Promised liberal constitution and peaceful foreign policy. Allies didn't fall for it. NB, ur an outlaw, let's send troops to crush u.

Karl Sand

March 1819 member & student of Burshenshaften assassinated August von Kotzebue who ridiculed Burshenshaften movement. He was publicly executed became nationalist martyr.

Women in the Thought And Practice of The Enlightenment

Marie-Thŕesése Geoffrin Julie de Lespinasse Claudine de Tencin=Salon hostess who promoted Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws Philosophes access to useful social and political contacts and a receptive environment. Opportunity to be be the center of attention that a salon provided and and their presence at them could boost the sales of their works.

1770s

Marquis De Lafayette. He helped George Washington with discipling and preparing the troops. After that he went to France and organized citizen's national guard, not rioters. In 1830's he says "Citizens of France, here is your new ruler". Basically elected Louis Philippe, who was extremely conservative.

Eastern European Household

Marriage before 20s. Children were with younger parents. Wives were older than their husbands-espec. in Russia. households had 9-20 members. 3-4 generations under one roof.

Trade and Bullion Fleets

Measure of a country's wealth. gold or silver in bulk before coining, or valued by weight. Nation was rich only if amassed more bullion than rivals. Administered from Seville. Maintained Spain Trade monopoly. Fleet of commercial vessels (Flotas) controlled by Sevilled merchants and escorted by warships carried merchandise from Spain to ports in America (Portabello, Veracruz, Cartagena on Atlantic coast).

1815-16

Milos Obrenovic negotiated gr8r admin. authonomy for some Serbian turf. but serbs lived outside borders of entity. in 1830 ottoman sultan granted independence to Serbia. powers granted it diplomatic recognition. milos the prince pressured OE to extend borders of Serbia.

Enlightenment

Newton's formulation of law of universal gravitation=the newly perceived power of the human mind. Physics showed the pattern of math and mechanical rationality. Encouraged to study nature directly, avoiding metaphysics and supernaturalism. empirical evidence to check speculation. Understanding, by John Locke: argument that all humans are born tabula rasa. Personality = sensations that impinge on individual from outside through his life. Nurture not nature. Things can change. Behaviorist theory=A theory of John Locke: humans are changeable and molded by social, physical surroundings. Charge of own destiny, sacrilegious liberal.

Napoleon's Impact on France

Organized Paris into a grid added bureaucrats to the departments Concordat of 1801 Created a sense of nationalism. Reorganized government open to merit

The September Massacres

Paris Commune, the Committee of Representatives from sections of city. Independent political force, role of protector of the gains of Rev. vs. internal and external enemies, killed 1,200 peeps in city jails. Peeps were priests and nobles. Thought prisoners were counterrevolutionaries. Compelled Legislative Assembly universal male suffrage of new assembly to write constitution.

European Political Development

Parliamentary monarchy (England) and political absolution (France) are two models of response to military challenges of international conflict.

Russian Noble Rights

Peter the Great's linking of the state service and noble social status through the TABLE OF RIGHTS in 1722 established among nobles a self conscious class. right of transmitting noble status to a nobleman's wife and kids judicial protection of noble rights and property power over serfs exemption from personal taxes

1739

Problem with connection=England has the best naval forces. Problem with connection between America and England. There is a zero-sum situation, but colonists are being squeezed for British prices, because they could get a better bargain with the French. Can't get reasonable prices for it. Too many resources for England to deal with. Economic problem. Incident with policy led to war w/ England, the same year when Phil established viceroyalty of New Granada (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador). Goal=strengthen royal government there. Britain went to war with Spain. Minor event, but opening encounter of European wars until 1815.

Magyar problem

Prussian defeat of Austria in 1866 and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs meant that Francis Joseph had to come to terms with the Magyars.

Tsar Alexander I

Ready to make peace after he wasn't able to fight or retreat into Russia. He and Napoleon met on a raft in Niemen River. While king of Prussia and two armies watched from the bank. 1801 came to throne after a palace coup against his father Tsar Paul ; no longer looked for reforms, suppress liberalism and nationalism , no one challenged him ; Nov 1825 died unexpectedly with no heir to throne, left Constantine and Nicholas. Made Quadruple Alliance agree to uphold borders and governments. Castlereagh refused alex's proposal. said 4 alliance was intended only to prevent French aggression.

1530

Reformation was in Europe to stay. Charles V returned to empire in Spain and Italy to direct Diet of Augsburg, which was called to address growing religious division within empire unrealistic order for all Lutherans to revert to Catholicism.

Edward I

Rejected efforts by Pope Boniface VIII to prevent taxes.

1523, October

Religious disputation, Zwingli supported city government plea for removal from resented traditional religious practices.

Battle of Borodino

Singlest bloodiest battle in History. Ever. Russians reenact it. Napoleon came and 2x the amount of Russians died as the French. Went to Moscow because it was winter, and there was shelter, also that was where they had driven the Russians in their game of tag. Moscow burned down. 3,500,000 were there. Ballpark of 2,000,000 people died casualty of the war. Scorched Earth policy: any place where the French army could have shelter was burnt. 600,000 in the army, but only 100,000 returned, most died because of the "General Winter".

1721-1742

Sir Robert Walpole's ascension is due to royal support and House of Commons dealings, controlled gov't patronage, peace and status quo at home. Britain's foreign trade reaches New England and India. British Monarchs and ministers had limits: Parliament had different views and Free Speech and Freedom of Association.

Lord Palmerston

The British foreign minister persuaded representatives of the powers in London to recognize Belgium as an independent and neutral state. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg had connections with Brits and french became king of Belgium.Convention of 1839, Belgians are guaranteed neutrality which remained an article of faith

1545-1563

The Council of Trent=Council of church met in Trent in northern Italy (span of 18 years) interruptions due to plague, wars, imperial and papal politics. final council meeting, 3/4 of fathers were Italians reaffirmed traditional Scholastic education of clergy, good works in salvation, tradition, sacraments, transubstantiation, eucharistic cup from laity, celibacy, purgatory, saints, relics, images, indulgences

1756-1763

The Seven Years' War or French-Indian War: Louisbourg=Succeeded in having a stalemate. Frederick the Great Opens Hostilities. Treaty of Hubertusburg ended conflict in 1763 with no changes in prewar borders. Silesia was Prussia's and Prussia is gr8 power. Treaty of Paris=1763 reflects less of a victory than Brits won on battlefield. Pitt not in office. George III and Pitt quarreled over policy and minister departed.Spanish take the land West of Mississippi and Philippines, France keeps Louisiana Territory, Britain keeps Florida. Proclamation Line=French are out, Indians defeated. Why can't they go to West, over Appalachians. British draw a line, and limit the territory of French. Instead of getting what they want, British increases taxation for colonists to pay off debts. Lowest taxes in America the Empire.

Napoleon Bonaparte

The general in charge of the French Invasion of Italy, sent subordinate to Paris to guarantee the success of the coup. He was born in 1769 to family of lesser nobles at Ajaccio. France annexed Corsica, so he went to French Schools and obtained commission as a French artillery officer. Fiery Jacobin. Played role in recovering port of Toulon from British. He was appointed Brigadier. A general who with a whiff of grapeshot from a cannon dispersed the crowd. 1797=Army and Bonaparte saved day for gov't installed in the wake of the Thermidorian Reaction.

Consulate

This ended the Revolution in France. Officials, landlord, drs., lawyers and financiers achieved goals by 1799.n Abolished hereditary privilege and careers open to talent and let them be rich, and have security for property

Cultivation of the potato

Tuber was a product of America to 18th century circulation in Europe. On 1 acre, peasant families could grow enough potatoes for a year. Agricultural Revolution=food, goods, jobs and service improvements. Pool of labor. Revised traditional methods. Migration increased.

1515

Under Francis I, the french invaded Italy for a third time and defeated the Swiss. The french had a victory in the battle of Concordat of Bologna in 1516. Battle of Marignano in Italy

Urban Class

Urban rich are separate from urban poor. Aristocrats and upper middle class live in town houses poor town dwellers congregated along river Single room family houses Merchants and artisan live above shops Cattle, pigs, goats and other animals roam street poverty was worse in countryside City poverty: crime, prostitution, vagrancy, begging, alcoholism young villains migrate to cities for a better life, but they have bad shelter, lil' food, disease, degradation and death. GIN AGE=The full darkness of London during these times were when alcohol binging blinded and killed many poor people. seen in engravings by William Hogarth Instruments of torture in Paris, Public flogging in Russia

hobereaux

Well-connected, rich, provincial nobility, better off than wealthy peasants.

creole leaders

Well-read in Enlightenment writers and thought that their reforms were beneficial to their region. Aware of America's political policy también. Needed more than reform government programs and revolutionary examples.

1529

Wolsey was in charge of securing the royal annulment. Wolsey does not annul marriage, dismissed in disgrace. And so, Thomas Cranmer and Cromwell=Lutheran advisers to king Cardinal. Parliament convened for seven year "Reformation Parliament" legislation harassed + placed royal reins on clergy.

1520

Women gained a right to divorce and remarry. Girls were encouraged an education of literacy in the vernacular (to be pious housewives).

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra

Worked for Roman Cardinal in Catholic Spain.Was soldier in Battle of Lepanto against the Turks, experienced gallantry. Spent five years as a slave in Algiers after ship was pirated. Became a taxman, then was arrested for making people pay too much. While in prison he wrote Don Quixote. First part of DQ shown. Gustave Doré, illustrator of Don Quixote. The book satirizes the idealic chivalric romances in Spain. Don Quixote is middle aged and unstable. He aspired to be a knight, worthiness through bravery. Dulcinea=peasant girl was a noble lady to him. Sancho Panza was his foil watched DQ battle windmill (dragon). Sancho represents realism.

Dante Alighieri

Writer of "Vita Nuova" and "Divine Comedy" A work by Dante, included theories of position heavens and planets.

August Wilhelm von Schlegel

Wrote "Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature" he praised romantic literature of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Shakespeare, the Arthurian Legends, Cervantes, and Calderón. Romantic Lit.: classical as organic and living: merely mechanical.

Quarters

allowed local officials to search homes in disturbed counties. attempted to prevent radical leaders for driving and give authoritating new powers.

Anabaptists

ancestors of Mennonites and Amish, rejected infant baptism, means rebaptize. Think about Pilgrim Puritans, Calvinists from England. Blue Laws: everything was closed on Sunday. Third Baptism=Lutherans and Catholics tied a rock to an Anabaptist martyr and if she sinks, she is innocent. If she floats, she is burned at stake. 1525, January=first adult rebaptism in Zurich. Rebaptism became an offense 1,000 or 5,000 were executed for rebaptizing themselves between 1525-1618. Schleitheim Confession, distinguished Anabaptists by their pacifism, refusal to swear oaths, and non participation in government.

Voix des femmes

cooperated with male political groups, that urges integrity of the family and fidelity in marriage ; argued women's must receive better education, economic security, equal civil rights, property rights and right to vote; 1began to end women forbade to work in political clubs ; 1852- ended

Urban artisans

father was chief artisan. One or more servants=employed, but children are expected to work in enterprise. Trained eldest in the trade. Wife sold his wares, opened shop of her own, often they ran the business.

april 1823

french cross pyrenees and suppressed spanish revolution. propped up king Ferdinand. France didn't use intervention to aggrandize power or increase its territory.

Realpolitik

is politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and on practical and material factors and considerations, rather than explicit ideological notions or moral or ethical premises. In this respect, it shares aspects of its philosophical approach with those of realism andpragmatism. The term Realpolitik is sometimes used pejoratively to imply politics that are coercive, amoral, or Machiavellian.

Concert of Europe

new arrangement for resolving mutual foreign policy issues. Prevented one nation from taking major action international affairs. W/o working in concert with and obtain assent of others. Goal was to keep balance of power. cs. new French aggression and against army of Russia. Functioned on large and small issues. keep the peace. Russia, France, Britain, Austria, Prussia agreed to consult with one another in a "concert" to resolve international disputes ; Prevent one nation from taking a major action in international affairs without working in concert. Goals : to maintain the balance of power against new French aggression and Russia military and to maintain peace. 1818=first congress at Aix-la-Chapelle, near Belgium. 4 maj powers removed troops from France. paid war reparations and readmitted France to standing among Europe.

Steam Engine

perfected by James Watt (1736-1819) in (1769) to run textile machinery in factories in urban centers. Popping piston. Driven by burning coal, portable source of power that did not stop. Depended on mineral energy, applied to ind. and transportation uses. James Watt, a Scottish engineer and machinery maker, experimented with Newcomen machine at University of Glasgow. He knew that separating condenser from the piston and cylinder would achieve greater efficiency. Design required precise metalwork. Double cylinder. tinkers, organizes. Dr. John Roebuck saw idea and financed the steam engine. Worked along with Sears. Had capital investments. In 1776, Watt steam engine first commercial application in pumping water from mines in Cornwall ships, wagons and iron rails oh my

Jewish Thinkers in the Age of Enlightenment

philosophes aimed satirical barbs at jews. Thought it was a primitive culture. Allowed Jewish intellectuals to rethink the relation of communities to Europe. Baruch Spinoza=lived in Netherlands France=Absolutism: absolutists not making good decisions, Louis XV. Parliament was not like Parlement: Parlement was worse for the people

British Nobility

smallest, wealthiest, defined and socially responsible aristocracy in Great Britain. Four HUNDRED families, eldest males took seats in the House of Lords. Controlled seats of the House of Commons (Corruption). 1,000-50,000 acres of land per aristocrat received rents 1/4 land is owned by nobles. invested in mines, commerce, canals, urban real estate, industrial ventures

1500-1800

women married in their early to mid 20's. The limit age was 12 for women and 14 for men to marry. In the sixteenth century 1 in 5 women did not marry.

Nicholas I

younger brother of Tsar Alexander I named new tsar after he found out that Junior officers plotted to rally the troops under their command to cause of reform ; no reform, censorship, serfdom remained Dec. 26, 1825 army was to take an oath of allegiance to Nicholas I but Moscow regiment refuse, wanted constution and Constantine (moderate) [Decembrist Revolt] - Nicholas ordered ordered the calavary and the artillery to attack the insurgents, 60 killed (1826) Nicholas persided over commission that investigated the Decembrist Revolt secret army societies 5 executed, 100 sent to Serbia *Decembrist became martys for liberty Official Nationality - Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationalism

Herder

"European culture' is a mere abstraction, an empty concept. Where does or did it actually exist in its entirety? In which nation? In which period?..Only a misanthrope could regard European Culture of the European..."Human beings living in different societies possessed the capacity as human beings to develop in culturally different fashion.

Petrarch

"Father of Humanism". Wrote "Letters to the Ancient Dead", "Africa"(an epic on Scipio Africanus) and love sonnets about a married lady named Laura. Wrote famous quote, "It is better to will the good than to know the truth".

Maleficium

"Harmful Magic": (1400-1700) courts executed sentences for death of 70,000 to 100,000 acclaimed witches. Sabbats are "Mass meetings": Witches attended, and they were believed to fly. Had intimacy with the devil in orgies. Charged for cannibalism (ie Christian children), and charged for practices that were unorthodox and perverted or denied Christianity. Cunning Folk=People in villages that claimed to have magical capabilities. The demographic was usually old poor widowed women, who were in need of security. God and devil had magic. Only Church magic was the true magic. From reasoning grew allegations between secular magicians and Satan. Hegemony was gained by killing off witches. Widows are one group of women accused as witches. They lived by their lonesome in the world after husband's death. They were sad and vicious. Social position, vocation, influence were what targeted a single lass. Midwives=A second group of accused witches. Work rendered them unpopular when mothers and newborns died during childbirth. Herbalists=A third group of accused witches. Accused because they had spiritual authority over people.

American Revolution

"WE alone through our colonies have the right to tax ourselves and there ain't NO TAXATION W/O REPRESENTATION! REvenue of Parliament levied. Fear that if colonial gov't was financed outside=lost control 1774, September=Committees organized in First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Hoped to persuade Parliament to restore self-gov't in colonies and abandon direct supervision of affairs 1775, April=Battles of Lexington and Concord 1775, June=Colonists suffered defeat in Battle of Bunker Hill. Colonial Assemblies meet under own authority, not the king's. 1775, May =Second Continental Congress. Sought conciliation with Britain, but pressure of events led to gov't of colonies. 1775, August=George III had declared colonies in rebellion. 1776, April=Continental Congress opened ports to trade w/everybody 1776, July 4=Declaration of Independence. War started. 1783=Treaty of Paris ends conflict. 13 established colonies.

Immanuel Kant

"Why is Enlightenment"=Nonage=inability to use one's own understanding without another's guidance. In the enlightenment, there was self-imposed nonage. Own understanding leads you. Freedom, independence=enlightenment is inevitable. Required nothing but freedom, to make public use of one's reason in all manners. Wrote "The Critique of Pure Reason" and "The Critique of Practical Reason". Sought to be rational like enlightenment philosophes and to preserve human freedom, immortality and God. Argued for subjective character of human knowledge. Human mind doesn't reflect the world like a mirror. It imposes on world of sensory experience. "Forms of sensibility"and "categories of understanding". Internal mental categories. Perceptions are product of mind activity as senses. "When America, the Negro Communities, the spice islands, the Cape, and so forth were discovered, they were to them, countries belonging to no one since they counted the inhabitant as nothing." Sphere of reality= According to Kant, beyond phenomenal world of sensory experience, where pure reason was master. There was "noumenal" world. Which is a sphere of moral and aesthetic reality known by practical reason and conscience. Kantian Philosophy=Romantics believed that human mind has the power to penetrate beyond limits of passive human understanding that was set out by Hobbes, Locke and Hume. Poets and artists possessed these powers. Categorical Imperative=Innate call of Duty. Inner command to act as one would've all other people always act in same situation. Existence of imperative of conscience as proof of human's freedom. Moral sense came from God, eternal life and future rewards and punishments. Reason couldn't prove these according to Kant.

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish priest and an astronomer. On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres was written in 1543= In the same year that Nicolaus dies, he published what is considered a revolution making, but not revolutionary text. Nicolas Copernicus challenged Ptolemaic Model in a conservative manner. This serves as an intellectual springboard for criticizing the view of Earth being the center of the universe. posthumously famous=was afraid to publish. Believes that he is right, people for centuries are wrong! Aristotle was the truth. Heliocentric= Sun-centered, Nicolaus converted the Ptolemaic Model to this type of model. epicycles (a small circle which the planet was thought to move about) in Copernicus's model are smaller. Copernicus argued that planets further from the sun took longer to revolve around the sun. Deferent a larger circle which the center of epicycle moved about

Francis Bacon

(1561-1626) An Englishman with universally known as accomplished lawyer, author of history, morals, philosophical discourses father of empiricism and of experimentation in science. empirical=appealing to the 5 senses. 1605=The Advancement of Learning. 1620=Novum Organum. 1627=The New Atlantis. Empirical Method=bacon urged contemporaries to strike out on their own in search of understanding nature. First of major writers to champion innovation and change. Knowledge should produce results, deeds not words. Enlisted to improve the human condition "men of experiment" men of "dogmas". natural philosophy towards an examination of empirical evidence Bacon wanted new info and capabilities for man. He compared himself to Columbus; rejecting the past from a firm understanding that the world was much more complicated. Best era of humanity is in antiquity, Bacon disagrees.Empirical exam of nature looked for future of mechanical improvement. Theory of induction from empirical evidence=unsystematic, appealed to experience influenced more productive others, goal is human treatment

Johannes Kepler

(1571-1630), A German Astronomer, the assistant of Tycho Brahe. Accepted the Copernican Model, influenced by Renaissance Neoplatonism (sun in special honor). Discovered that to keep sun in the center, he had to leave the circle components, like epicycles. Laws of planetary motion and elliptical motion first astronomical model that portrayed motion, path of planets, none of planetary orbits are elliptical, why it was orbital no simply moving on tangent. The New Astronomy, 1609= used heliocentric universe and Brahe's empirical data to solve problem of planetary motion.

Blaise Pascal

(1623-1662) French Math. and physical scientist.Gave up wealth in pursuit of self-disciplined life. A Jansenist. Reconcile faith and science effort. Jesuit's casuistry=arguments designed to minimize and excuse sins. Rejected atheists and deists. Pensées (thoughts)=Pascal is posthumously on collections of human life reflections. Jansenist, hated Jesuits. Misanthropic, predestination,dependence on faith alone. "leap of faith"=religious matters could prevail. physico-theology=Religious thought associated with such deducing of religious conclusions from nature

Queen Christina of Sweden

(1632-1654) Brought René Decartes to Stockholm to be a patron for a science academy. She was an exception to the social strata.

Baruch Spinoza

(1632-1677) in Netherlands + Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) Jewish writers debated over relgion and place of Jews in European life. set example for secularized version of Judaism. influenced by new science and mid-seventeenth century. son of Jewish merchant in Amsterdam. used human reason to rethink traditional thought reflected scientific revolution and later Enlightenment. Ethics=Spinoza's most famous work, identifies God and Nature and material and spiritual world. He was condemned for it. Thought God was not one personality. ppl thought it meant he didnt beleive in after death immoratality. critized as an atheist. He was excomunicated from his synagogue at 24. Theologico-Political Treatise=(1670)-by Spinoza. He anticipated attacks on religion in the Enlightenment. called on people to use there own reason in religious matters. disturbed people. was considered a martyr by the philosophes. he made it possible for people to advocate for the toleration of Jews while still holding them in contempt

Thomas Newcomen

(1663-1729) invented first engine to use steam power. When steam was induced into the cylinder condensed, it caused the piston of device to fall. Large inefficient=condenser and cylinder were heated and not movable. 3/4 of century, Newcomen machines operated in mining districts of England.

War of the Devolution

(1667-1668) Louis supported alleged rights of wife Marie Therese to inherit Spanish Netherlands. Louis armies invade Flanders and Franche-Comté. Repulsed by Triple Alliance of England, Sweden and United Provinces.

Charles "Turnip"Townsend

(1674-1738) encouraged innovation. Learned from Dutch to cultivate sandy soil. with fertilizer. Instituted crop rotation by using wheat, turnips, barley and clover. Replaced fallow field with one sown w/ a crop that restored nutrients (nitrogen) to the soil and supplied animal fodder. More fodder meant more livestock. Fodders allowed animals to be fed during winter and year round meat. Rise in grain products=>inflation=>devastation to the poor folks, but benefited the landowners and wealthy peasants who had surplus grain to sell.

Wisdom of God Manifested in His Works of Creation

(1690), John Ray, an Englishman, argues that it was relevant that God put humans in the world to understand it, and turn it into productive practical use through rationality. Human beings were meant to ameliorate the world.

Philip V

(1700-1746) tried to use French administrative skills to reassert imperial trade monopoly to improve domestic economy and revive Spanish power in Europe. Under rule, Spanish coastal patrol vessels tried to suppress smuggling in American H20s.

jean-jacques Rousseau

(1712-1778) strange genius of sorts that did not like other philosophes. Sired many children and left in hospitals, but had little friends. Transcended political thought and values. Impossible for mankind to achieve moral, virtuous sincere lives in commercialism. Beliefs: Society mo' important than individuals Teamwork, individuals can't do anything alone Aggregate of competing individuals whose goal was to preserve freedom social bonds and obligations.Though ideal society in which person could have freedom while being a loyal member of society, Plato and Calvin were his heroes, General will = always right and to obey it is to be free, Democrat who was radical, Odds with commercial spirit, Wanted peoples to be good, even if that meant poor. 1750=Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences. 1755= Discourse on the Origin of Inequality by Rousseau. Evil in the world to uneven property. Challenges social fabric of the day. Concepts of material and intellectual progress and morality of an industrial and commercial society are questioned. What constitutes good life? 1762=The Social Contract. An abstract book by Rousseau. Outlines political structure. Humans were individuals in societies driven by selfish motives and goals. Writers wished to liberty figures from government bonds. Job of government is supposed to obey people as long as all is well. If act outside of social contract, you are wrong. People have a right to life, liberty, pursuit of property, AND you have the right, NO, the duty to alter or abolish the government. RADICAL change. Noble Savage=Men from Europe were shorter, smelled terrible, greedy, nasty people. The natives had community, were taller. Begin as noble savage but society takes all of the dignity away. While the native peoples were human their way of life was too degraded to treat them as the human =s of Europeans.

Earl of Bute

(1713-1792) George III's favorite. Replacement of Pitt. Responsible for peace settlement. Brits have Canada, Ohio River valley, East half of Mississippi River valley. Brits give back Pondicherry, Chandernagore to India and West Indies Sugar Isles (Guadeloupe et Martinique) to French. French should be happy, but Britain controls India.

Charles Townshend

(1725-1767) Chancellor of the Exchequer, the British finance minister. 1767, Chuck Townshend led Parliament to pass a series of revenue acts to colonial imports. Colonial resistance ensued. Ministry sends customs agents to administer law.

Arthur Young

(1741-1820) Innovations received discussion in Arthur Young's books. He edited Annals of Agriculture. 1793=Arthur Young is secretary of BRitish Board of Agriculture. Travelled across Europe and books are the most important documents of life during late 18th century.

Charles III

(1759-1788) el más importante del reformers imperiales. attempted to reassert Spain control of empire. Emphasized royal ministers rather than councils. Role of Council of Indies and Casa de Contratación diminished. 1765=Charles abolished monopolies of Seville and Cádiz and permitted other Spain ciudades to trade w/ America. Opened SA and Caribbean ports to trade and allowed commerce betwixt Spanish ports in America. 1776, Charles organized 4th viceroyalty in Río de la Plata (Argentina, Uruguay Paraguay and Bolivia).

Pugachev's Rebellion

(1773-1775), Emelyan Pugachev promised the serfs land and freedom. South Russia is left in turmoil. Largest riot in eighteenth century. 1775=Bohemia, small peasant revolt 1784=Transylvania 1786=Moravia 1789=Austria

Count Camillo Cavour

(1810-1861)—the Prime Minister of Piedmont—made unification possible through secret diplomacy and military force. Congress of Vienna established Piedmont as a buffer between French and Austrian ambition. King Victor Emmanuel I (1849-1878) hired Cavour to be his Prime Minister. Cavour was a proven successful politician and was deeply imbued with Enlightenment ideas. Cavour was a strong monarchist and rejected republicanism. Promoted free trade, railway construction, etc, in order to prove to the rest of Europe that Italy was capable of governing itself. Established National Societies throughout Italy in order to proclaim the benefits that unification would bring the Italian peninsula.King Victor Emmanuel I and Cavour sought help from France to defeat Austria

Frederick William III of Prussia

(1815) promised form of constitution government (1817) but didn't keep that promised ; created Council of the State, ran by him ; (1819) replace reform-minded minister with hard conservatives ; (1823) created 8 provincial diets that were dominated by Junkers [ old bonds linking monarchy, army, and land holders reestablished - threat to nationalist ] Junkers are the nobility in Prussia that dominated the 8 provincial diets created by Frederick William III of Prussia

Maria Theresa

(r. 1740-1780) 23 year old who won loyalty and support from her subjects through her heroism, new privileges to nobilty. Her greatest achievement was the preservation of Habsburg Empire as a power. Hungary is Country recognized by Maria Theresa to be the most important of her crowns: gave word to Magyar nobility local autonomy. Considerable cost to central monarchy. Trouble area for Habsburg Empire. Ignored guarantees by monarchy when all was well. When monarchy was unstable or Magyars stirred opposition, it promised concessions.

The Growth of Cities within Europe

1500= (save Hungary and Russia)- 156 cities had a population greater than 10,000. 4 cities Paris, Milan, Venice, and Naples had populations larger than 100,000. 1800=363 cities had 10,000 or more inhabitants. 17 of them had populations larger than 100,000. Population of Europe grew from 5% to 9%. Berlin's population tripled during century, reaching 170,000 less than 20% of people lived in cities. 1600-1750=cities that grew most were capitals and ports. This situation reflects success of monarchical state building during those years. Except for Manchester in England and Lyons in France: the new urban conglomerates were nonindustrial cities between these same years, cities with fewer than 40,000 people declined. Older landlocked trading centers, medical industrial cities and ecclesiastical regimes and the expansion not the putting out system transferred production. Rate of growth of large cities declined, new cities emerged: general population increase, not enough jobs, poverty. Early stages of Industrial Revolution occurred in countryside and fostered growth of smaller towns and cities located near factories. GREW because of prosperity. Improved agriculture, promotes growth of markets and urban centers.

1533

1533, January=Henry marries the pregnant Anne of Boleyn 1533, February=Parliament allows king 2 be highest court of appeal for English subjects. 1533, March=Cranmer becomes archbishop of Canterbury, led convocation to invalidate marriage to Catherine.

William Shakespeare

1590-1610=Shakespeare focused on commercialism and pleasantry of Elizabethan Ages. His plays were performed at court, royal patronages during these years. 1593=Richard III, historic play unprincipled villain was Tudor propaganda. 1603=Hamlet. 1604=Othello. 1605=King Lear. 1606=Macbeth. 1597= Romeo and Juliet.

René Descartes

1596-1650=mathematician, invented analytic geometry. thanks bastard. developed the scientific method that relied more on deduction. Discourse on Method=he rejects scholasticism, advocated math model. Work is in French, not Latin. Wide circulation and application. Doubt everything except proportions about which he could think clearly, rejects intellectual authority, deduced the existence of God, God was a big deal to him (he was omniscient), human reason could fully comprehend the world things and things occupying space, mind and body thinking is defining quality of the mind. Extension is the defining quality of material bodies. Humans can understand world of extension, (AKA realm of natural philosopher). Methods=Emphasizes on deduction, rational speculation and internal reflection by mind deductive methodology lost favor for scientific induction scientists draw generalizations derived from and test hypothesis against empirical data.

Galileo Galilei

1609=Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used the first telescope to look at the skies. His rhetorical skills helped him to convince others of physical evidence. 1610=Starry Messenger by Galileo. In the same year, Galileo left University of Padua for Florence, where he became the philosopher and mathematician to the Grand Duke of Tuscany who was a Medici. He named moons of Jupiter after Medicis disagreed with others over moon, the surface is craterous. 1613=Letters on sunspots by Galileo. Problems with Roman Catholic Church=Both Galileo's ideas and his flair for self-advertisement caused this schism to occur. Two men in book. He made the foolish man the name of the pope. Embarrasses pope. Forced to recant by pope. Pope is leader of Catholic universities, all leads back to Aristotle. Threatened ruining Catholic School System. Argued more than anybody that nature displayed mathematical regularity in its tiniest details.Real=mathematical measurements: color, beauty and taste described in terms of math relationships. IN 1633, Galileo was condemned by Catholic Church. In reaction to Protestant emphasis on interpretation of Scripture, Council of Trent decided that Church alone interprets Bible. Galileo's trial: the issue was if he disobeyed the mandate of 1616. Condemned, asked to take back his thoughts, house arrest. Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina= 1615, Galileo published his views on how the Bible should be interpreted. 1616=Roman Catholic Inquisition censured Copernicus' views. Galileo agreed with Copernicus. 1623=Florentine acquaintance of Galileo, Pope Urban VIII, is elected and gives him permission to discuss on Copernicus' theory. 1632=Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems. Defend the truth of Copernicus. Pope felt humiliated and backstabbed, so he investigated Galileo's book

Royal Society of London

1660, the most famous institution members see themselves as Bacon followers. Preceded by Academy of Experiments in Florence in 1657, and next was French Academy of Science in 1666. Berlin Academy in 1700.

Anti-Catholic Legislation

1661-1665=Clarendon Code, ultra-royalists in Parliament excluded Roman Catholics, Presbyterians and Independents from official religion. 1672=Declaration of Indulgence: suspended laws against Catholic and non-Anglicans. James II suspended religious tests, free worship. Test Act=Required civil and military officials of crown to swear an oath against transubstantiation. Aimed at Charles' brother James, duke of York, a devout Catholic. 1689= Toleration Act permits Protestants to worship and outlaws Catholics.

John Locke's Writings

1690=Locke's two treatises on government written during years of association with Shaftesbury are published. First Treatise of Government=He rejects arguments for absolutism (shaped after patriarchs) cleared traditional argument that didn't work. Second Treatise of Government=Argued for government that is responsible for changing diapers of peeps, peeps needs over anything else. Letter Concerning Toleration=1689, Premises of 2nd treatise to defend religious toleration with Christians (BUT not to Roman Catholics because they were loyal to pope) (nor to non-Christians because they are non trustworthy). Each person must work out religious obligations and this could convert others. Government existed ONLY to preserve property, not to decide on religion. antidisestablishmentarianism. Groundwork for toleration, freedom, and antidisestablishmentarianism. Essay Concerning Human Understanding=1690, Major work of European psychology. Mind at birth is a blank tablet (tabula rasa ) filled by experience over time. behavioralism. Reformer's psychology: human condition is ameliorated by change of habitat.Rejected Christian original sin, psychology preserved religious knowledge if that makes any sense. Divine revelation in Scripture and human reason came from religious knowledge, which would prevent peeps from fanaticism.

Grand Alliance

1701, September England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire formed this to preserve the balance of power by Flanders as a barrier between Holland and France.

War of Spanish Succession

1701-1714= France went to war under Louis, not ready for it. English are advanced. (flintlock, paper cartridges and ring bayonets) and tactics

josiah wedgwood

1730-1795, a porcelain manufacturer in England tried find customers among the royal family and aristocracy. Produced less expensive version of chinaware for middle class. Advertised, open-show rooms, salespeople all around Britain with samples and catalogs

The War of Austrian Succession

1740-1748=1740, December, Frederick II seized Austrian Province of Silesia in east Germany. Invasion shattered provisions of Pragmatic Sanction and upset power balance. Prussia treated House of Habsburg, not the leading power. Here's what happened 1) Prussia consolidated state in Germany Power endangered France. 2) French move against Austria brought Great Britain into continental war. Britain secures Low Countries to the Austrians, not French. 1748= War ends with a stalemate with the Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle. More like a timeout Prussia retained Silesia and Spain renewed Brit priv. of Treaty of Utrecht (1713) to import slaves into Spanish Colonies. British Focus on the World, Austria and Prussia focus on Europe. Treaty of Utrecht established boundaries of empire.

1756

1756, January=Brits and Prussia signed Convention of Westminster. 1756, May= France and Austria signed defensive alliance. Kaunitz reversed direction of French foreign policy. France is ready to restore Austrian supremacy. 1756, August=Fred II opened 7 year's war by invading Saxony. Strike against Saxony conspiracy. Defensive Strategy of Convention of Westminister. destructive alliance.

The Diplomatic Revolution

1756: France and Brits struggled in Ohio River valley and upper New England. Prelude to French-Indian War in 1755. Where George Washington results as a hero. Western Border in Massachusetts was Pacific Ocean. Westwood had boarder on Pacific Ocean. Lots of people who want to go West for land. Ohio River valley was fertile, but Indian and French territory. Spain does not populate their territories A conflict with thousands of soldiers killled/ wounded. Big battles. Prussia wrested Silesia from Austria and HOR is empty shell. Habsburgs depend on Hungary. France no longer gr8 power. Spain is intact, but British wanted to end that. Fort William Henry / Fort Necessity=Promise that they wouldn't fight in North America again. Walk to Fort Edward, that's how French fight. You're supposed to be killing peeps! Then comes a massacre, and colonists are angry and want it to end, it stopped in NA, when Brits beat the French.

Calas Case

1762=The Roman Catholic political authorities ordered death of Jean Calas, a Huguenot. Calas was tortured, and strangled without a confession. 1763=Treatise on Toleration=By Voltaire over the Calas Case. Hounded authorities for new investigation of the case. 1765=Judicial decision against the unfortunate man was reversed. Case showed results from fanaticism, needed rational reform in religion

Acts leading to American Revolution

1764=Sugar Act under George Grenville. Attempted to produce more revenue from imports into colonies by rigorous collection of lower tax. Smugglers were tried to admiralty courts W/O JURIES! 1765=Stamp Act under Parliament. Put a tax on legal documents and newspapers. Taxes were legal 'cos Parliament approved decision to collect them, money was spent on colonies.Stamp Act congress met in America and protested to the Crown. Sons of Liberty who were in disorder because of the Stamp Act, refused to import British Goods 1766=Parliament Repeals Stamp Act, but thru Declaratory Act, it says it has power to make laws for colonies. 1770=Boston Massacre, Brit troops killed 5 citizens. Same year, Parliament repealed Townshend duties, save the tea one. 1773, May=Parliament passes law on tea sale by East India Co. Permits direct import of tea to America. Lowered price of tea while retaining imposed tax w/o colonists's consent. TEA PARTAY! 1744=Intolerable Acts sent by Parliament. These closed port of Boston, reorganized gov't of MA, allowed troops to be quartered (AMENDMENT IV HALLO?) and removed trials of royal customs officials to England. Same year is the Quebec Act, extended boundaries to include Ohio River Valley. Attempt to prevent self-gov't from spreading beyond Appalachian Mtns.

Water Frame

1769 invented by Richard Arkwright. Water powered and designed to permit production of pure cotton fabric, not cotton and linen fabric. Arkwright lost patent rights and others stole his idea.

Adam Smith

1776 Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations , (professor at Glasgow University in Scotland). Believed economic liberty was foundation of a natural economic system. Urged that mercantile system of England (navigation acts governing colonial trade, the bounties and the government gave to favored merchants and industries, most tariffs, trading monopolies and the domestic regulation of labor and manufacture should be abolished. Smith thought that best way to obtain economic growth was competition and every peasant out for themselves in marketplace. Consumer gets wants and manufacturers competed for their business. Mercantilist system thought that resources were scarce, so if one nation did well, it was at the cost of other nations. Smith challenges this. Minerals are boundless. Demanded exploitation for enrichment and comfort of humans. Laissez-faire=Smith is the founder of this. Economic policy that favors limited government in economic life. Free trade. Leave it alone, don't get involved in this. Would have supported drugs, gin act, and anything the government would intervene. sought to abolish economic restraints associated with mercantilism or the regulated economies of enlightened absolutists.They wanted to manufacture and sell goods freely. They favored the removal international tariffs and internal barriers to trade. Economic liberals opposed legislation that established wages and labor practices by government regulation or by guild privileges. Labor is commodity.

Committee of Public Safety

1793, April=The Convention Established a Committee of General Security and Committee of Public Safety to carry out exec. duties. Committee of Public Safety was dictatorial. Leaders of it were convinced republicans who hated Girondists. save revolution from enemies. Peeps in Committee of Public Safety didn't see actions in terms of expediency made necessary by war. 1793, April Jacobins direct french gov't: nation @ war with Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia and Holland. The Convention Established a Committee of General Security and Committee of Public Safety to carry out exec. duties. Committee of Public Safety was dictatorial. Leaders of it were convinced republicans who hated policies of Girondists. Task was to save revolution from enemies.

Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

1793, May, Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe founded the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women. Duty is to fight counterrevolutionaries. Jacobins were fine with them-at FIRST. Society was radical because members wanted stricter prices on goods. Ferreted out food hoarders, and fought with working class women. Right to wear the cochage that male citizens wore les chapeaus. Jacobins feared turmoil the society caused and disassembled it. Believed society opposed many economic policies, deputies used Rousseau to keep women out of politics. This is tomfoolery.

Thermidorian Reaction

1793, November Citizen. Surface appears equal. Establishes Directory. Convention made calendar from first day of The FR. Every 10th day was the holiday. Important events known by dates on revolutionary calendar. Decreed the Cathedral of Notre Dame to be a Temple of Reason. Mandate of Tribunals=Try the enemies of the Republic, but the definition of an enemy was those who might aid other European places, threatened Republican value, good republicans who opposed the policies of the dominant faction of the government. Deputies=Mission was to close churches, persecute clergy, forced priests to marry, Churches were desecrated, torn down, used as barns,. Popular opposition. Tempering of the revolution b/c of its association s with the events of 9 Thermidore, consisted of the destruction of machinery of terror and the establishment of a new constitutional regime. Widespread feeling that revolution was too radical. Weary from Terror and fear that Sans-Culottes were too powerful. Generally wealth middle-class and professional people replaced them. Revival of Catholicism. Repeal of laws which made divorce harder for women. Roman Catholic Revival after Thermidorian Reaction followers hated religious policy of revolution and anticlericalism. "The Genius of Christianity" by Viscount François René de Chateaubriand. AKA bible of Romanticism. Chateaubriand argue religion is passion. Foundation of faith is emotion.

Corn Laws

1815 passed by Parliament to maintain high prices for domestically produce grain by levying import duties on foreign grain ; hurt consumer ; Britain Lord Liverpool minister. Lord Liverpool not ready=replace income tax (that only the wealthy paid ) with an tax that both wealthy and poor pay

CARLSBAD DECREES

1819 July, Metternich made German states issue ____ _____ : dissolved German student groups. Provided University inspectors and press censors.

Peterloo Massacre

1819, August 16. Meeting in Manchester, at St. Peter's fields. People were angry at Parliament for the corn laws. Troops were on hand to keep order. local magistrate, duke of wellington, ordered army to move into crowd. 11 people died, scores were injured. Comparison with Waterloo, because it was connected by duke of wellington. Strategy was to sit and stay behind the hill, sitting on his butt, and prussian cavalry showed up and Napoleon lost. Beef wellington. Wellington boots. A conservative hero. August 16, 1819 , a meeting in the industrial city of Manchester at Saint Peter's Field. As speech began about seizing control of government, local magistrate ordered military to move into crowd. Caused panic 11 people died; an act of local officials that liverpool ministry must support

Final Act

1820 issued German Confederation, which limited the subjects that the constitutional chambers Bavaria, Württemburg and Baden could discuss ; asserted the right the monarch had to resist constitutionalist ; secret police of German states harassed political dissidents ; perserve conseratism. limited subjects that the constitutional chambers of Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Baden could discuss. Asserted rights of monarch to resist demands. Secret police harassed dissidents.

American Monroe Doctrine

1823, prohibiting colonisation and intervention by european powers in Americas. Spanish colonies as independent states. Commerce dominated mexico.

Treaty of London

1827, demanded Turkish recognition of Greek independence. joint fleet to support Greek revolt. Treaty of Adrianople=1829, stipulated the Turks would allow Britain, France, Russia to decide Greece future. 1830=2nd treaty of London that said greece was free. otto I was king's sons of bavaria. 1827, France ,Britain, and Russia demanding Turkish recognition of Greek independence and sent a fleet to support the greek revolt. Argeed that they would benefit from an independent Greece for self- interest

Catholic Emancipation Act

1829 Wellington and Robert Peel steered an act into Parliament. Roman Catholic could now become members of Parliament. This was liberal bill passed for conservative purpose of preserving order in Ireland. Only wealthy Irish could vote. Lost vote of Anglican Tory.

July Monarchy

1830-1848 saw that the construction of major capital-intensive projects (roads, canals, railways). Lil' was done about the poverty in cities and countryside

Louis Napoleon

1848 election of president nephew of great emperor twice he attempted to lead a coup against July Monarchy , people saw him as a source of stability, got power due to plebiscite votes and seized power Dec. 2, became Emperor Napoleon III

" The Communist Manifesto"

1848 published by Engels and Marx in German ; 1847 both asked to write a pamphlet for newly organized Communist League; included Marx equated fate for the proletariat and both contended that human history must be understood rationally and as a whole

conservatism

19th century implied support for legimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, established churches ; only favored gradual or organic change. Ancient and alliance of throne, land and altar. New feature on the political landscape as nationalism and liberalism. Edmund Burke an friedrich Hegel. conservative shared formal attitudes forged by revolutionary experience. Execution of Louis xvi at hands of democrats, made monarchs trust aristocratic govts and wealthy middle class and pros. support for the establish church and state; churches=distrusted popular movements except their revivals. Leaders were entrusted with the educational task of supporting status quo.

Malaria

=>no immunities from this, people who were agitated by slavery packed their things in a coffin, they would die at least two years later. 1794=Slave Revolt of Saint Domingue 1807=The British Outlawing 1863=Latin American wars of independence, The Emancipation Proclamation 1888=Civil War in the USA, Brazilian Emancipation

Catherine II

=good at public relations, sought to creat the image of an enlightened ruler. Read and cited works of philosophes. Subsidized Diderot, and corresponded with Voltaire.

Peter Paul Reubens

A Flemish Artiste commissioned by Charles to decorate ceiling of the Banqueting Hall at his palace in London with paintings depicting James. Lead artist of Counter Reformation.

Maria Cunitz

A German astronomer, husband had taken the credit of her literature until he assured them of her authorship.

Ludovico il Moro

A Milanese despot who moronically appealed to the French for aid against Venice. Naples and Florence along with pope Alexander threatened Milan, consequently.

Leonardo da Vinci

A Renaissance master, advised Italian princes and king Francis I. Scientific experimentation, was a self-taught botanist and dissected corpses. Credited with the idea of airplanes and submarines

1801

A general enclosure act streamlined process. Permitted extension of farming and innovation and increased food and agriculture units. Disrupted traditional communities. Forced off independent farmers, who needed pasturage and poor cottage peeps who lived on wasteland. INTRODUCTION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL OR CAPITALISTIC ATTITUDE OF URBAN MERCHANT INTO COUNTRYSIDE. strained paternal relationship betwixt government and classes. Landlords left peasants to mercy of the market place.

José maría Morelos y Pavón

A mestizo priest. More radical than HIdalgo, called for an end to forced labor and substantial land reforms. Executed in 1815, ending 5 years of pop. uprising.

Romanticism

A reaction against much of the thought of the Enlightenment. Saw imagination supplementing reason as a means to perceive and understand the world. Revival of Christianity. Liked art, literature, and architecture of medieval times...(dunno about that). Folklore, folk songs, fairy tales. Dreams, hallucinations, sleepwalking and other phenomena suggest world beyond empirical observation. Nature. "Counter Enlightenment", Emotion,

German Unification

A unified Germany, which two generations of German liberals had sought, was actually achieved for the most illiberal reasons. Although unification seemed impossible in 1850, a series of domestic political changes and problems within Prussia occurred that led to unification. In 1858, Frederick William IV was determined to be insane and his brother, William I, took over the throne and William, less idealistic than Frederick William IV, immediately enlarged the Prussian military.The Prussian Parliament, created by the constitution of 1850, refused to approve the new taxes to increase the size of the army and the monarchy and Parliament came to a deadlock.

François-Marie Arouet

AKA Voltaire, offended the French monarch and then nobles by his political and social irrevent poetry and plays. Arrested 2x and imprisoned in Bastille, Paris. Lettre de Cachet=An arrest warrant, without witness, trial straight to Bastille (fancy jail). Exiled to England, which was a mistake on Louis XV's behalf. 1733=Letters on the English, by Voltaire: praised virtues of English (religious liberty) and implicitly criticized the abuses of french society. Parlement harassed Voltaire. Moved to Cirey, so he could escape France into duchy of Lorraine. 1759=Candide=Voltaire's satirical response to war, religious persecution, unwarranted optimism about human condition. Believed that society could be improved but was not sure that it would be permanent. Crush the Infamous thing=Voltaire's words summed up 1764=Philosophical Dictionary, by Voltaire, who questioned truth and faith. Points out flaws of biblical figures as if he was perfect. Way to express anti-clerical views. attitude of philosophes vs. church complained that religion hindered pursuit of rational life and scientific study of humanity and nature. Fanaticism, or Muhammad the Prophet=1742 tragedy by Voltaire. Voltaire said, "We must suppose that Muhammad...violently impressed by his own ideas...deceived himself in deceiving others, and finally sustained with deceit a doctrine he believed to be good," 1759=History of Russian Empire under Peter the Great, by Voltaire. Peter formed Russia. Voltaire met Catherine II of Russia and physiocrats did not want to limit monarch power. Cought to use power to rationalize economy and politics and intell life. Philosophes Not opposed to power, if they could manipulate it (580).

Rococo style of art

AKA style of Louis XV: lighthearted decoration, lavish, pastel, play of light. Associated with aristocrats of the Old Regime. Artists were Francois Boucher, Gian Battista Tiepolo, Jean-Honoré Fragonard (female nudes and sexual poses)

1549

Act of Uniformity imposed on Thomas Cranmer's Book of Common Prayer on all English churches.

1763

Affair of John Wilkes: London political radical and Parliament member with newspaper, The North Briton. Issue #45, Wilkes bullied Lord Bute's peace negotiations w/ France. He was arrested under authority of general warrant issued by secretary of state. House of Commons ruled issue 45 was libel. 1768 Wilkes returns to England, and reelected to Parliament, but House of Commons did not want him. After 4th election, HoC ignored results and seated their class pet. Finally seated 1774 as lord mayor of London. No taxation w/o representation=This as well as criticism of the adequacy in England struck at core of Brit political structure.Related to John Wilkes's protests. Challenged monarch and Parliament power.Appealed over head of legally constituted authorities to popular opinion and demonstrations.

1715

After Louis XIV's death, Regent Philippe d'Orleans and French aristocracy spent less time at Versaille and went to Paris. He was regent, until 1720, for Louis XIV's five year-old successor, Philip. He undermined the monarchy. He drew french nobility into decision-making government. Decided on a council in which nobles would serve with bureaucrats. Parlemonts=courts dominated by the nobility Built hótels, that were small and had non descript exteriors. Elaborately decorated to brighten up the drab spaces. Fashionable Salon hostesses held the salons the philosophes attended. Louis XIV like the Rococo style. He was painted with mistresses in compromising poses. fêtes galantes=scenes of elegant parties in lush gardens. Pailtings showed idealism. Men and women pursuing paradise. Romance. Pilgrimage to Isle of Cythera=by Jean-Antoine Watteau, displayed lovers leaving the island of love to pay homage to goddess of love.

1648

After the Peace of Westphalia, Austrian Habsburgs see Holy Roman Empire's weakness, consolidate power outside of Germany. Habsburg family retained grip on Holy Roman Emperor title. The power of empire depended less on arm forces than cooperation political bodies in empire...BIG German Units were Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria, Brandenburg. Small German Units were small cities, bishoprics, principalities, territories of knights.

Seven Years War

After this the French monarchy emerged defeated, deeply in debt, and unable thereafter to put its finances on a sound basis. Interest and payments on the royal debt amounted to over one-half the entire budget. Debt was neither large nor unequal to the other European countries. France was rich with an impoverished government. The Debt=A result of government failure to come terms with the political power of aristocratic institutions and parlements. Death of Louis XIV= Process that Involved process of negotiation between monarchy and local aristocratic interests was more difficult when the aristocracy had sought to reclaim parts of the influence it had lost. 1770=Louis appointed René Maupeou as chancellor. Determined to break parlements and increase taxes on the nobility. Minister was determined to break parlements and increase taxes on nobility. Abolished parlements

Poland Belgium Haiti Spain

All revolts were looking for independence, because they aren't independent. This is because they are being occupied by other countries.

Isaac Newton

An Englishman who addressed and established a basis for physics that endured for more than two centuries Wrote more works on religion, even if he was the greatest most accomplished writer in Science. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy AKA Principia Mathematica. Inertia applied to bodies both at rest and in motion. All planets and objects in universe moved through mutual attraction or gravity, which affects everything.

Pope Alex VI and Borgia Family

An Italian ally to Louis VII and the French Invaders. He was corrupt and promoted the political careers of Cesare and Lucrezia Borgia (his family members). For Louis XII, he annulled the his marriage of Charles VIII's sister, so that Louis could marry Anne of Brittany (Charles VIII widow) in order to keep her French. Withdrew from League of Venice, to make it crumble when French invaded Milan. In exchange Cesare Borgia married Charlotte d'Albret which strengthened the Borgia family's military strength.

Thomas Hobbes

Apologist for Absolute Government (1588-1679)=most original political philosopher of the 17th century. In 1651=turmoil of English civil war leads to Leviathan. Aim was to give justification for central government. Human beings are portrayed as materialistic and egotistical. No pain mo' pleasure. SOVEREIGN COMMONWEALTH between ruler and subjects could achieve utopian desire, because it limits freedom of human self-interest with potential for harm."perpetual and restless desire" for power=Hobbes not only is misanthropic, but he also believes that we all want power in our natural state, because we all want. Equality breeds hatred. "A war of every man against every man" Hobbes rejects that humans are extroverted, unlike Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas. Original human state according to Hobbes=a state of natural, inevitable conflict, where safety and authority don't exist. Fear and death haunts. Only escapable by entering political contract to live in sovereign commonwealth without any free will. Agreement to abnegation so that security and peace are maintained. "Do not that to another which you would not have done to yourself" is key rule. Anarchy is more dangerous than tyranny: absolute rulers have all authority. Subjects are not allowed to recall their leaders. Hey something smells fishy!

National Constituent Assembly

Applied rational spirit of the Enlightenment. No longer were the French provinces , (Burgundy, Brittany) and established 83 departments that were congruent.This is the radical change that they wanted. Branding, torture, public flogging were removed from books. Torture only gives ya want u want to hear. Assembly placed burden of proof on peasants, so that they didn't have residual feudal dues. French Revolution, the parlements were centers for aristocrats and popular resistance to royals. July 1790, National Constituent Assembly issued Civil Constitute of Clergy. Transformed Roman Catholic Church into branch of secular state. Laws reduced bishoprics from 135->83. One diocese for each department. Everyone was married to Jesus, but not they had to take the oath of the Civil Constitute of Clergy. June 14, 1791 Assembly crushed attempts of urban workers to protect wages by enacted Chapelier Law: forbade workers' associations. Groups of workers were a threat to new values of political and social uniqueness. December 1789, Assignats or government bonds sent out. Guaranteed by revenue made from sale of church property. Limit was set on the quantity of assignats. Value fell after a month. Inflation increased. September 1791=National Constituent Assembly closed. Reconstructed government and admin. of France. No member could be in Legislative Assembly. New assembly met on October 1.

Étienne Loménie de Brienne

Archbishop of Toulouse and the chief opponent of Calonne at the Assembly of Notables. Once in office, Brienne found that financial situation was as bad as predecessor had implied. Brienne appealed to the Estates General and Assembly of Clergy Wanted to restore privileges. Parlement=Self appointed role of the voice of the people. Don Gratuit=Clergy refused to pay it. Payed government in lieu of taxes.

Decembrist Revolt of 1825

Army command told Nicholas about a conspiracy among officers. Nicholas declared himself as tsar to the delight of Constantine. ON December 26, 1825: army took oath of allegiance to Nicholas (conservative), regents took oath, but Moscow regiment marched into St. Petersburg and refused to swear allegiance. Called for constitution and Constantine. Cavalry and Artillery attacked insurgents. 60 + peeps were killed. IN 1826, Nicholas presided over commission that investigated Decembrist Revolt. 5 were rotted out and 100s exiled to Siberia. Was a fail, first case in Russian history where rebellion had a goal too. Constitutional gov't and abolition of serfdom.

Vera Zasulich

Attempted to assassinate the military governor of Saint Petersburg Jury acquitted her because the governor had a reputation for brutality Land and Freedom. Group split into two factions: One advocated educating peasants and it soon dissolved. The People's Will—the other of the two groups-- assassinated Alexander II on March 1, 1881. Four men and two women were sentenced to death for the deed.

Olympe de Gouges

Author of Declaration of the right of Women. Opposed the terror and knew of the Jacobins' corruption. Guillotined November 1793. Women were excluded from serving in army and galleries in convention.

Austria

Battle of Wagram, the ensuing Peace of Schönbrunn deprived Austria of much territory and 3.5 million subjects.

Ninth of Thermidor on the revolutionary Calendar

Before, Robespierre made an ill-tempered speech in the Convention. He said that other leaders in government were conspiring against him. No member of Convention could feel safe. On July 27,-members of the Convention shouted him (Robespierre) down when he rose to make another speech. That night he was arrested. And he along with 80 other supporters were executed. Sans-Culottes of Paris did not try to save him because he deprived them of their chief leaders. Supported a measure to cap worker's wages. So other Jacobins turned because of Danton's death.

Frederick William

Began to forge areas into modern state, known as Great Elector. Established as central power by breaking noble estates, organizing royal bureaucracy and built army

Public Health Act of 1875

Biggest legislation of Disraeli's term but it was primarily the work of his home secretary, Richard Cross (1823-1914) This act reaffirmed the duty of the state to interfere with private property to protect health and physical well-being. Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875=Government became involved in providing housing for the working class

1797, november

Bonaparte returned to Paris to confront Britain. NB chose to attack British interests through the eastern Mediterranean by getting egypt from Ottoman Empire. Wanted to drive brits off communications with India and damage their trade. Failed.

november 1797

Bonaparte returned to Paris to confront Britain. NB chose to attack British interests through the eastern Mediterranean by getting egypt from Ottoman Empire. Wanted to drive brits off communications with India and damage their trade. Failed.

1804

Bonaparte seized on a bomb attack on his life to make himself emperor. Argues that making a dynasty would make new regime secure and make further attempts on his life useless. Napoleon is now Emperor of France thanks to new constitution. Plebiscite ratified this .NB violated the sovereignty of German State of Baden to seize and execute the Bourbon duke of Enghien. Duke was accused of participating in royalist plot, though he was innocent. Flagrant violation of international law.

John Calvin

Born in French Family son of secretary to bishop of Noyon 12 years old, gets benefices 1520's, identified with french reform party. Calvinism=religious ideology that inspired political resistance in France, Netherlands and Scotland. Calvinist Beliefs=divine predestination. individual responsibility to reorder society according to God's plan.men and women lived lives externally. Institutes of the Christian Religion=John Calvin wrote 20 books, which mentions predestination theory, which is criticized for overlooking free will.

India

Both France and Britain trade through charted communities that had legal monopolies. East India Company was English institute, French one was called the Compagnie des Indes. Profitable commerce with India. Springboard into market of China. Factories are trading posts or European footholds in India. Existed thru privileges by Indian governments.

Countess Emilie de Chatelet

Brilliant mathematician, who became Voltaire's mistress. 1738=Elements of the Philosophy of Newton, popularized theory of Isaac Newton. 1749=when Emilie died, Voltaire lived in Berlin, at court of Frederick in Prussia, but that ended unhappily and he fled to France. Then went to Geneva, Switzerland but clashed with Calvinist clergy over plays and theater.

Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh

Brit foreign secretary. Before victorious armies, he brought about the signing of Treaty of Chaumont. It provided for the restoration of Bourbons to French Throne and contraction of France to its frontiers of 1792. Quadruple alliance between Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.

George II

Brit king, elector of Hanover in Germany. Thought French could attack Hanover.

Global Dominance

Britain focused on the ordinary lifestyle, pots and pans. They impact the world. Forks, spoons, knives, cotton clothing is an advantage. Make it difficult for others to produce these ordinary objects.

Great Britain: Toward Democracy

Britain symbolized the confident liberal state in the late nineteenth-century.The British did not have to create new liberal institutions—as they already had them—and then learn how to live within them.

The sun never sets on the British Empire

Brits have citizens across NA, from Atlantic to Pacific to Canada. Conquered lands in Asia, Subcontinent of India. Senegal West African country is all theirs. THIS IS IMPORTANT. 1763, British government faces two probs: sheer cost of maintaining empire (nat. debt and domestic taxes increased) and expanse of territory in NA for organization. Land from St. Lawrence River to Mississippi River.

1534-1535

Brutal measures taken to nonconformists. Dutch emigrants Jan Matthys or Haarlem (baker) and Jan Beukelsz of Leiden (tailor), led anabaptists to force Catholics and Lutherans to convert or emigrate Women who opposed to the practice were allowed to leave polygamous marriages.

On Improving the Studies of Youth

By Philip Melanchthon, defender of good letters and classical studies, who was against "barbarians who practice barbarous arts" (scholastic theologians of later Middle Ages) Scholasticism neglected Greek linguo, math, sacred studies and oratory. 1518, August Philip Melanchthon "praeceptor of Germany", University of Wittenberg graduee, humanists, Greek junkie

1542

Catherine Howard, "Cathy", was beheaded for adultery

1543

Catherine Parr=a patron of humanists and reformers, Henry is 3rd hubby, survived to him 4th time, match for him, Henry's last wife. King Henry got syphilis, died just before Catherine Howard would.

1527

Catherine of Aragon and Henry's union (1509) had produced Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary!) Even if women could inherit throne, Henry VIII wanted a male heir. Henry loved Anne of Boleyn (Catherine's lady-in-waiting). In the same year, Imperial soldiers fighting in Italy mutinied and sacked Rome Pope Clement VII, prisoner of Charles V, Catherine's nephew.

Jansenism

Catholic movement started as a disagreement to Jesuits's theology and politics. St. Augustine's teachings are followed by Jansenists. Believed that original sin has corrupted mankind that people couldn't get no satisfaction. Calvinists are Protestant alternative of Jansenists. Cornelius Jansen the founder of the religion was a Flemish theologian and bishop of Ypres. Cornelius Jansen is posthumously famous for work Augustinus assailed Jesuit teaching on grace and salvation as morally lax. 1660 Louis permits a papal bull which banned Jansenism. 1713 Pope Clement XI issues the bull, "Unigenitus". He hated Jansenist teaching.

1681-1685

Charles II did not summon Parliament. Shaftesbury to exile, killed Whig leaders. 1682=Shaftesbury makes unsuccessful rebel against Charles II, and Cooper and Locke had to flee to Holland. Locke coins the term "Life, liberty, property" which he believes is the government's responsibility.

1701, November 1

Charles II of Spain dies w/o heirs. left palace to Louis XIV's grandson Philip of Anjou (Philip V of Spain).

1740, October

Charles IV's death, he thinks he secured legal unity for Habsburg Emp, and safe succession from daughter. Failed to provide daughter with an army or treasury, so now they're open to foreign aggression.

1540-1541

Charles V's failed treaty between Protestants and Catholics.

1714

Charles XII found refuge in Turkey, didn't return to Sweden until this date.

1637

Charles and high church Archbishop,William Laud, tried to impose Anglican episcopacy in Scotland, +prayer book identical to Anglican Book of Common Prayer.

1830

Charles gets kicked out, and replaced by Louis Philippe of France. He dressed minimally, almost like a soldier. In public he wore a three pieced suit, "citizen king". Verneer that he believed in constitutional ideas and that he is one of the people. Revolution: liberals of Chamber of Deputies filled power vacuum the Paris uprising and weak ruling created. Middle class, bureaucrats, and moderate aristocratic liberals, overthrew restoration monarchy and still avoided republic.

1649, January 30

Charles is executed as a public criminal. Parliament dissolves monarchy, House of Lords, Anglican Church. Slim majority wanted to kill the king. Honor tradition, removed premise of the divine right.

1785

Charter of Nobility, Catherine the Great (princess from Germany) legally defined rights and privileges of noble men and women in exchange for noble word that they would serve the state. Catherine the Great assured noble authority of serfs for landowner's political cooperation. Charter of the Nobility, chartered by Catherine. guaranteed nobles rights and privileges. Empress had to like nobles, because they could ruin her from throne. Educated class was too small to provide independent bureaucracy. Treasury can't afford army strictly loyal to the crown. Virtue of necessity, strengthen stability of crown, made friends.

1780s

Christopher Wyvil in North England a retired clergyman and landowner organized Yorkshire Association Management. Met in mass meeting to demand changes in corrupt system of Parliament. Pop. attempt to establish extra legal institution to reform the gov't. Yorkshire Association Management collapsed. Supporters unlike Wilkes and Americans were not willing to appeal to broad popular support.

Napoleonic Code

Civil Code of 1804, safeguarded land and tried to secure French society from internal challenges. No privileges on birth no mo'. Universal code for all of France, same rules for everyone. Abolished hereditary obligations. Divorce was no longer on mutual consent, so women got the bad end of the stick. Primogeniture=the right of the eldest son to inherit most or all of his parents land was abolished and property distributed among all children. Married women needed hubby's consent to dispose of their own property) Universal code for all of France, same rules for everyone. Abolished hereditary obligations. Divorce was no longer on mutual consent, so women got the bad end of the stick.

1642-1646

Civil war engulfed England with Cavaliers (King's supporters) and Roundheads (Parliament Support). IN 1643=Alliance with Scotland helped Parliament's victory, Parliament follows presbyterian system of church government

William Wordsworth

Coleridge's bff. "Lyrical Ballads" a manifesto of new poetry that rejected rules of 18th cent criticism. Wrote "Ode on Intimations of Immortality in 1803. Dedicated to Coleridge who was havin' a crisis. Loss of poetic vision. Nature no longer spoke to him. Wordsworth lost childlike vision and closeness spiritual reality. Childhood was bright period of creative imagination. Soul's pre existence in celestial state b4 creation. Wrote the Prelude.

Rousseau Concept to Romantic Writers

Concept of human development freed rights of nature over phony society Form of open edu would lead to natural society. Value of uniqueness of everyone and exploration of childhood. Humankind, nature and society as organically interrelated

1453

Conquest of Constantinople, Ottoman Empire does not allow exportation of white slaves from regions under its control. Portuguese import slaves into Iberian Peninsula from the Canary Islands and West Africa. Found in Mediterranean and Northern Europe. Plantation economies based on slave labor: These plantations led to unprecedented interaction between the people of Europe and Africa and between those in Americas and Africa.

Oliver Cromwell

Country squire of discipline and independent religious sentiment. Wanted public worship, as compensation for religious toleration. In 1648 King supporters are exiled from Parliament. From 1649-1660 England is a puritan republic. Cromwell conquers Scotland and Ireland, protestants were cruel to Irish Catholics. House of Commons wanted to disband his expensive army of 50,000. Cromwell disbands Parliament. He is known as Lord Protector. Cromwell's dictatorship is harsh=prohibits drinking, theater-going and dancing. Religious conformity over freedom.

German Princes

Criticized for ruling selfishly and inefficiently and ready to kiss some ass. People untied thru linguo and culture could resist the french onslaught. Germans sought to solve their internal political probs by attempting to make a unified German state to harness energies of the peeps. German Rulers were under Napoleon or collaborating w/ him. Prussia resisted. King Frederick William III and Junker nobility feared reforms, but they came and b/c the defeat at Jena showed that Prussian States had to reform to live.

1547

Death of King Henry VIII, Ed VI was only ten years old Ed reigned under successive regencies of Edward Seymour.chantries, places where masses been said for dead is dissolved

COALITION ACTS

December 1816=unruly mass meeting in spa fields, disturbance gives Parliament excuse to pass _______which suspended habeas corpus and extended laws against seditious gatherings.

Six acts

December 1819, liberals like. Conservatives want swift justice. Hands on newspapers, want fewer newspapers. Peterloo didn't get out into the newspapers by the liberals. Dec. 1819 passed by Parliament 1. forbade large unauthorized, public meetings 2. raised the fines for alleged false written comments against the government or state. 3. speeded up trails of political agitators 4. increased newspaper taxes 5. prohibited the training of armed groups 6. allowed local officials search homes in certain disturbed homes attempted to prevent radical leaders and give authors new powers

Austerlitz

December 2, 1805= Napoleon defeated combo of Austrian and Russian forces at Austerlitz. Treaty of Pressburg followed won major concessions from Austria. They withdrew from northern rome. King of Italy. Inflicted casualties, he was ruthless. Bloody. Organized. Ligistics. They had time. Artillery, used more artillery than anyone until the Civil War. Gained loyalty because of incredible sense of nationalism.

Augustín de Iturbide

Declared Mexico independent of Spain in 1821. Iturbide was emperor.Created independent Mexico, governed by groups determined to resist significant social reform.

The Encyclopédie

Dictionaries are due to the enlightenment that is spread in society and germ of science prepares men's minds for more info. what wisdom and knowledge is supposed to be, this book consults on all subjects, and is a guide for the courageous to instruct others and enlighten the instructors too this is a leveler of society, more classes are involved in education and learning.300 reasons to be executed in England. Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert were Leaders of the encyclopedia. The first volume appeared in 1751. Eventually there were 17 books in 1722. Illustrated the movement's determination to explore life on earth. "Man is the unique point to which we must refer everything, if we wish to interest and please amongst considerations the most arid and details the most dry." Collective plea for freedom of expression=Encyclopedia reached fruition only after attempts to censor it and halt publication. Product of collective effort of hundred writers. Editors solicited articles from major french philosophes. Religion, government, and philosophy. Ideas written in obscure articles under irony. Articles on manufacturing, canal building, ship building, agriculture etc. 14,000-16,000 copies of various editions of the Encyclopedia were sold before 1789. Project had been designed to secularize learning and undermine intellectual assumptions.

Brazil

Different from the Spanish revolts more peaceful. Members of Portuguese royal court fled to Brazil in 1807. Rio de Janeiro is a royal city. Joao addressed local complaints, that were the same of creoles. In 1815, he made Brazil a kingdom, which means it wasn't Portuguese no more. 1820 started revolution in Portugal, and leaders wanted Joao to go to Lisbon and Brazil to be a colony. King Joao VI in 1816 moved to Portugal, left son Dom Pedro as regent in Brazil. Pedro=The prince who disavowed Portuguese. Emperor of independent Brazil. So Portuguese were stuck without an heir. Reasons why it was peaceful: social elite wanted to avoid destructions that wars of independence left on Spanish emp. 2) Leaders wanted to preserve slavery. Wars lead to abolition of slavery.

Physiocrats

Economic reformers in France. Françoise Quesnay and Pierre Dupont de Nemours were leaders. Believed that role of gov't was to protect property and permit owners to use it freely. Agriculture was economic production's dependence. Economy had to feed through basic resources (land). Favored consolidation of small peasant holdings into larger farms.

Urban Prosperity

Economy built on high urban consolidation, transformed agriculture, extensive trade/ commerce overseas and commercial empire overseas.

Power loom

Edmund Cartwright (1743-1822) made for machine weaving. Not until 1830 were there more machine weavers than handweavers

Maximilien de Robespierre

Emerged as dominant figure on CoPS. Selfless revolutionary. He favored republic. Jacobin Club provided forum and base of power. Shrewd. Opposed war in 1792, b/c it would aid monarchy. Support from sans-culottes. Dressed in powdered wigs and breeches. Robespierre orchestrated the Terror against republican political figures of left and right. 1749, March 24, He executed enragés (sans-culottes' leaders), who wanted to regulate prices on goods more and press de-christianization. Turned against Convention. Robespierre secured passage of the Law 22 of Prairial which lets revolutionary tribunal to convict suspects w/o hearing proof. We don't know how many people were killed 14-25 thousand ballpark. Charlotte Corday and Death of Marat. May 1794=Robespierre at peak, thought worship of Reason was too abstract. "Cult of Supreme Being" was religion. Deistic cult. Civic religion that induced morals in peeps. Convention supported this even after his death, but also allowed Refractory Catholic services back.

1721

End of Great Northern War with "Peace of Nystad" Russia gets Estonia, Livonia, part of Finland. Peter abolished patriarch position (bishop). Holy Synod=several bishops headed by layman called procurator general who could govern church.

Alexander II's Reaction

Ended serfdom in Poland to punish the Polish nobility. Russian law, language, and customs were imposed on all areas of Polish life. Alexander's enemies were Russian serfs did not feel reform was pushed far enough. Russian nobility and the wealthier and educated segments of society resented the tsar's refusal to allow them to play a meaningful role in government. After an attempt on his life in 1866, Alexander II ruled Russia more and more like a police state.

Triangle Trade

Europe to Africa to West Indies: New England to West Indies=fish, rum, lumber for sugar. Amsterdam, Liverpool, England, Nantes, France rested on slave trade. Newport, Rhode Island=Profited from slavery by trading slaves but more often by trading goods w/ West Indies. Shippers who dealt with cotton ,tobacco, sugar depend on slavery. Transatlantic economy=Colonial trade that followed a triangle. European goods (guns) were carried to Africa in exchange for slaves, who then went to West Indies. Traded for sugar, and tropical products, which went to Europe.

ulema

European-oriented administrators and army officers, merchants who sought to maintain the rule of Islamic law. Because of the tensions (and nationalism) Ottoman Empire failed to achieve genuine political strength and stability. Questioned wisdom of wisdom of Tanzimat In 1877= Constitution called for a parliament consisting of an elected chamber of deputies and an appointed senate but left the sultan's power mostly in tact Young Turks Reformists officers in the Ottoman army who were in charge of the Ottoman government when war broke out in 1914

Islam in Enlightenment Thought

Except in Balkan Peninsula, Islam had few adherents in 18th century. Most Europeans came to know what lil they did know about Islam as a religion through books. Religious commentaries of Christian missionaries, histories and the reports of travelers that were hostile to Islam. Rival to Christianity. Pascal in Pensées, said that Islam was a false religion and false prophet. attacked Islam as carnal, supporting polygamy and harems in the Islamic world Christian writers referred Islam to Muhammadanism, thinking Muhammad was divine. Islam were mostly fanatics. "The basic Christian attitude was still what it had been for a millennium: a rejection of the claim of Muslims that Muhammad was a prophet..."

Martin Luther

Father was a Thüringian miner and a magistrate. He was caught in a thunderstorm. Germany was not united at the time. Was repulsed by indulgences and Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire in England and Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges in France. 1517=provides solid foundation for Martin Luther's protest of indulgences and theology. that legitimated them. 1505 July 17=Luther entered Order of Hermits of Saint Augustine in Erfurt. Justification by Faith Alone=Luther believed that faith w/o charitable service to neighbor was dead. Believer bound to Christ possesses God's righteousness. Read the bible and only baptism and confession were in the Scripture. Believed that "Just shall live by alone", or that he did not have to do sacraments to get into heaven. Address to Christian Nobility of the German Nation=An article that urged nobility to shorten christian power + start reforms. Babylonian Captivity of Church=An article that attacked 7 sacraments; only 2 (baptism and Eucharist) were biblical according to him. Freedom of a Christian=An article that summarized new teaching of salvation by faith. 1521, April=Luther showed views at Diet of Worms. 1521, May=Luther is outlaw to secular + religious authority.1525=Luther was equivalent of pope. Luther sympathized with peasants. Lutheran pamphleteers made Karsthans (Hands with a hoe) model. Pamphleteers saw no hope. Luther marries at age 42, "men cannot do anything without women." Even the french John Calvin said on the death of his wife, "[she] would not only have been the willing sharer of my indigence, but even of my death,"

Ludwig Tieck

First German Romantic novelist, wrote "William Lovell" (1793-5). About young Lovell whose life was built on love but was prey to misanthropy and egoism. Women destroy Lovell in the end.

Stages of European Contacts

First Stage of European contacts=European discovery, exploration, initial conquest and settlement of the New World. Witnessed penetration of Southeast Asian markets by Portugal and Netherlands. Closed at end of 17th century. Second Era of European Contacts=Mercantile Empires, one of colonial trade rivalry among Spain, France, and Great Britain. Goods were there to foster trade and commerce, which sparked rivalry and conflict in imperial trouble spots. Result=Large navies and major naval wars at mid-century, (linked to war on European continent). Anglo-french side of contest=>a second Hundred Year War. Third Era of European Contacts=19th century, European government made empires involving European administration of indigenous people in Africa and Asia, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Algeria. Based on free labor. Fourth and Last Period=Mid and Late 20th century before decolonization of peeps who had lived under European rule. Europeans entered political control over rest of world. Treated others as social, intellectual, economic inferiors. Greed, religious zeal and political ambition. Technological supremacy related to naval power and gunpowder.

1772

First partition of Poland afterwards, Russian Empire had big Jew pop. Did not have rights or priviliges, regarded as aliens, lived separate from local communities, places known as the ghetto. Ghetto=primarily Jewish villages in the countryside. court of jews Samuel Oppenheimer= famous jewish council men. couldn't pursue their professions freely...

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

First war covered by correspondents and photographers who exposed the ill-equipped and poorly commanded armies of both sides. British and French seized the Russian fortress at Sevastopol in 1855 and the war ended shortly thereafter. Peace Settlement and Long-term Results

J. G. Fichte

German philosopher and nationalist. ID'ed individual ego with the Absolute that underlies all existing things. World is truly creation of humankind, Strong persons conceive of it in a particular way and impose their wills on the world and other people. Napoleon was this type of person.

General Dumouriez

Girondist victor of Valmy deserted to enemy. Prussian renewed offensive, drove french out of Belgium. War on Great Britain, Holland and Spain. Royalist revolt led by aristocratic officers and priest in Vendée. Girondists led country into war, unable to win or suppress foes.

William Wilberforce

Goal was to abolish slave trade. Slave Trade abolished in 1807. 20 years after he tried. One foot on British soil and a slave is freed. Slavery abolished much later in 1833, the same year he died.

First Coalition

Governments of Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia and Holland form this. Attempted to protect social structures political systems and economic interests vs. the aggression of revolution

Social Classes of Italy

Grandi= "Old Rich", the top social group of merchants and nobles Popolo Grosso="Fat People" or "New Rich", the second social group made up of merchants, capitalists and bankers Middle Burgher=Third social group made up of guild masters, shop owners and professionals Popolo Minuto="Little People", fourth social group with the remaining lower economic classes.

1700-1721

Great Northern War, Charles XII leads campaign, victory over Russians at Battle of Narva. In 1700, Peter began to drive to West to gain foothold on Baltic Sea.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Greatest German writer, defied easy classification. Wrote "The sorrows of Young Werther" (1774). Hero loves Lotte who is married. Relationship with sentimentalism that was characteristic. Werther commits suicide when they break up. loser. Wrote "Faust" a dramatic poem. Faust makes pact w/ el diablo. (Soul for greater knowledge than others). Seduces Gretchen who goes to heaven.

1791, March

Group of Women led by Pauline Léon petitioned Legislative Assembly to hold guns and to fight. Wanted women to serve Nat. Guard. Wanted citizenship, as the Declaration of the Rights of Man had supposedly granted. Nation couldn't meet military goals with separate spheres. Frenchwomen enlisted.

The Habsburg Empire Overview

Habsburg failure to modernize In the age of national states, liberal institutions, and industrialism, the Habsburg domains remained primarily dynastic, absolutist, and agrarian. Habsburgs responded to the revolts of 1848-1849 by asserting absolutism. Reforms in the Habsburg Empire in the mid-nineteenth century. Ministers of Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) attempted to impose a centralized administration on the empire. The imperial government amounted to a military and bureaucratic regime dominated by German-speaking Austrians. The following administrative decisions were made: Hungary, which was radically revolutionary in 1848, was divided into military districts. Roman Catholic Church controlled education Relationship between Austria and Russia and its implications Austria refused to support Russia in the Crimean War; consequently, Tsar Alexander II would not be willing to help crush popular uprisings in Hungary as Tsar Nicholas I had done in 1849. Austria realized it was time to reform.

robot

Habsburg lands law and custom need serfs to provide service to the lords.Souls=males serfs were the currency of wealth to Russians than size of acreage barshchina=Six days a week labor for the lords from the serfs exiled serfs to Siberia. Ottoman empire let serfs free, tried to exert power in all ways.

Jean Jacques Dessalines

Haitian leader who fought to resist Napoleon. Napoleon was at war with Britain, so he abandoned American empire and withdrew forces from Haiti.

Anne of Cleves

Happiest of all the outcome of Henry's wives. Marriage advised by Cromwell to unite protestant princes of Germany, marriage annulled by Parliament, Cromwell dismissed+killed.

Duke of Buckingham

He controlled royal patronage and sold peerages and titles to the highest bidder, cheapened noble ranking, which angered nobility. Rumored to be a gay lover of King James.

Leopold I

He resisted the advances of Ottoman Empire into central Europe and thwart of Louis XIV.

Alexander III (r. 1881-1894)

He rolled back his father's reform and resorted to the repressive characteristics of his grandfather, Nicholas I. Strengthened the secret police (Because of assassination of Alex II) and increased censorship. Russification=Instead of purging the population, they would takeaway language of the Polish (work first on their language), secret police frightened the rebelling Russians.

Leopold II

He was forced to repeal decrees of his brother Joe, returned political and admin. power to local nobles. Retained religious policies and program wholesale.

1417-1648

Hohenzollern family conquers and rules the regions of Brandenburg, Duchy of Cleves, counties of Mark and Ravensburg, East Prussia and Pomerania.

Erasmus

Humanist (1466-1536). Wrote "Julius Excluded from Heaven", a satire, after witnessing bullfights in the papal palace.

Law of Suspeds

I accuse you, and the CoPS takes you in. No trial EXECUTION! AGHH!

Reign of Virtue

I know what's right, you don't. Nobles are related to prostitution and gambling. Virtue lead by arrogant people who thought if you are not part of the solution, you are part of the problem.

The Irish Question

In 1880, Gladstone became prime minister again after an agricultural depression and an unpopular policy undermined the conservative government of Disraeli. Major issue of Gladstone's second term: The Irish Question Irish nationalists promoted the idea of "home rule" for Ireland.

The New Italian State

In March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of Italy. Republicans resented monarchy. Clerics were appalled at the conquest of the Papal States. In the South, people opposed domination by the northern Piedmont.The new government Parliament consisted of two houses 1)senate appointed by the king 2) chamber of deputies elected by a narrow franchise. King as supreme executive. Conquest of Venice and Rome: Venice joined a united Italy after Italy agreed to enter an alliance with Prussia against Austria in the Austro-Prussian War. France protected Rome until the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 when they withdrew; Rome was annexed by Italy and made its capital. transformismo=system of of bribery, favors, or a seat in the cabinet transformed the political opponents into government supporters. Byword for corruption. Italia irredenta, or "unredeemed Italy" was one reason for Italian support for the Allies against Austria and Germany during World War I as Austria still maintained possession of the cities of Trent and Trieste in Italy.

The Paris Commune

Intended to administer Paris separately from the rest of France The French army surrounded Paris on May 21 and slaughtered nearly 20,000 inhabitants and took control of the city Marxists regarded the Paris Commune as a genuine proletarian government that the French bourgeoisie had suppressed. Anarchist influences: Socialism of the Paris Commune had its roots in Blanqui and Proudhon's anarchism as it did not want a worker's state, but a nation of relatively independent , radically democratic enclaves. Victory of the French government/ military over the Paris Commune symbolized the power of the centralized nation-state. Napoleon III made wide streets in Paris to forestall barricades, and help national troops come in. National Assembly following the Franco-Prussian War. Dominated by monarchists.

Edmund Burke

Irish Born Writer who wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France. Condemned the reconstruction of French admin. as application of a blind rationalism that forgot about the past and social relations. Predicted turmoil in France EVEN the death of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. End in military despotism. William Pitt, John Adams, Edmund Burke, William Blake were all against the French Revolution. Government should be relationship between ruler and subject.

West Indies

Islands close to America, jewels of empire. Raised tobacco, cotton, indigo, coffee, sugar. Represented one aspect of make changes in consumption that marked 18th century. bad condition to secure a stable, self-reproducing slave population. Sugar=staple not luxury. In coffee, tea, cocoa, candy, preserving fruits, brewing industry. No limit of $ to the plantation owners. Slave labor allowed profit of cultivation of products. Royal African Company=Largest involuntary movement of peoples : England had the biggest slave labor force. Triangle Trade. Zong Massacre=Killed 142 slaves. Did it for insurance money, when they went to Britain they were on civil trial for insurance fraud-not murder. Somerset Case=Someone came to England with an African Slave, because he stood on free soil, they were free. If you set foot on free soil, you were a free man.

1696

Ivan V died, Peter stops ruling personally because power of tsar must be made secure from jealousy of boyars and greed of streltsy. Russian military power must be increased. Pete captured Azov on the Black Sea

1688

James II imprisoned 7 Anglican bishops, (refused to lose anti-Catholic legislation). Mary (Protestant eldest daughter) wife of William III of Orange, is leader of opposition against Louis XIV. James II has a Catholic son with second wife. England invites William along with Mary to England with an army. Domestic stability of Gr8 Britain after Revolution of 1688, is living example of society where enlightened reforms benefit peeps. Religious toleration to all but Roman Catholics and Unitarians. Limited monarch power, freedom of the press. England is freer than other nations at the time. progressive

1618

James rushed English troops to aid German Protestants at outbreak of Thirty year's war

Joseph II

Joseph II of Austria Continued initiatives that Maria Theresa started. Imposed religious, legal and social reforms. 1765-80=Ruled with mom Maria Theresa. 1790=died. Slept on straw and ate little. Narrow passionless rationality. wanted to improve people. Austria and Bohemia=Empress had efficient tax system, funds from clergy and nobles. Central councils to deal with gov't probs. had a council. Brought relief to peasants and serfs=expanding royal authority over local power of nobles limited the labor (robot). Assure good pool for military recruits. Stimulate prosperity and military strength. Extension=Extended at cost of Poland, Bavaria, Ottoman Empire. Increase Habsburg Empire authority over realms. Overcome pluralism of holdings with central authority. Reduced Hungarian autonomy. Refused to have himself crowned as king of Hungary. Crown of St. Stephen sent to Imperial Treasury in Vienna. Habsburgs were dynastic champions of Roman Catholicism. Maria theresa was deovout, but she didn't let church limit her authority. Discouraged public flagellation, opposed to religious toleration. Economical and Agrarian Reform=Joseph II abolished tariffs, Encouraged road building, improved river transport. Inspected farms and manufacturing districts personally. Lessened power of local landlords. Reformed judicial system so that laws were uniform and rational (enlightened thinking). More unity and more taxes to imperial coffers in Vienna. Serfdom policies=Joseph II had reforms that touched heart of rural social structure. Didn't abolish power of landlords over peasants. Made the power moderate and able for gov't supervision. Abolished serfdom as a legally sanctioned state of servitude. Peasants had the right to marry, engage in skilled work, having children learn skill w/o landowner's consent. Landlord policies=Joseph encouraged landlords to change land leases, so peasants could inherit land or give it to other peasants. Reduce traditional burden on peasants, wanted them more productive and industrial. 1789 Land Taxation: Joseph II declared that proprietors of land were taxed regardless of social status. Peasants were not alone in paying taxes. Commuted robot into monetary tax, part went to landlord another to the state. Nobles did not like this. Joseph died a year later.

Plantation

Lay in a more or less isolated rural setting, inhabitants visited counterparts on other plantation or in near towns on market days. Able to sustain elements of their own culture and social structures. More peeps who could speak African than European. SC and St. Domingue, most African slaves sold in Kikongo Two generations for colonial linguo to dominate, result was often dialect combo of African and European. Organization of African Slaves on plantation into communities with similar ethnic background. Loyalty through solidarity. Nations became a basis for a wide variety of religious communities. Islamic faith. In America, they elected their own king and queen preside over plantation gatherings. Plantations in Brazil=Organized lay religious brotherhoods that carried out charity within slave community. South Carolina Revolt In 1739, Owners thought slaves communicated by playing African drums. IN aftermath of revolt, owners tried to suppress drum playing.Spanish colonies= Church tried to provide protection for slaves, but more effort was toward Native American welfare.

John Wesley

Leader of Methodist Movement. Susannah Wesley was mom who had 18 kids, who taught him in religion and school. Went to Oxford to be Anglican Priest. Organized Holy Club. Went to colony of Georgia, America. German Moravians impressed him by faith and confidence during storm. "My heart felt strangely warmed". Couldn't preach version of Christian conversion and piety in Anglican church pulpits. Preached in fields near cities. Methodists were separate church in 18 century.

Ulrich Zwingli

Leader of Swiss Reformation, a educated humanist from Zurich, chaplain with Swiss mercenaries. 1518=Zwingli is widely known for hatred of indulgence and superstition. 1519=Zwingli competed for people's priest in Zurich. The thing that prevented him was that he fornicated a barber's daughter, who had a kid. He blamed the woman as a harlot. 1522, March=He was party to the breaking of Lenten fast. 1523, January 29=Disputation ends with government's agreement to sanction of Zwingli's Scripture Test: he BELIEVED that host was a symbol, not Jesus. Institution of Marriage, icons, ten commandments are different between Protestants and Catholics. Sermon changes. 1529, October=The Marburg Colloquy. Landgrave Philip of Hess brought Zwingli and Luther to his castle in Marburg. Unsuccessfully sought to unite Swiss and German Protestants in a mutual defense pact.Two nations split by two men's theological differences (Luther+Zwingli). (1528 first battle at Kappel) 1531, October Second Battle at Kappel, left Zwingli wounded and later executed, a treaty followed which allowed each canton to choose their own religion.

1640-1660

Long Parliament acted with widespread popularity. The House of Commons impeached Strafford (1641) and Laud (1645) (both killed). Parliament abolished courts that enforced royal policies and did not allow raise of taxes. No more than three years interval between meetings.

1500

Louis XII and Ferdinand of Aragon split Naples and Pope Alex VI got Romagna, this would set a conflict between Spain and France which would last until 1559.

1499

Louis XII invades Milan, Ludovico il Moro went to French Prison.

Cardinal Richelieu

Louis XIII afraid of horses, weak man, Cardinal Richelieu ruled for him. foreign policy was to protect French interests by keeping Habsburgs in Germany. Fights against HREmperor He is a politique.

Charles X (r.1824-1830)

Louis XVIII died and was succeed by brother count of Artois leader of ultraroyalist as Charles X - lower the interest rates on government bonds to create a fund to pay sums of money to aristocratic( survivors of the emigres) that lost land, restored the rules of primogeniture, enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death, issued the 4 Ordinances in response to liberal victory in Chamber Revolution of 1830 - he abdicated and went into exile because couldn't gain control of Paris. Reactionary Policies of Charles X=Chamber of Deputies in 1824, idemnify aristocrats who lost land in revolution. Lowered interest rates on government bonds to create a fund to pay an annual sum to the survivors of the emigres. Middle class hate this. Restored primogeniture, Supported Catholic church (law that punished sacrilege with jail or death, ofcourse libs hated this).

Frederick the Wise

Luther's landlord and protector. University of Wittenburg, not about to let harm come to court preacher, hid him in Wardburg Castle

1628

Meeting of Parliament=members only will grant funds if Charles I recognizes Petition of Right, which requires... no forced loans or taxation without consent of Parliament no freeman imprisoned arbitrarily troops not allowed in homes.

Lazare Carnot

Member of Committee of Public Safety in charge of military moved victory by issuing Levée en mass on August 23.

Establishment of the Directory

Members of Upper body AKA Council of Elders: Men over forty who were husbands or widowers. Lower Council of 5000=Consisted of men who were 30 who were married or single. Executive Body=5 person Directory whom Elders would chose from a list the Council of 500 had submitted. Property qualifications limited franchise, save soldiers, who were permitted to vote regardless. Peasantry=Largest new prospering class because of the eradication of aristocratic privileges. Could own their own land. Didn't have to pay money in compensation to their landlords or state. Where was the chief threat to the Directory?=The Royalists who wanted to restore Bourbon monarchy legally. émigres returned to France. Catholics hated the Excess Revolution

Middle Class

Merchants, trade people, bankers, professional people bourgeoisie=middle class. Diverse and divided, those who were professionals resented those whose jobs were of commerce. Poor middle class people hated rich ones more money than urban artisans. Social Mobility: Can move up in class with education and money. Earning and saving of money enabled rapid social mobility and change in lifestyle Willing to put capital and energy to work, nobles were seen as idle supported reform, change and economic growth Middle class has chief producers and consumers Imitate lifestyle of upper class traders, bankers and lawyers found their pursuits of profit blocked by privileges of the nobility issue of power sharing

Charles Alexandre de Calonne

Minister of finance. Lowered taxes like Gabelle for salt, encouraged internal trade. Corvee to money payments. New land tax all landowners would have to pay. Louis XVI called off Calonne for Étienne Loménie de Brienne. 1787=Assembly of notables: nobles and church support calonne. Treat us like the royal lords. Share royal power, and we will finance it. Government is in debt, but France is rich. Assembly refuses. Not trusting. Estates general of France has to consent to taxes. Don Gratuit=clergy refused to pay.. Payed gov in lieu of taxes

1792, August 10

Mob enters Tuileries palace and forced Louis and Marie to refuge in Legislative Assembly. Fought Swiss guard. Louis called off troops after several hundred were dead. Royal family imprisoned. Convention and the Role of the Sans-Culottes.

Parliament Division

Moderate Puritans (presbyterians) and extreme Puritans (Independents) want to dispose of The Book of Common Prayer and bishops, but religious conservatives wanted to preserve Anglican Church as it was. 1641, October=Parliament is asked to raise money for troops trying to crush rebellion in Scotland. Charles I isn't trusted with an army, suggest that Parliament should control military. 1642, January=Charles invaded Parliament, wanted to put opponents behind bars, but they fled. Charles leaves London to create an army

Haters of Hobbes

Monarchists object to his want to assign sovereign authority over laws. Republicans reject his want to accept authority. Christian writers hate him=he rejects divine right of kings and is too materialistic for their taste. He refused to recognize that God and Church reigns over him, his thoughts had little impact, ideas swayed political literature.

Germany and Austria

Monarchs and aristocrats offered stiffer resistance to liberal ideas. Social divide between land owning class and middle class commercial and industrial interest. Wanted united Germany.

Brother Joseph

NB used revolt in Madrid as a pretext to depose Spanish Bourbons and place his bro in throne. Attacked Church privileges and increased public outrage. Guerrilla=A new type of warfare. Guerrilla bands cut lines of communication, killed stragglers, destroyed isolated units and disappeared in mtns. Sir Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, army under him was to support the Spanish insurgents.

Napoleon's Impact Outside of France

Napoleonic Code Jumpstarted French Industrial Revolution Roads. bridges, canals, Connected France with Russia Was the cause of death of Holy Roman Empire idea of Germany is created by him Russian Nationalism Italy. Louisiana Purchase Haitian Independence Latin American Independence (he made it easier for them)

The Third Republic

National Assembly forms a republican government because the monarchists members could not figure out who should be king Both Bourbon and Orleans families claim right to throne Bourbon claimant, the count of Chambord, had no sons and, therefore, no heir Deal was made to make Chambord king with the son of the duke of Orleans as the heir Chambord refused to become king unless the tricolor revolutionary flag was replaced by the white flag of the Bourbon family National Assembly refused to accept the symbolism of political absolutism represented by the white flag of the Bourbon family The monarchist in the National Assembly elected Marshal Patrice Mac Mahon (1808-1893), a conservative army officer, as president and expected him to prepare for a monarchist restoration.

Constitution of 1791

National Constituent Assembly made constitutional monarchy. Authority held by unicameral Legislative Assembly, which made laws. Monarch could veto, but could not halt laws. Assembly could make war and peace. 1791, August 27= France waged war with Austria and Prussia, There was a declaration of Pillnitz which declared the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and of Prussia for King Louis XVI of France against the French Revolution. National Constituent Assembly made constitutional monarchy. Authority held by unicameral Legislative Assembly, which made laws. Monarch could veto, but could not halt laws. Assembly could make war and peace.Calling on European powers to intervene if Louis was threatened, this declaration was intended to serve as a warning to the French revolutionaries not to infringe further on the king's prerogatives and to permit his resumption of power.

Scandinavia and Eastern Europe

Nationalists tried to resurrect purer versions of national languages. Modern scholars invented the resurrected languages. Leads to more linguistic uniformity in European nations. even in 1850, less than 1/2 French spoke official French

Russia—Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings

Nicholas I Alexander II Alexander III Russia's humiliating defeat in the Crimean War led to major changes in its domestic policy and instituted the most extensive restructuring of Russian society since Peter the Great.

Revolt and Repression in Poland

Nicholas I was conservative in foreign affairs, (Poland in 1830s). Congress of Vienna made Poland under Russian rule. Granted constitutional government with a parliament (DIET) that had limited powers. Tsar Nick was king of Poland.

Official Nationality

Nicholas embraced this; leader was Court S.S Uvarov, minister of education 1833-1849. Slogan " Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationalism " . Russian Orthodox Church provides basis for morality, education, and intellecular life. Young Russians spurned social mobility. Autocracy meant unstrained power of tsar

Princes of Humanism

Nicholas of Cusa Hebraist Johannes Reuchlin Desiderius Erasmus

Russia

Nicholas/ Constantine. Lead by juniors to get Tsar Nicholas, but changed their mind to Constantine and Constitution. Confusion. Nicholas takes over. December revolt brings up disloyalty to the tsar. Russification: all lessons, courts, education is in Russian. People hold onto their mother tongue (from Kazakhstan, Georgia, etc.)

Restoration of Bourbon Monarchy

Nonvindictive and popular boundary settlement was designed to keep France calm and satisfied. powers strengthened states around France's borders to serve as barriers to renewed French expansion.

Refractory Clergy

Not a bureaucrat, did not want to be told how to live. The pope did not support the gov't, supported the rebelling clergy. Prepared to defend and be offended. Counter Revolution=Huguenots could worship in public, a big change. Everyone caught off guard. Assembly dissolved churches, except those that cared for the sick or ran schools, Didn't consult with Pope Pius VI nor French Clergy about sweeping changes. King approved uneasily . Civil Constitute of Clergy=major blunder

The Dreyfus Affair

On December 22, 1894, a French military court found Captain Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935) guilty of passing secret information to the German army. Evidence against him was not compelling and was later revealed to have been fabricated.Since he was Jewish, Dreyfus became an easy scapegoat and was sent to Devil's Island in French Guiana. Investigation was reopened in 1896 and a different military officer was charged with the crime, but a military court acquitted him on all charges. Division in France over the Dreyfus affair= The army, French Catholic Church, political conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers contended that Dreyfus was guilty. Liberals, radicals, and socialists demanded a new trial for Dreyfus. In 1898, the novelist, Emile Zola (1840-1902) published a newspaper article titled "I accuse" in which he contended that the army denied Dreyfus due process and had suppressed or forged evidence. Zola was convicted of libel and fled to England. Secrets continued to leak to Germany and the newly accused officer committed suicide in prison. Another military trial convicted Dreyfus but the president immediately pardoned him.

War with Austria

On June 4, the Austrians were defeated at Magenta, and on June 24 at Solferino. Meanwhile, revolutions had broken out in Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna provinces of the Papal States. Although the coalition of French and Piedmont's troops was crushing the Austrians, Napoleon III concluded peace with Austria at Villafranca. Piedmont received Lombardy and later that year, Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and the Romagna voted to unite with Piedmont. Venetia, however, remained under Austrian control.

Battle of the Nations

On March 1814, allied armies marched to Paris. Few days pass and NB abdicated and went into exile on Elba. Congress of Vienna, Austria and Prussia and Britain sent him to Elba. Napoleon was the emperor of Elba, as a joke. Louis XVI was the last ruler to be executed. March 1814=Battle of the Nations, allied armies marched to Paris. Few days pass and NB abdicated and went into exile on Elba. Congress of Vienna, Austria and Prussia and Britain sent him to Elba. Napoleon was the emperor of Elba, as a joke. Louis XVI was the last ruler to be executed. inexperienced and ill equipped.. But there was a skilled campaign nonetheless and defeated allies at Dresden. Combo armies of enemy decisively defeated him at Leipzig in Battle of the Nations. If Napoleon died that there would be a civilian uprising, but French only were loyal to france

Treaty of Campo Formio

On October 1797, the treaty took Austria out of the war. Crowned Napoleon's campaign. Needed redistribution of territories along Rhine River and prices of the region engaged in scrambled to enlarge their holdings. Resulted in reduced Austria and larger Germany all dependent on NB.

Slave Markets

On West African Coast from Senegal to Angola. Europeans encountered dynamic African societies working out their own internal historic power relationships and rivalyies in which Africans sold and got other Africans from different places. 1619=Beginning of Slavery according to North Americans, arrival of African slaves on a Dutch ship in Jamestown, Virginia.

Methodism

Originated in mid 18th century as revolt against deism and rationalism in Church of England. Methodist revival formed part of English Romanticism. Religion that stressed inward, heartfelt religion and possibility of Christian perfection in this life. Role of enthusiastic, emotional experience.

Constitution of the year III

Passed by Convention in 1793. Reflected Thermidorian stubborness to reject constitutional monarchy and democracy. Danger of one legislature and one chamber with unlimited power, document gave legislature to two chambers. screen of universal male suffrage and checks and balance system, that had democratic principles. Council of state evoked memories of Louis XIV, constitution established rule of one man: First consul Bonaparte first modern political figure to use rhetoric of revolution and nationalism to back it with military force and to combine these elements into weapon of expansion and power.

1813

Patriotic pressure and national ambition brought together the last and most precious coalition against NB, Russians drove westward and Prussia + Austria joined. Brits assisted w/ $.

1555

Peace of Augsburg shrines regional control over religion and law. Peace of Augsburg made division of Christendom permanent. "Cuis regio, eius religio", ruler of land determines religion. did not extend official recognition to Calvinists and Anabaptists.

1552 August

Peace of Passau, guaranteed religious freedoms

Reign of Terror

Peasants, nobles, clergy, business, revolutionary leaders, kings and queens were arbitrarily arrested and executed. Need to protect revolution from enemies. This was considered more important than security of property and life. 14- 25,000 victims. Early 1794=Terror moved to Provinces. Deputies looked over executions of 1,000s of peeps. Most famous incident was at Nantes, 300 ish peeps were tied to rafts and drowned in river Loire. Included sans-culottes and the clergy.

Hundred Days

Period of Napoleon's return that was frightening. Victors imposed a war indemnity and an army of occupation in June. Alexander proposed Holy Alliance, in which monarchs promised to act according to Christian principles. Austria and Prussia signed, but Castlereagh thought it was absurd so did the Brits. Symbol of extreme political reaction.

Peninsulares

Persons born in Spain, entered new world to fill new posts (most profitable jobs). Expanding trade gave Spain merchants to Latin America. Economy Remained export oriented. Political patronage (appointments in colonial government, church and army), were hated by Creoles, who believed that they secured all the best positions. Royal patronage represented spanish device that took wealth from america to benefit its European peeps.

1716

Peter is paranoid that enemy looked to Aleksei for sedition of Russia. 1717=Aleksei went to Vienna tried to enter conspiracy with Habsburg Charles VI. Aleksei returned to Russia surrounded by rumors. Peter reorganized domestic administration in order to sustain authority and fight corruption.1718=Peter looked at corruption in russian politics, Aleksei is central. Examined his relationship with Charles VI, if who both made a conspiracy, they could get popular opinion. 1718, June 26=Death of Aleksei under mysterious pretense.

1682

Peter the Great, at ten years old, takes the throne. He brought his sickly bro Ivan V, came to power by streltsy, who expected an award. Bloodshed on succession. Sophia, Peter's sister is regent, adds even more drama.

1768

Polish nobles had right to life and death over serfs, but most of them were poor serfs were tied to the land. many many many riots. Prince Esterhazy of Hungary owned ten million acres of land

Hungary

Political loyalty was based on nationality because Hungary had been recognized as a distinct part of the monarchy on the basis of nationalism. Rest of Austria Hungary, the principle of legitimacy meant dynastic loyalty to the emperor and many of the other nationalities wanted to achieve the same settlement as that of the Magyars in Hungary

European imperial ventures in Americas

Presence of slavery. Slave population consisted of entirely of people that had been forced to import to America or born to slaves. Debt Slavery=abilities and talents are used to pay off debt. Happens today, at Chinese restaurants. Race-based slavery=commodity, you could be bought and sold. Indentured Servants=Transported, cost too much to keep them in jails so they left to the Americas for labor. Miscegenation=Racial mixes through marriage, not seen as a good thing. English did not like this. What's out in the woods is the female indians. Mixed races, women are seen as scary=>misogyny. English women for English men alone. Slave-based plantation economy= This economy leads to 3 centuries of extensive involvement by Europeans and Americans in slave trade with West Africa. On American continent, slave trade created extensive communities of Africans from Chesapeake region of Maryland and Virginia south to Brazil. Africans bring labor, languages, customs, ethnic associations. Atlantic Economy and societies in America were creation of both Europeans and Africans. Native Americans pressed to margins of societies. English Colonies of North American Seaboard and Spanish Colonies of Mexico and South America freed themselves from European Control.

The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871)

Prince Leopold, a member of the Hohenzollern family and Catholic cousin of William I, was appointed King of Spain. France objected to the appointment sent its ambassador to Prussia, Count Vincent Benedetti (1817-1900), to consult with William I. On July 13, 1870, Leopold's father renounced the candidacy of his son as he feared it would bring Prussia into war with France. Bismarck, who wanted war with France, released an edited telegram from William I in which he insulted the French ambassador. The French government fell for Bismarck's bait and declared war on Prussia on July 19. The War The Prussian army, along with troops sent by the North German Confederation, easily demolished the French army. On January 21, 1871, Paris was besieged and the French government surrendered after suffering a terrible defeat at the Battle of Sedan. Peace Settlement From the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, Bismarck proclaimed the German Empire and united it under the authority of William I. Germany annexed Alsace and part of Lorraine and forced the French to pay a large indemnity. Affects of German Unification A new powerful state emerged in north central Europe that was rich in natural resources and talented citizens. A united Germany was a conservative victory

political goals

Principles of 1789, Enlightenment, English Liberties embodied in French DoRoDaC. Sought to establish political framework of legal equality, religious toleration and freedom of the press. Free government needs government ministers to be responsible to representatives not monarch. Liberals wanted these political arrangements through written constitutions, Constitutionalism and Constitutional governments installed across the Continent. Equality, free press.

David Ricardo

Principles of Political Economy=1817 "Iron law of wages". If wages rose, then parents have more children. Then, they would enter the labor market and expand worker #s, which would lower wages. When wages fell, peeps would have less babes and the wages would increase once again. Opposition to labor unions. Harriet Martineau's Illustrations of Political Econ publicized this.

France and Great Britain Problems

Problems were protecting civil liberties, define respective powers of the monarch, and elected legislature and expand the electorate moderately while avoiding democracy.

1533

Protestant city of Bern dispatched 2 reformers: Guillaume Farel Antoine Froment 1536, May 21=Geneva voted to adopt Reformation "to live according Gospel and the Word of God". 1536, July=Calvin arrived in Geneva, in flight from France. 1537=Approval of City Councils of Calvin articles for new church, plus catechism to discipline. In Strasbourg, Calvin becomes pastor to French exiles. 1555-Geneva is home for thousands of exiles from France, England and Scotland. More than 5,000 all loyal to Calvin.

Nationalists

Quality of the people not the rulers determine a national character. Confusion and Conflict because of minorities. In a territory with one national group predominate, there will always be minority ethnic enclaves that the majority has had every intention of governing. gave people a sense of past and literature of their own. as time passed, education spread nationalistic ideas by teaching in official linguo. established cultural beliefs and political expectations

Commonwealthmen

REPUBLICANS! Intellectual roots in most radical thought of Puritan Revolution. Cato's Letters=Written by Commonwealthmen ,John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, criticized Sir Robert Walpole. Gov't like that was corrupt, and undermined liberty. Parliamentary taxation fed the corruption. Armies=tyranny instruments.

1780

Rabidly Protestant spirit was within Gordon Riots, named after Lord George Gordon. He had raised spector of Catholic plot that was fake, after gov't thought that military recruits were having to take anti-Catholic oaths. Property than people, rioters usually shopkeepers, freeholders, artisans, wage earners. 1792 In great britain, gov't incited mob attack of english sympathizers of FR.

Antitrinitarians

Radical Protestant group. In 1533, Michael Servetus executed in Geneva, by John Calvin. Lelio and Faustus Sozzini=Founders of Socinianism.

Removal of Sans-Culottes

Reactionary Element of the Thermidorian Reaction was this. Convention removed them from politics with the constitution. Got rid of ceiling prices because they didn't like a regulated economy. There were food riots in the winter as a result.

Republic of Virtue

Renaming streets from egalitarian names to vocab of revolution. Republican fashion copied from sans-culottes. No more powdered wigs, suppressed plays and literature. Against prostitution. In line with Rousseau's thoughts that the public over private good or championing of general will over individual interests.

Balkan wars of the late 1870s

Resulted in the independence of, or Russian or Austrian domination over, most of the Ottoman Empire's European holdings Ottoman response Greater efforts to modernize the army and economy by building railways and telegraphs Political modernization took place in 1876 when the Ottoman sultan proclaimed a constitution on the model of that of Europe

Build up to Crimean War

Russia wanted to extend its influence over the Ottoman Empire. In 1851, yielding to French pressure, the Ottoman sultan had assigned care of certain holy places in Palestine to Roman Catholics which angered Russia. Russia wanted to extend its control over the Ottoman provinces of Moldavia and Walachia which they occupied in the summer of 1853 under the pretext that they wanted to protect the Orthodox Christians in that region. March 28, 1854, Shortly after, the Ottoman Empire as well as Britain and France declared war on Russia. Tsar Nicolas I was angered that Austria and Prussia remained neutral. Great European powers watched the events unfold as they didn't want to see Russia grow too powerful. France and Britain declared war on Russia

Treaty of Paris (1856)

Russia was required to: 1) surrender territory near the mouth of the Danube River 2) recognize the neutrality of the Black Sea 3) renounce its claim of protector of Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire Austria forced Russia from Moldavia and Walachia. The Concert of Europe was shattered by the Crimean War Since the great powers easily squashed the rebellions of 1848, they started to treat the Vienna settlement with less reverence Generally, following the Crimean War, nations became adventurous with their foreign policies.

aristocratic resurgence

Russian Charter of Nobility agreed on one aspect of broader Europe wide development. Noble's reaction to the threat to their position and privileges that was from monarchy. Nobilities tried to preserve exclusive stuff by increasing difficulty of being a noble. pushed to reserve appointments to the officer corps of the armies, senior posts, and government, upper ranks in church exclusively to nobles. Nobles tried to use authority of institutions against power of monarchies; British Parliament, parlements, local aristocratic estates, provincial diets. Nobles sought to improve fiscal matters by getting exemptions from taxes or collecting higher rents or feudal dues from peasantry. Appealed to traditional times to shore up position

John Law

Scottish Math guy, gambler, increase in paper $ would stimulate France's fiscal issues with the bank of Paris which issued paper money. Organized monopoly, called Mississippi Company, on trading privileges with new Orléans. The bank is credited with getting rid of debt. In 1719 price of stock rose, sold stock for paper money. 1720, February: all gold payments cease. Mississippi Bubble=John Law fled country, the bank lacked enough gold to redeem all the paper money.

1552

Second Act of Uniformity, 42 paged article by Thomas Cranmer, set forth Protestant Doctrine, justification by faith, Holy Scripture.

Artisans

Shopkeepers, artisans and wage earners were single largest group in any city, grocers, butchers, fishmongers, carpenters, cabinet makers, tailors , smiths, printers, hand-loom weavers and more Conservative Poor harvest raised food price, business suffered lives of artisans are on work and neighbors guilds rarely had influence as medieval guilds. guilds played conservative role. Tried to preserve jobs and skills of members. To lessen competition, prevented peeps from learning skills. Protection against workings of commercial market apprentice=>journeyman=>master

1640

Short Parliament=Scots rebel to imposed religion. Charles calls Parliament, which does not want war until king realizes their grievances. King dissolves Parliament again.

Simon Bolívar's Liberation of Venezuela

Simon Bolívar was advocate for republic and independence. 1811-1814, civil war in Venezuela as Royalists, slaves and llaneros challenged authority of the republican gov't. Went into exile. In 1816, with help from Haiti, he went to the continent. Captured Bogotá (colombia, bolivia, ecuador) secured base for attack on Venezuela. in 1821, forces captured Caracs and he became prez. 1822, July=Bolívar and San Martín joined as they moved to liberate Quito, Ecuador. Guayaquil 2 liberators disagreed with the future political structure of Latin America. San Martín wanted monarchy, but Bolívar wanted republic. Battle of Ayacucho=On december 9, 1824. Liberating army of Bolivar crushed spain effort to retain sur America.

Enclosure Replaces Open-Field Method

Small cultivators (living in villages) still farmed most of the soil. Tilled an assortment of unconnected strips. 2-3 field system of rotation left large portions of land fallow and unproductive each year. Entire system desuaded improvement and wanted poorer farmers, who needed land and stubble fields for animals. Soil Preservation=For the three field system, only 2/3 of land was used, but now all land was used because of crops like turnips that gave nitrogen to soil. Turnips also supply food for animals, their poop has nutrients, so now it is fertilizer. enclosures= Land that everyone had access to is taken away so that they can use new methods of agriculture. They were intended to use land more rationally and achieve greater commercial profits. Involved fencing of common land and reclamation of previously untilled waste and transformation of strips into block fields. Procedures brought turmoil to economic and social life of countryside. Riots. happen. again.Larger landlords resort to parliamentary acts to legalize enclosures.village method= precluded expanding pastureland to raise mo animals that would produce manure/ fertilizer.

Upper Class

Small group of nobles, merchants, bankers, financiers, clergy and gov't officials were at the top Political and economic affairs in their hands lived in town houses and had country houses self appointed self electing oligarchy Artisan guilds controlled corporations, but usually upper class dominated councils

Spanish Ulcer

Spain achieved political unity as early as 16th century. Devoted Catholics. IN 1807 France army came into Iberian Peninsula to force Portugal to abandon its traditional alliance w/ Britain. Army stayed in Spain to protect supply lines and communication. Look up the Spanish Ulcer. Napoleon invaded Portugal and made his brother king of Spain. Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil to make government there. Bourbon monarchy of Spain was overthrown. Liberal Napoleonic monarchy in Spain would attempt to impose reforms in Latin America that would try to impose reforms that would harm economical and social interests.

Boundaries

Spain controlled all of South America (except Brazil and Guiana), Cali, Mexico, Florida, Cuban Islands, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Hispaniola (DR). British Empire controlled North Atlantic seaboard, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Bermuda, Jamaica, Barbados. French covered St. Lawrence River valley and Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys. West Indian Isles of St. Dominique (Haiti), Guadeloupe and Martinique, India and West Coast of Africa. Squaw or Savage wife, that French merchants had while they were trading furs. Left the squaws, and went to their wives in France. Focused on furs and sugars. Dutch=Surinam (Dutch Guiana) in SA, Cape Colony of South Africa, stations in West Africa, Sri Lanka, Bengal. Java trade (Indonesia). Vast trading empire, bigger than size of United Netherlands. Closest to England, but they found themselves focused on trade. First to bring slaves to North America.

1763

Spain, ally of France, defeated power. government circles are convinced that colonial system had to be reformed. Imperial reforms of Charles III, = to colonial measures British government undertook after this date, which led to American revolution.

1703

St. Petersburg is founded on Gulf of Finland new capital city of Russia. It is a smaller versions of Versailles and a symbol of new Western Orientation of Russia.

1698

Streltsy rebelled when Pete was abroad. Pete suppressed revolt with tortures and executions. 1,000s of rebels died, corpses remain on public display. Peter drafted unprecedented 130,000 troops. Peter attacked boyars and attachment to traditional Russia. Aleksei, Peter's son is born, in the same year Peter divorces his wife. Peter realized he couldn't eliminate enemy the way he attacked the streltsy. Russian Orthodoxy Church.

The sublime

Subjects from nature that aroused emotion like fear, dread and awe. Raise questions about whether or how much we control our lives. Painters went to Scottish Highlands, Wale Mtns., Swiss Alps to portray dangerous scenes. Nature as a set of infinite forces that overwhelmed smallness of humankind.

Reforms in the Ottoman Empire

Sultan issued a decree called the Hatt-I Sharif of Gulhane Ottoman leaders sought to reorganize the empire's administration and military along European lines. Tanzimat (Reorganization) Era in Ottoman History (1839-1876) Liberalized the economy, ended the practice of tax farming, and sought to eliminate corruption. Granted civic equality to Ottoman subjects regardless of faith Hatti-I Humayun Spelled out the rights of non-Muslims in the empire Given equal obligations for military service and equal opportunity for state employment and admission to state schools Western schools emerged in the Ottoman Empire Nationalism and autonomy in the Ottoman Empire In some regions, like Tunis and Egypt, local leaders were virtually independent of Istanbul.

King Gustavus Vasa

Supported by Swedish nobility (wanted church land) embraced Lutheranism, confiscated church property. Diet of Vesteras, Vasa subjected clergy to royal authority Poland=Lutherans, Anabaptists, Calvinists and Antitrinitarians thrive.

1655-1660

Sweden and Poland fought each other over Great Elector's Pomerania and East Prussia. In 1655 Brandenburg estates don't grant him taxes, but collect military force.

Colleges

Swedish constitutions, bureaus of several persons operating to written instructions, one was Russian Orthodox Church. Peter created 8 colleges, they oversaw the collection of taxes, foreign relations, war and economy.

Caspar David Friedrich

The Polar Sea, painted plight of ship trapped by polar ice field. Also painted scenes in which humans stand shrouded by mysterious darkness of night where moonlight and torches cast fitful illumination.

Reform of Local Russian Government

The authority of village communes replaced that of the landlords under the serfless system. Role of village elders settled family quarrels, imposed fines, issued internal passports that were required for peasants to move from one locale to another, and collected taxes Zemstvos, or councils, were established to give nobles some authority in the provinces. Western European legal traditions—including equality before the law, impartial hearings, uniform procedures, judicial independence, and trial by jury—were introduced into Russia. Russian Military Reform=Problems in Russia's military Serving in Russia's military during the eighteenth century included 25 years of mandatory service and most soldiers never saw their homes again.Villages were raided and many serfs rounded up to join the ranks of the army. Reforms of 1860=Lowered the period of service to 15 years Relaxed discipline measures Reforms of 1874=Enlistment period changed to 6 years active service and 9 years in reserves. All males subject to military service after the age of 20 Repression in Poland

1519

The death of emperor Maximilian I sets motion for reformation turned attention from heresy in Saxony to contest for emperor. Luther debated Ingolstadt professor John Eck in Leipzig challenged infallibility of pope, inerrancy of church, appealing to sovereign authority of Scripture alone and defended John Huss.

The Danish War (1864)

The kings of Denmark had long ruled over the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein but the Danish Parliament attempted to make them part of Denmark in 1863. Prussia and Austria sent their militaries to prevent the move. Convention of Gastein. Austria was put in charge of Holstein and Prussia in charge of Schleswig. He gained Russian support by helping squash a revolt that broke out in Poland.He persuaded Napoleon III to stay neutral in an Austro-Prussian conflict. In April 1866, Bismarck promised Italy Venetia if it attacked Austria in support of Prussia when the war broke out.

Jacobins

The most famous clubs. Group met in former Dominican priory dedicated to Jacques (James) in Paris. Most advanced political group in National Constituent Assembly. Drew from Enlightenment's philosophes, specifically Rousseau. Pressed for a republic. Equality, popular sovereignty, and civic virtue. 'Rhetoric of Republicanism' gave political values.Jacobin Ideals=These peeps were republicans, but not sans-culottes. Hated aristocrats and hereditary privileges. Wanted unregulated government. Joined with other republican party to overthrow monarchy. Mountain=Jacobins that were known for their seats that were high up on assembly halls. Cooperated with the sans-culottes to carry revolution. Separated Mountains from Girondists. Left and Right politics.

Humanism

The study of Latin and Greek Classics, promoted dignity and individuality. "Studia Humanitatis"= Liberal Arts, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, politics and moral philosophies. Civic Humanism= Belief that education should promote virtue and service.

The Philosophes

The writers and critics who flourished in the print culture and were leaders in the new attitudes for change championed reform, and were tolerant. Included Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, DÁlembert, Rousseau, Hume, Gibbon, Smith, Lessing, and Kant. Most were free agents, in eastern europe they were organized as royal bureaucrats, disagreed, disrespected each other. Drew bulk of readership from commercial and professional urban classes. The collective effect on political and social life of views circulated in print and discussed in the home, the workplace and centers of leisure. Writers had to answer readers. Gov'ts couldn't work as secret or w/ disregard to large public sphere. Explain and discuss. common desire to reform religion, political through society, government and economy or sake of human liberty. "freedom from arbitrary power...freedom in a world, of moral man to make his way in the world"

1524

Theatines groom reform minded leaders at higher levels of church Bishop Gian Pietro Carafa (Pope Paul IV), cofounder of Theatines Indulgences are over.

Spring Elections of 1797

These elections replaced people in offices with constitutional monarchists and sympathizers. They now had the majority in nat. legislature.

Joseph Duplex (french) and Robert Clive (Brit)

These men saw power vacuum as providing opportunities. for expanding control of companies. Each of 2 companies began to take over the government of some of the regions. BEI (British East India Co.). Robert Clive failed school twice. BEI forces outmaneuver Cricket, Men's field hockey and tea time even in India

lord of manors

They wanted to ensure that land would be cultivated, so they receive rents. In Poland=landlords might forbid marriage between serfs. Require widows and widowers to remarry to make labor for plot of land. Frowned on hiring free labor =valent to servants in the west, to cultivate land. In Russia=young families arranged marriages within short set time. Discouraged single generation family households, because of death and illness of one member would mean land assigned to him would go out of cultivation

Relationship between II's

They were determined to play major diplomatic and military roles in Europe. Adopted Enlightenment policies that like the rational econ. and social integration of realms, bc they increased military strength and power.Search for new revenues and political support was incentive prompting enlightened reforms on Russia, Prussia and Austria. Rationality to pursue goals.

Czechs

They were most vocal and proposed "trialism," or a triple monarchy but Hungary would not accept it. Nationalism was vibrant in Austria-Hungary by 1914. It became a major source of political instability for all of central and eastern Europe

The Consulate in France (1799-1804)

This ended the Revolution in France. Officials, landlord, drs., lawyers and financiers achieved goals by 1799. NB abolished hereditary privilege and careers open to talent and let them be rich, and have security for property

Gladstone's Great Ministry (1868-1874)

This era witnessed the culmination of classical British liberalism and saw the following reforms: institutions that remained the preserve of the aristocracy and the Anglican church were open to people from other classes and religious denominations. competitive examinations for the civil service replaced patronage. purchase of officers' positions in the army was abolished. voting by secret ballot was introduced Education Act of 1870 government assumed the responsibility for establishing and running elementary schools

Austrian government

This government couldn't make serious compromises with political forces in Europe. Liberalism and nationalism were dangerous. Germans, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Italians, Croats and other ethnic people inhabited Habsburg domains. Client governments= Austria also dominated those parts of the Italian peninsula that it didn't rule.

Baron vom Stein and Prince von Hardenberg

This guy reformed Prussian admin and society. Neither intended to reduce power of Prussian monarch or to end the dominance of Junkers who formed the bulwark of the state and the officer corps. Wanted to fight French. Reforms came from the top, wrought important changes to Prussian Society. Stein's Reforms=Broke Junker monopoly of landholding Serfdom abolished, former serfs could leave the land, or to keep living there they had to do manorial labor. Obtain ownership of the land only if they forfeited 1/3 of it to the lord. Junker holdings grew larger. Went to city, became agricultural workers, small free holding farmers. Junkers ensured that vestiges of system survived. Military Reforms=Sought to increase supply of soldiers and improve quality. Jena had shown that an army of free patriots commanded by officers chosen for merit over birth. limit of army to 42, 000 men army of 270,000 by 1814

Piero de Medici

This man, desperate to placate Chuck VIII, offered Pisa and other Florence territories, because of his weakness, he was impeached.

Nationalism

This secular ideology is most powerful in European political ideology. Followed collapse of the communist governments in eastern Europe and Soviet Union. Based on relatively modern concept that a nation is composed of people who are joined together by the bonds of a common language, and customs and culture and history and should be administered by the same government.

Economic policy

This was area in which the philosophes saw existing legislation and administration preventing operation of natural social laws. mercantilist laws (protect country's trade from external competition and regulation of labor hindered expansion of trade.

Gentry

Those who benefited from Game Laws, had parliamentary representatives pass laws that made them serve as the justices of the peace, they enforced law and order. levy fines, poachers impressed to army, civil legal action against the rich poachers to give them legal fees(rich farmers renting land), gamekeepers=people picked by gentry to protect game from poachers. killed the dogs of the poachers. guns to shoot poachers who tripped hidden levers.

Intendant

To increase tax efficiency and end corruption, Chuck III introduced this institution. Patterned on French intendants, made famous as agents of French Royal Admin. under Louis XIV.

Germains

To widen bases of political support, monarchs of three southern German States-Baden, Bavaria and Württemberg granted constitutions after 1815. None recognized popular sovereignty and defined political rights as gift of monarch. Germains cherished nationalist and liberal expectations. University students=Grew up to German nationalist writers. They or their friends fought Napoleon, and when they went to skool, they continued dream of united Germany. Burschenschaften=student associations that served social functions, one was to replace old provincial attachments with loyalty to the concept of a united German State. Clubs were anti-Semitic. 1817=in jena, city in Germany ; Napoleon defeated the Prussian here (1806) ; 1817 student club celebrated 4th anniversary of Battle of Leipizig and tercentenary of Luther's 95 theses - bonfires, songs , 500 people ; event frightened German rulers were scared. 1819 March, Karl Sand, a student group member, killed a conservative dramatists August von Kotzebue, who was a hater. Tried and executed was a national martyr. Metternich suppressed institutions associated with liberalism.

1714

Treaty of Rastatt, Habsburgs extend domains, got former Spanish Netherlands and Lombardy in North Italy. Habsburgs ruled by virtue of a different title=king, archduke, duke and needed cooperation of local nobility. Hungary=Magyar nobles were Calvinists and were ready to rebel.

Frederick William III

Was caught up in 1815 in the exhilaration that followed the War of Liberation, (last part of their conflict with Napoleon) promised some form of constitutional government. Reneged pledge in 1817. Created COUNCIL OF STATE, which improved administrative efficiency, was responsible to him alone. 1819=King moved further from reform. 1823=King Frederick William III established eight provincial estates (diets). Replaced his reform minded ministers with conservatives.

Pope Pius VI

When French raided Italy they drove this dude out, and he died of exile in France. IN 1801, Napoleon made concordat with Pope Pius VII. This agreement was possible b/c Pius VII had written that Christianity was compatible w/ ideals of equality and democracy. Concordat gave N what he wanted, b/c it needed both refractory clergy and those who accepted revolution to resign. Church gave up claims to confiscated property. Napoleon gets loyalty and could name religious figures. Didn't want to be part of the Holy Alliance. 'Catholicism is the religion of the great majority of French Citizens. Pope wanted religious dominance for Roman Catholic Church.

difficulty for nationalism

Which ethnic groups could be considered nations with claims to territory and political autonomy. Nationhood came to be associated with the groups that were big enough to support viable economy, had cultural history, cultural elite, national language.

Act of Union

William Pitt the Younger persuaded Parliament to passed this between Ireland and England feared Irish nationalist rebel. Ireland sent a 100 members to House of Commons only Protestant elected. Prime minister realized Ireland would elect an all- Catholic delegation that can't be elect and this will cause revolution.

Baldassare Castiglione

Wrote "Book of the Courier", believed that knowledge of the past was both a model and challenge to the present.

Friedrich Schlegel

Wrote "Lucinde" (1799). About prejudices against women being little more than lovers and domestics. Involved in social issues. Lucinde is perfect friend and lover. Discussed sex and equality.

Pietro Paolo Vergerio

Wrote "On Morals that Befit a Free Man", which was the most influential Renaissance summary of liberal education.

Friedrich Schleiermacher

Wrote "Speeches on Religion to Its Cultured Despisers. Response to Lutheranism and Enlightenment rationalism. Religion was not a dogma nor system of ethics, but an institution or feeling or absolute dependence on an infinite reality. Against universal natural religion of Enlightenment.

France- from liberal empire to the Third Republic

Years of authoritarian rule following his coup of power in 1851 when he controlled the legislature, censored the press, and harassed political dissidents. He was supported by the army, property owners, French Catholic Church, peasants, and business people. From the mid-1850s onward, he began to implement liberal concessions Created a free-trade policy with Great Britain Permitted freer debate in the legislature Relaxed press laws Lifted many restrictions on unions Agreed to a liberal constitution that placed ministers beneath the law Napoleon III was captured, and the Second Empire destroyed, at the Battle of Sedan in the Fanco-Prussian War Shortly after Napoleon III's capture, a republic was claimed in Paris

Print culture

a culture in which books, journals, newspapers and pamphlets achieve status of their own. In past influenced intellectual and religious, but now governments sought to censor. prose is valued as poetry. Novel is literary genre. Increase of literacy. British did not want to crush the literacy, because it was not tyrannical: prosperity, domestic stability, Tranquil. Urban kids and central Europe could read; chief vehicle for communicating info and ideas. English journal "Novels spring into existence like insects on the banks of the Nile" Private and public libraries grew in number, books were expensive. 1/2 of books published in Paris were religious, by 1780's only 10% were religious. "fixed" languages=books and other stuff like them are more permanent fashion than spoken word. Overcame regional spoken dialects and made dominant. Spoken and written proficiency became path to social and political governments

John Toland

a deist who thought well of Islam. Opposed anti-semitism, and anti-muslim theories, saying that derived from Christianity. Known as Mahometan.

domestic system of textile production

agents of urban textile merchant took wool/ fibers to peasants, who spun it to thread. Agent moved thread to other peasants. who wove it into spun thread. Merchant sold the wares. Cottages from Ireland to Austria had spinning wheels or hand looms. Merhcant capitalist owned machinery as well as raw material, commonly more than peasants. Bottlenecks developed in domestic system.

Prussia, Russia, Austria, Poland Farming

agriculture improvement is limited relationship between serf and landlord was shabby method of production=bringing untilled lands under the plow landlords and agents directed farms by extending tillage, landlords wanted to squeeze mo labor from serfs than productivity of their soil. Nutritional Gain=Intro of maize and potato.

3-class voting system

allowed all males to vote according to 3 classes organized by ability to pay taxes. for example the largest taxpayers who are only 5% of the population, elected 1/3 of Prussia Parliament

Liberals

applied to political activity entered the European and American vocab. Anyone that challenged the conservatives. More radical than they were, but they were more conservative than they are now. Educated, wealthy people usually associated with professions or commercial life. Excluded from existing political processes. They felt exclusion was unjustified...academics members of learned professions and people involved in the rapidly expanding commercial and manufacturing segments of economy. Career open to talent. didn't advocate democracy. Wanted to extend representation to propertied classes. Hated non propertied classes and privileged aristocracies. Privileg based on wealth and property no birth. Liberals separate from rural peasant and urban working class. anyone or anything that challenged their own political, social, or religious values ; Aristocratic wanted constitution to benefit them ; no democarcy

Major Features of Life in the Old Regime

aristocratic elites possessing inherited legal privileges established churches intimately related to the state and the aristocracy. An urban labor force organized to guilds rural peasants had high taxes and feudal dues

1820

army sent to suppress revolution in Spain's latin america. March=Ferdinand once again announced he would abide by the provisions of the constitution. Revolution succeeded. July 1820=revolts in Naples, where king of two sicilies accepted a constitution. unsuccessful. Revolution of Spain forced Ferdinand VII to accept liberal constitution. Conservative Mexicans feared liberal monarchy would attempt to impose liberal reforms on Mexico.

the Greek Revolution of 1821

attracted support of illustrious writers. ancient greek democracy reborn. Lord byron fought and died in Greek freedom against asian oriental despotism of the ottoman empire. =What should the European powers do about the Ottoman inability to assure political and administrative stability in its possessions in and around Mediterranean? Russia, Austria and France and Britain wanted a peace of that. (671) conflicting interests and distrust prevented intervention for Greece. Britain, France and Russia agreed Greece would benegit interests and not threaten domestic security.

Priscilla Wakefield

believed in kinds of employment open to women had narrowed. Called for new jobs for women. Indignant that women were excluded from work because of physical weakness. Equal wages and work for everyone. "this defamation of women workers": took away fame and prestige of Women. Separate men and women in jobs. women's work associated with the home not men working places. Traditional laboring life was removed by technologies in farms, transport and manufacturing. 19-20th century women were assumed to work as a supplement to hubby income. work considered marginal, men were paid more than women.

Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)

born in Germany in Prussian Rhineland, middle-class family was Jewish, dad converted to Lutherism University of Berlin, involved in Hegelion philosophy and radical politics 1842 & 1843 edited the radical Rhineland Gazette-Prussian authorities drove into exile in Paris, Brussels, 1849 London 1844 met Frederich Engels, 1848 both published The "Communist Manifesto" philosophy gave a special role to the new industrial workforce as the single most important driving force wrote "Capital" (Vol.1, 1867)

Tales of the Crusaders

by Sir Walter Scott. Presented heroic images of Muslim warriors, paintings/ novels ignored havoc that crusaders had on Muslims

Political Registrar

by William CObbett demanded change. government could see images of sans-culottes ini agricultural/industrial workers. Major John Cartwright Henry "Orator Hunt=demagogues who were seducing people away from allegiance to leaders.

Charcoal vs. Coke

charcoal not coke was used to smelt the ore. Charcoal from trees was rare in diminished forests. Doesn't burn at high temperatures as coke (from coal). Coal is dirty, and lung disease is common in coal mines. "canary in a coal mine". Coke is refined and you know the exact temperature. furnaces couldn't achieve high blasts demand for iron is limited

Iron Production

chief element of industry, land and sea transport. Best Machinery was iron. less than 25,000 tons of iron produced annually in Britain. IN 1784, Henry Cort invented new puddling process, (melting and stirring molten ore). Allowed removal of slag and produced purer iron. Invented rolling mill that shaped the still-molten metal into bars, rails and other forms.

Pugachev

claimed that he was Peter III, and that his wife put him out of office. His justification of the riot was that she was German, even if he was German too. German, not Russian. Started a protest. Killed the peasants. Guns win, peeps lose. Sent husband to a monastery. Killed by one of her lovers. Male ruler has mistresses. When a female ruler has a series of monogamous relationships, it is out of the question.

Latin America Government

corregidores= Local officers who presided over municipal councils. officers represented vast array of patronage. Needed Slaves: Natives are untrustworthy and susceptible to diseases. They could run away and join other tribes. Casa de Contratación=AKA House of Trade, in Seville regulated all trade with New World. Cádiz was only port allowed to use American Trade. Casa=Most influential institution of Spanish Empire. Consulado=Merchant guild of Seville and other groups involved w/ American commerce in Cádiz. La problema de España=Cannot produce enough to meet demands of Spanish Colonies: could not get their act together. Industrial Revolution is not in Spain, it's in England. Flota system=This system worked, but outside trade was illegal. No Spanish colonies could establish trade with each other or building own shipping/ commerce industry. Areas far to south (Buenos Aires) got da goods after shipments had been unloaded at one of the authorized ports. Ships loaded with silver and gold bullion

ultraroyalism

count of Artois=louis's brother and heir. people who were more than royalist than the monarch demanded revenge. ultraroyalists elected and proved reactionary that king dissolved chamber. Moderate majority comes back. 1820, February=duke of Berri (son of artois) was assassinated. Ultraroyalists persuaded Louis XVIII that the murder was result of ministers cooperation with liberal politicians. Aristocrats get revenge on regular people that started revolution ; royalist in the south and wear of France carried out White Terror against former revolutionaries and supporters of Napoleon and drove liberals out of politics

Women's lifestyle in Agricultural Revolution

depended on function of her capacity to establish and maintain a household. marriage was an economic need, as well as an institution to fulfill sex and psychological needs. Rarely were women independent economically. devoted much of life to maintain parent's household and then to devise getting her own household. having children came last to these goals. Seven years old=Help with the household work. farmer=duty was looking after chickens, watering animals, food to the working adults. She would leave home between ages 12-14 and migrate to nearby town, rarely more than 30 miles from home. Became servant. Chief goal was to accumulate enough capital for a dowry. literally carried things for husband-water, food, seed, grain, etc- if the peasant household had land to be independent. Wife could be in charge of farm if hubby was a migrant worker. urban artisan= light work: cleaning, carrying, sewing, weaving. Would only remain in family if she contributed to family enterprise or labor elsewhere was not remunerative to the family. Might not leave home until marriage (@ home she learned trade skills). Charge of household finances and help manage the business. Might take over biz if hubby died or hired artisan. If bad economy hit, as Olwen Hufton put it 'economy of expedients' when family members might send off to find work. Disadvantages of Women in Agriculture Revolution=less education than men, lower wages, mechanization of agriculture and textile industry made disabilities worse. quiet oppositions, Physical strength, Replaced by machinery, No money, Not connected to family

Slave codes

developed in British and French colonies, provided limited protection of slaves and dominance to their owners. Slave owners feared revolt, legislation prevented this. Favored master, permitted to whip slaves and inflict other harsh corporal punishment. Slaves forbidden to gather in groups. Law fif not recognize slave marriages. Legally children of slaves were slaves. Owner of parents owned them too.

Islamic Stuff

dhimmis= Non-Islamic peoples who were tolerated by law second class, paid special tax (jizyah). Based on religious identification within a region. "No force in Islam". Great Turk=caliphate, or head of the Islamic world devshirme=practice in which they enlisted troops from Balkans and christian communities Janissaries=infantry troops Role of Ulama=Shari'a=Islamic law Ulama=Islamic scholars. means Islamic community.

Frederick William IV

did not attempt to stop disturbances in Prussia because believe it was conspirators but he was wrong and citizens were killed because troops cleared square

cift

domain of landlords. Landlord was absentee, managed estate through overseer. Commercially oriented, production of crops (cotton, veggies, potatoes, maize) to market. scarcity of labor than legal rights added to dependency.

Poland

duchy of Warsaw, that's a place that they could identify with. He also got laid with a Pole. Alexander I of Russia wanted all of Poland. Prussia could give it to him if they gave them Saxony, an ally of NB. Austria did not surrender Poland or wanted Prussia grow or Russia penetrate deeper in central Europe. This country is gone after napoleon died.

Farm Economy

effort directly into raising food or producing goods that were exchanged for food. One or more family members would work elsewhere and send wages home. father and oldest worked as harvesters and fishermen, if father was a migrant worker, wife and kids would work on family farm.

Peerage

eldest son inherited this title, right to sit in House of Lords, land. Primogeniture. younger sons=commerce, army, professions, Church.

Nationhood

eliminating or federating the petty dynastic states that governed regions would promote economic and administrative efficiency. Tenet from political liberalism, nationalists suggested nations determining their own destinies resembled individuals exploiting personal talents. Biological species in the natural world were distinct creations of God. associated with groups that are able to support an economy, military to conquer and protect, cultural history, and are able to speed national language

Congress of Verona

final congress in 1822. Purpose was to resolve situation in Spain. Britain balked at joint action. Castlereagh committed suicide. Oct. 1822 final postwar congress; purpose was to resolve the situation in Spain, Britain withdrew from the affairs- Geroge Canning sought to prevent the extensions of European reaction to Spain's colonies, Austria, Prussia and Russia agreed to support French intervention in Spain

1681

forces take Strasbourg on Rhine River League of Ausburg= a defence coalition against him, included England Spain and Sweden Leopold I=Hagsburg emperor.

George Canning

foreign minister was less sympathetic to metternich goals. Britain withdrew from continental affairs. Interested in commerce and trade. Sought to prevent reaction to Spain's colonies in Latin America. Expoloit South American revolutionists to break up spain's trading monopoly with its colonies and gain access for Britain to Latin American trade.

françois-dominique toussaint l'ouverture

former slave became a leader, rebellion involved violence and death. rebellion collapsed Mulattos and blacks fought against colonial masters. 1793=french abolished slavery. L'Ouverture army had achieved dominance throughout the island of Hispaniola. authorian constitution on Haiti and made himself Governor-General for life, kept formal ties with France.

1804-1824

france driven out of haiti, portugal lost control of brazil and spain lost america except cuba. and puerto rico.

Frederick II

gave Voltaire place at court, wrote history, literary critic, and music. Frederick the Great of Prussia embodied absolutism. Hohenzollern forebearers, forged state that commanded the loyalty of military, junker nobility and Lutheran clergy and growing bureaucracy from mid class and university professors. Promotion through merit=Fred described himself as "the first servant of the State"=own personal and dynastic interests should always come second to welfare of subjects. Protected local interests of Prussian nobles as well as their role in army, needed nobles to qualify for jobs by merit. Prussian Civil Service Commission oversaw gov't appointments. Merit over privilege of birth determined who served the State Professors praised Fred. Required academic training for appointment to positions of authority=nobles attended universities. Studied with middle class who wanted to be clergy or bureaucrats. everyone shared educational background, shared religious values and modern exposure to enlightenment. Religious Toleration=Fred allowed Catholics and Jews to settle in Lutheran community. Protected Silesian Catholics after conquering Habsburg province. Willing to build Turkish mosques if they moved to Prussia. Immanuel Kant and Moses Mendelssohn. Protestants were high up in bureaucracy though Codification of Prussian Law=Objective was to rationalize law system and make it efficient, no weirdness, reducing aristocratic influence, no torture, limit on # of capital crimes. Mid century wars=Fred used power of state to foster economic growth after the impact of these wars. Importing workers from outside Prussia. Developed Prussian agriculture. Swamps drained. New crops. Peasants migrated where they were needed. Potatoes, turnips. Land-mortgage credit, to help landowners raise money for farm improvements. No one really prospered bc taxation.

Universities

genuinely new knowledge= fundamental expansion of science; about man and nature. Look back to the past to make new info. This needs institutions. New Science and politics rejected Aristotelianism and Scholasticism. Ways of approaching da world of smartness defense of ancient against modern.They give physical and financial support for teaching and learning more on natural philosophy, employed scientists like Newton. Italian Universities better than French Universities. Reluctance of Universities to assimilate new science=pioneers know they need foundation for team work and sharing info beyond intellectual institutions. Institutions of sharing=These allowed communication of info and ideas on new science

high mortality

households were reconstituted second-family groups that had stepchildren. Widows were old or hard times =family dissolved. Widow would depend on charity and relatives. Children were dependent or were working quite early. Resort to crime or begging. Family works in context of serfdom and landlord domination. Peasants thought in terms of families and cultivation.

Corn Law

in 1815, enforced to maintain high prices for domestically produced grain by levying import duties on foreign grain. Experience from the Continental System. Corn Price cannot go below a limit. Conservatives like supporting people on the lands. Middle class hates it, corn prices are too high. anti-corn law league

Congress of Troppau

in oct. 1820, 3 eastern powers along with unofficial delegations from britain and france met. Tsar Alexander led holy alliance to issue Protocol of Troppau. Asserted stable governments might intervene to restore order in rebelling countries. Russia hesitated to authorize Austrian intervention in Itailian affairs. Congress of Laibach=settled protocol of troppau. Austrian troops to naples and stomped out rebels, so that the king of two Sicilies could be absolute ruler. Oct. 1820, 3 eastern powers: Metternich, Prussia, Britain, France and Russia - led by Tsar Alexander I, members of Holy Alliance issued Protocol of Troppau asserted the stable government must intervene to restore ordering countries to expressing revolution; states undergoing revolution excluded;maintain peace and conservative

Congress of Vienna

in september 1814-november 1815. 4 gr8 powers conducted the important work of the conference. congress met to ratify arrangements the 4 made. "No single state should be able to dominate Euro." Determined to prevent France. Created German confederation to replace the defunct Holy Roman empire. 39 states under Austrian leadership. Each state was determined to prevent any movement toward constitutionalism in as many of them as possible. in september 1814-november 1815. 4 gr8 powers conducted the important work of the conference. congress met to ratify arrangements the 4 made. "No single state should be able to dominate Euro." Determined to prevent France Restoration of Bourbon Monarchy=Nonvindictive and popular boundary settlement was designed to keep France calm and satisfied. powers strengthened states around France's borders to serve as barriers to renewed French expansion. 1792=Louis XVIII. Kingdom of Netherlands=included Belgium and Luxembourg in the north and added the important port of Genoa to strengthen Piedmont in south. Austria has full control of northern Italy so that repetition of NB's conquests wouldn't happen. Venerable Holy Roman Empire= dissolved in 1806, was not revived. rule of legitimate monarchs and no republican or democratic policies. Alexander I of Russia wanted all of Poland. Prussia could give it to him if they gave them Saxony, an ally of NB. Austria did not surrender Poland or wanted Prussian growth or Russia to penetrate deeper in central Europe. What were chief aims of the Congress of Vienna?Compensation, Offer buffer states (draw lines b/c that's how 'em Europeans solved their probs) Prevent recurrence of Napoleonic nightmare: to arrange a lasting peace. Treaty should secure peace, not victory. Framework for stability not to punish France. Gr8 powers wanted to ensure that they would respect Vienna settlement and not use force to change it.

Frankfurt Parliament

intended to write a moderately liberal constitution for united Germany; liberals in group didn't support workers and rations by refusing to restore protection of guilds; failed to united Germany under Austria or Prussia

The October Diploma (1860)

issued by Francis Joseph created a federation among the states and provinces of the empire included local diets dominated by the landed classes and one imperial government Magyar nobility of Hungary rejected it

Irish Land League

led by Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-1891) they wanted a land settlement since much of the land in Ireland was owned by Protestants of English descent Irish land act of 1881 strengthened tenants' rights Parnell organized Irish members of Parliament to agitate for home rule in Parliament; an opportunity arose in the election of 1885 when the Irish votes were needed by Gladstone to win the election. Gladstone announced his support for Irish home rule Then, a group known as Liberal Unionists joined the Conservatives and defeated home rule for the Irish. Ireland remained firmly under British control. In 1903, the Conservatives sponsored a bill that carried out the final transfer of land to tenant ownership. Home Rule Bill of 1912 granted this right to Irish but it was not to be implemented until after World War I.

Kara George

led guerrilla war against ottomans. ultimately unsuccessful revolution helped build national self-ID and attracted attention.

Why did Russian nobles dislike Franco-Russian alliance?

liberal politics of France Failed marriage negotiations Continental System prohibited timber sales to Britain No help against Ottoman Empire augmentation of Austria's territory organization of polish duchy of warsaw as satellite on Russian doorstep Annexation of Holland in violation of the Treaty of Tilsit recognition of French Marshal Bernadotte as future king Charles XIV of Sweden Marriage to Mary-Louise SO in 1810, Russia withdrew from Continental System.

Sturm and Drang

literally storm and stress. Germany poetry movement that reject French rationalism on German literature. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant both asked questions about rationalism was sufficient to explain human nature and principle for organizing society.

war effort

loss of life and property and its need to organize people and resources Allowed all the belligerent governments to exercise and had furnished vast areas of employment. War had had fueled economies and had furnished vast areas of employment in armies, navies, military industries

$

makes all the difference. Middle class gets all of its say in taxes. property interests, gets what they want. wherewithal and numbers. Corn laws, British Agricultural REvolution can't compete with Brit transport revolution (trains, roads). Wealthy and have power in their hands.

family economy

mode of economy. structure prevailed most of Europe for centuries. household is the basic unit of production and consumption. Household mode of organization is big on farms, artisan workshops, merchant shops.

neolocalism

practice of moving away from from home. Late marriage= Men over 26 and women over 23.women were already pregnant at marriage. premarital sex is common. Couple would employ servant would undertake form of livelihood. Servant=a person who was hired by contract to work for a household for room and board, and wages. Young and not always socially inferior to their employees. 8-10 year servantry allowed kids to acquire productive skills and money to make their household. Death of Father=devastation, money would then depend on land or skills. Widow or kids could take on farm and business. Widow needed to remarry quickly or restore labor and skills of male to the household , to prevent herself from being dependent on extended family.

The Charter

provided hereditary monarchy and bicameral legislature. Chamber of Peers=modeled on Brit house of lords , narrow wiht high property qualification elected to lower house (chamber of deputies). Guaranteed the DoRoMaC. Religious toleration (roman catholicism was official religion). Promised not to challenge property rights of the current owners of land. Louis XVIII became the constitutional monarch and made own constitution The Charter ; provided for a hereditary monarchy and a bicameral legislature , guaranteed most of the Declaration of the Rights of Man & Citizen , religious toleration Roman Catholic official religion ; didn't challenge the property owners ; appointed upperclass to Chamber of Peers and high property qualifications elected lower class, Chamber of Deputies.

neoclassicism

return to figurative, architectural models from Renaissance. Ancient Republican ideals, criticized Old Regime and embraced the French Revolution. Figures were still in tableau, a moral theme. Didactic, not emotional, subject had public lige, public morals, no family or routines or leisure. scenes=contemporary moral and political lessons. Sharp moral contrast to the works of Watteau or Boucher. Oath of Horatii Painted in 1784 by Jacques-Louis David (Foremost French Neoclassicism painter used ancient republican themes to emphasize french corruption in gov't), scene of three soldiers taking oath to die for Rome Republic. Concept of separate spheres for men and women (only not really). Women are emotional and not able to participate in men roles. Artistic champ of FR and Napolean, who made him a baron. Johann Joachim Winckelmann, German archaeologist wrote Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture.1764= The history of Ancient Art. He contrasted fake Rococo and real neoclassicism. Rediscovery of ancient Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Liked Neoclassicism. Jean Antoine Houdon produced numerous portraits of stone in leading philosophes like Voltaire and Rousseau, Ben Franklin and Tom Jefferson.

The Urban Riot

sensitive areas=price of bread, staple food of the poor. Artisan leaders would confiscate bread and sell it for just price More people more demand for grains, so the price of grain is significantly higher. bread riots restrained greedy merchants Swing Riots= widespread uprising by agricultural workers; it began with the destruction of threshing machines in the Elham Valley area of East Kent in the summer of 1830, and by early December had spread throughout the whole of southern England and East Anglia.[1] Luddites=Did not like new technology. One of artisans. Had a skill set that others do not have, now they have some confidence. Because of standardization of parts, they lost Political Riots Hunchback of Notre Dame=Tradition when the world was turned upside down. Married prettiest gypsy women and ugliest man together, they were queen and king together for one day.

Peasants and Serfs

social dependency relies on land free peasants, (english tenants, french cultivators and serfs in Germany, Austria and Russia), legally bound to land justices of Peace presided over county courts and who could call out the local militia were always substantial landowners as were members of Parliament, who made laws.

Lord Byron

the Rebel poet. No sympathy for imagination. Reject the old traditions (divorced and a man *****). And championed personal liberty. Wrote "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" (1812) and "Don Juan" (1819). loved urban life.

Marxism

theory of Karl Marx and Friederich Engels that history is the result of class conflict, which will end in the inevitable triumph of the industrial proletariat over the bouregeoise and the abolition of private property and social class.

Anarchists

theory that government and social institutions are oppressive and unnecessary and society should be based on voluntary cooperation among individuals. Auguste Blaqu spokesperson wanted to attack capital society. Pierre-Joseph Proundhon What is Property? people rejected both industry and control of government - some violet and peaceful: 1840 written by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon an anarchists attacked the banking system which didn't extend credit to small property owners ; wanted credit to expand to allow people to engage in economic enterprise that would not involve unfair profits society organized on basis of mutualism

Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867

transformed the Habsburg Empire into a dual monarchy known as Austria-Hungary. Francis Joseph was crowned king of Hungary in Budapest in 1867. Except for a common monarch, army, and foreign relations, Austria and Hungary became almost wholly separate states. Separate parliaments. Each years, sixty parliamentary delegates from each state met to discuss mutual interests.

Great Fear

urban disturbances across french countryside. Peasants were scared of brigands who were supposed to have stole food. brigands= bad guys sent by government. Aristocrats in National Constituent Assembly tried to stop riot in countryside. Liberal aristocrats and clerics rose in Assembly and renounced their feudal rights, dues and tithes. Surrendered hunting, fishing, judicial authority, and legal exemptions. Received financial compensation for losses.

1697

visit in transparent disguise to western europe dined and conversed with powerful, who thought he was crude at almost seven feet tall. Returned to Moscow, wanting to imitate the elegance. Peter the Great travelled to Europe to learn how to construct ships better, Baltic fleet saved him during Sweden. In the same year Charles XII became king of Sweden. He was headstrong and insane.

Poles, Croats, Czechs

wanted independent states. Ukranians, Romanians, Italians, and Bosnians, saw themselves as potentially linked to Russia. Romanian minority existed in Hungary. Serbia sought expansion to include Serbs living in Habsburg and Ottoman lands. Dominant German population of Austria proper was loyal to the emperor

Charles I

wife is Catholic, raised kids worshiping Catholicism. He resorted to extra-parliamentary measures: levying tariffs+duties, tried to collect discontinued taxes, forced men to a loan (tax to be repaid), imprisoned the haters. Quartered troops in homes, challenged political import of nobles and landowners.

Mercantilism and Mercantile System

words invented by later opponents and critics of the system where governments regulated trade and commerce. Necessary for nation to gain a favorable trade balance of gold and silver. Mercantilist Statesmen and Traders regard world as arena of scare resources and economic limitations. Assumed modest levels of economic growth were possible at dispense of other nation. Wealth of state might expand if armies and Predated expansion of agricultural and industrial productivity. Wealth of state expands only if its armies or navies conquered domestic colonial turf of another state: gained productive capacity of that area. Primary concern was the welfare of mother country. Colony's existence Were there to provide markets and natural resources for industries of motherland (sovereign colony). Motherland gives back protection and administered colonies. All manufactured goods came from motherland. Motherland controlled what colonies could buy and trade.