Combo with "SOC 220: The Strategies of Prevention and Rehabilitation" and 5 others
Describe federal efforts to reduce minority over-representation in the juvenile justice system. What have the states found regarding the extent and causes of minority over-representation in their juvenile justice systems?
Federal governments mandated that states determine whether minorities are over-represented at each decision point in the juvenile justice process. States found that African Americans + Latinos are over-represented and it's partly due to the fact of higher offending rates but also due to discrimination against race.
How might we explain the renewed interest in prevention and rehabilitation programs in the last few years?
-Research that get-tough approaches have no effect or only a modest effect on delinquency -High financial and social costs of many get-tough approaches -Effectiveness of prevention and rehabilitation programs at reducing delinquency
Why did rehabilitation programs fall out of favor in the 1970s?
-Rising crime rates during 1960s-1970s made people question its effectiveness -Criminals considered to be responsible for their own behavior and deserved punishment
Why haven't prevention programs played a greater role in efforts to reduce delinquency in the United States?
-Said to interfere in the private affairs of individuals and families -Costly and ineffective -Odds with the get-tough approach to controlling delinquency, which claims that offenders are responsible for their behavior and deserve punishment
What is Problem-solving training?
1) Search for cues in the environment 2) Interpret these cues 3) Generate possible responses to the situation 4) Consider the possible consequences of the responses 5) Enact the chosen response
What major due process rights were granted in the Gault decision?
1) The right to notification of the charges against them 2) The right to an attorney --- with the state providing an attorney if the juvenile's family cannot afford one 3) The right to confront and cross-examine witnesses 4) The right against self-incrimination
List any three proposals that have been made to reduce poverty and/or the concentration of poverty in the United States
1. Attract jobs to inner-city areas plagued by crime to induce employers to hire in that area 2. Increase pay and benefits associated with jobs to have a living wage 3. Make jobs located in suburban areas more accessible to inner-city residents 4. New jobs in the public sector
How have researchers tried to determine if punishments have a general deterrent effect? Summarize the major research findings regarding general deterrence.
1. Compare geographic areas that differ in terms of certainty/severity of punishment 2. Taking account of third variables and doing longitudinal studies 3. Certainty of punishment 4. Focus on increasing the severity of punishment Increasing certainty has a moderate effect on reducing delinquency, increasing severity has little to no effect.
Many argue that increasing the certainty and severity of punishment will reduce delinquency in three ways (or for three reasons). What are these ways?
1. Deter juveniles who are punished from committing further delinquency 2. Deter juveniles in general population, including those who aren't being punished 3. Result in more juvenile offenders being locked up, which will reduce crime on the street
Why is it sometimes not possible to do randomized experiments when evaluating programs?
1. Ethical Problems (Sending 1 person to jail vs another to intense probations) 2. Practical in nature (policy that affects everyone such as a new law that increases penalties for certain crimes) Cannot use random assignment procedures in that case
What are the general characteristics of successful prevention and rehabilitation programs? Describe the cognitive-behavioral approach.
1. Focus on the major causes of delinquency in the group being treated 2. Are intensive 3. Focus on juveniles at high risk for subsequent delinquency 4. Are run in the community 5. Have a warm but firm relationship between counselors and juveniles
List the three major goals of community policing (or the three things that community policing tries to do in order to overcome the problems of preventive patrol). Provide an example of how police departments have tried to achieve each of these goals (e.g. how police departments have tried to foster closer ties between the police and community residents)
1. Foster closer ties between police and community residents [Assigning officers to the same community for long periods and getting officers to interact more] 2. Attempts to solve the underlying problems that lead to crime [Special task forces + officer interaction] 3. Actively involve community residents in the fight against crime. [Neighborhood watch programs]
Community policing was developed to overcome the problems of preventive patrol. List the three major problems of preventive patrol.
1. Isolates the police from the communities they patrol 2. Does not deal with the underlying causes of crime 3. Does not fully involve community residents in crime control effort
Describe the three major ways of waiving cases to adult courts and their relative frequency of use. Does waiver reduce reoffending?
1. Judicial Waiver --- Judges can waive cases that meet certain criteria to adult court. Must hold waiver meeting. Guidelines usually limit waivers to juveniles above a certain age who are accused of certain offenses 2. Prosecutor Discretion --- Prosecutors allowed to determine whether cases that meet certain criteria will be tried in juvenile or adult court 3. Statutory Waiver--- Certain juvenile offenders automatically sent to adult court. Law states that juveniles above a certain age or be accused of certain serious crimes
List three ways in which states have tried to increase the number of juvenile offenders waived to adult courts.
1. Lower age necessary for waiver 2. Waive certain type of cases to adult courts 3. Prosecutors given power to decide whether certain cases meet adult court criteria 4. Some law cases are automatically tried in adult courses for older juveniles who commit serious crimes / have previous records
Briefly describe the major ways in which juvenile courts have tried to get tough with offenders in recent years. What does the evidence say about the effect of these get-tough measures on how juvenile offenders are treated by the justice system?
1. Mandatory minimum sentences and sentencing guidelines 2. Blended Sentences 3. Waiver to adult court Juveniles resulted in serious changes for serious and chronic offenders with more of them serving time in adult jails (6x)
Why is it that program evaluations often have little effect on the extent to which programs are used?
1. Policy makers and people in the general public are not aware of the results of program evaluations. 2.Effectiveness of certain programs seem self-evident to many people
What are the two major reasons that some programs are ineffective at reducing delinquency?
1. Program Does not Work 2. Program is not properly implemented
Why doesn't punishing offenders deter them from further delinquency?
1. Punishment is not dealt out in an effective manner. 2. Many juveniles are not very responsive to punishment 3. Major causes for an individual's delinquency aren't being addressed through punishment 4. Punishments may sometimes backfire and increase the likelihood of delinquency
List and briefly describe the major stages in the juvenile court process, from referral to disposition
1. Referral to juvenile court --- Taken to juvenile court 2. Complain --- Describes offense that juvenile committed 3. Intake screen --- Interview w/ juvenile + parents + police + victim to decide how the case should be handled 4. Informal processing / Diversion 5. Detention Hearing --- whether juvenile should released to parents or not 6. Detention Facilities--- detained in a secure facility 7. Petition --- Prepare formal petition that describes the offense or offenses that brought hte youth to court 8. Waiver ---- Juveniles may go to adult court 9. Adjudication --- Decision on juvenile 10. Social History or Predisposition Report 11. Risk and Needs Instruments
List three programs or strategies being used to reduce discrimination against minorities by juvenile justice officials.
1. Sensitivity Training for Police and Court workers 2. Explicit guidelines for making decisions including use of risk assessment instruments 3. Closer monitoring of police and court decisions for fairness 4. Developing alternatives to secure detention and confinement 5. Increasing the representation of minorities in police and court sstems
List any three factors that influence the likelihood that police will arrest suspected offenders that they catch
1. Seriousness of the offense 2. Whether the offender has a prior record 3. Whether the complainant presses for arrest 4. Offender's demeanor or attitude 5. Whether the offender's parents seem willing and able to help solve the problem 6. Norms of the police department and community
List the major problems in doing randomized experiments.
1. Sometimes individuals violate the random assignment procedure (judge refusing to assign someone to control group) 2. Many of the juveniles randomly assigned to the treatment and control groups may not complete the experiment 3. Measurement of delinquency. Delinquency is often measured in terms of arrest rates 4. Issue of Generalizability 5. Researchers don't take steps in dealing with these problems
Provide a brief overview of the number and types of cases (e.g. property crime, violent crime) handled by juvenile court. Describe the sociodemographic characteristics of those individuals who have the highest rate of court referral.
1.4 million of cases 39% property crimes 25% public order offenses 24% violent crimes 11% drug offenses 72% male and majority African American and Older juveniles more likely to be processed in court
List the major points made about how the police operate?
1.Police mainly do preventative patrolling 2. Only spend a small amount of time dealing with crime 3. They are typically reactive in nature 4. When the police do discover or hear about a crime, they usually do not catch the offender 5. If the police do catch the offender, they usually do not arrest the person
What is one of the reasons why the police end up releasing (without arrest) most of the suspected offenders they catch?
1.The police and courts would be overwhelmed if all suspected offenders were arrested 2. Police have low opinion of juvenile court 3. Juvenile offenders may be best dealt with in an informal manner 4. Juvenile might seem like a good kid
Many argue that the juvenile court is not tough enough in dealing with serious offenders. What do the data say in this area? (Describe data on the punishments received by serious offenders in juvenile court and on the punishment given out in juvenile versus adult court.)
69% formally processed 60% were adjudicated delinquents 2% waived to adult courts Most serious offenders referred to juvenile courts do not receive severe sanctions Adult courts more likely to incarcerate serious juvenile offenders and incarcerate them for longer period of times than juvenile courts
Describe a before-and-after study or evaluation. Describe the major problem with such studies in determining program effectiveness.
A before and after evaluation/study involves examining the levels of delinquency before and after juveniles participate in a program. Problems: 1.Cannot safely claim that the program is effective ~ delinquent behaviors could've been reduced for other reasons like age or entering adulthood / maturing out of delinquency
What is a petition?
A description of the offense or offenses that brought the youth to juvenile court
What are mandatory minimum sentences?
A predetermined amount of time is given to an offender usually for serious crimes
What is Head Start?
A preschool program that can help improve school performance and reduce delinquency
What is Intake officer?
A probation officer associated with the court
What are Job Corps?
A program of the federal government that has a purpose of teaching job skills and helping juveniles find employment.
What is Social history or predisposition report?
A report designed to provide a detailed picture of the juvenile and his or her problems, and to suggest supervision and treatment plans
What is problem-oriented policing (POP)? Describe the four steps in POP.
A type of community policing designed to deal with the underlying causes of crime POP Steps: 1. Scanning 2.Analysis 3.Response 4.Asseessment
What is problem-oriented pricing (POP)?
A type of community policing that is designed to deal with the underlying causes of crime
What is preventative patrol?
A uniformed officer cruises an assigned beat in a marked patrol car
What are teen courts?
Affiliated with juvenile courts, police departments, schools, and private agencies like YMCA. Receive referrals from intake officers and hear facts about the case and determine the disposition the youth will receive
Many studies find evidence of discrimination against African Americans. Describe the stereotypes of African American juveniles that contribute to this discrimination.
African american juveniles more likely than white juveniles to be dangerous, disrespectful, and to engage in crime because of negative personality traits and bad attitudes as opposed to negative environmental factors.
What is juvenile aftercare? Briefly describe the model aftercare program developed by the Officee of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
Aftercare services are similar to probations: juvenile is supervised by someone associated with the juvenile justice system. They receive counseling and participate in special treatment programs
What is Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE)?
An example of community policing to work with the community in dealing with the underlying causes of crime to prevent drug abuse, violence, and gang affiliation
What is an experiment?
An experiment is a doing something to a group of people and then observing the consequences
What is a randomized experiment?
An experiment that has the participants randomly assigned
What is deterrence?
Based on the fear of punishment.
What do we mean when we state that the results of an experiment may not be generalizable?
Because a random sample of juveniles or juvenile offenders were not used, in fact, they typically were nonrepresentative of a group of juveniles in a location. May be effective for juveniles for that particular group being treated but not necessarily juveniles in other settings.
What is a Statutory waiver?
Certain juvenile offenders will automatically be sent to adult court ~ above a certain age + accused of certain serious offenses usually violent offenses
Why has there been a renewed focus on rehabilitation since the early 2000s?
Certain rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing delinquency and cost less to run than punitive approaches
List a major factor said to influence whether the police and juvenile courts in certain areas discriminate against African Americans. Briefly describe what the research says about this factor.
Communities where minority group members are more likely to be viewed as a threat to whites. Those communities in which there are higher levels of African American/Latino residents, high levels of crime, and high levels of racial inequality tend to have more perceived threat.
What is community policing?
Community policing fosters closer ties between police and community residents, attempts to solve underlying problems that lead to crime, and actively involve community residents in the fight against crime
What is a Complaint?
Complains describe the offenses the juvenile has committed
How do conflict and labeling theories explain discrimination against minority groups and the lower class?
Conflict and labeling theory argue that powerful groups in society view minority groups and poor people as a threat to their economic and cultural interests. Whites respond to perceived threat by exercising greater social control over minority group members. Also general stereotypes against particular groups derived from media and other sources. Seen more as dangerous and threatening and increases likelihood of arrest.
Why do criminologists feel that the police are somewhat effective at controlling crime?
Crime rate would increase if there were no police
Describe any two community-policing initiatives other than POP (initiatves like DARE, CAPS, and youth organizations). Indicate why these initiatives are said to be examples of community policing
DARE: An example of community policing to work with the community in dealing with the underlying causes of crime to prevent drug abuse, violence, and gang affiliation CAPS: Patrol officers are organized into beats corresponding to local communities with some officers permanently assigned. Encouraged to interact with community members
For what type of offenses are juveniles confined? Describe the sociodemographic characteristics of juveniles with high rates of confinement.
Delinquent offenses (95%) and status offense (5%) 27% violent crimes Most are not held for violent crimes 41% black 32% non-hispanic whites 22% latino 1% asian 2% native american
What is Petition?
Describes the offense or offenses that brought the youth to juvenile court
What is general deterrence?
Deter the general population from committing further crime
What is specific deterrence?
Deter those were punished from committing further crime
What is meant by "deterrence"? How is deterrence related to control and social learning theories?
Deterrence is based off of the fear of punishments --- punishing offenders deters other people from committing crime. Control --- Direct Control ~ probability of criminal acts will be detected and punished by others Social Learning --- Delinquency is less likely if punished ~
What is meant by direct and indirect discrimination? Give a clear-cut example of direct discrimination. Give two clear-cut examples of indirect discrimination.
Direct Discrimination--- If African Americans are treated more severely than similar whites, it is evidence for direct or overt discrimination. Ex: Police treating an African American more severely because of race. Indirect Discrimination--- African Americans aren't treated more severely because of direct discrimination but because race is associated with other variables that influence treatment by the police and courts Ex: African Americans more likely to be poor and live in poor communities who are more likely to be patrolled and arrested and treated severely Ex: Family status and race. Juveniles that are African American are more likely to be in single status homes who are then more likely to be treated more severely.
Describe the evidence on class-based discrimination by juvenile justice officials.
Discrimination exists against lower class juveniles in at least certain communities. Economic status of neighborhood may have more police patrolling, stopping and questioning individuals, and arresting people form such neighborhoods. Lower class neighborhoods also have people congregate on the streets
Is discrimination by the police and courts more likely for certain types of crime? Describe the research in this area
Discrimination may be greater for less serious crimes where police and court officials have more discretion over how to handle the cases.
What are Drug Courts
Drug courts attempt to identify and refer individuals with drug problems to the court where a treatment program is developed for the individual who is then monitored to ensure that the plan is followed through. Rewards for compliance and punishments for noncompliance
We provided moderately detailed descriptions of prevention and rehabilitation programs in The early family environment For each area, describe what is done to prevent delinquency and rehabilitate delinquents, describe the effectiveness of such efforts, and describe the causes of delinquency that the prevention or rehabilitation program address.
Early Family Environment--- Reduce the child's exposure to biological harms by providing medical care to the child and mother and by providing health and safety training to the parents. Attempt to foster good parenting practices by reducing parental stress and providing information on good parenting. Often provide educational childcare. Addresses biological harm and family factors that are related to delinquency, including emotional bond b/t parents and child, level of parental supervision, and child abuse and neglect. Reduces likelihood that families produce delinquent children
Describe the essential features of a randomized experiment. Explain why it is important to randomly assign individuals to the treatment and control groups.
Essential Features: Treatment Group + Control Group + Random Assignment 1. Start with a single group of juveniles 2. Randomly assign to one group (Treatment / Control) 3. Measure Delinquency It's important for random assignment of individuals to treatment and control groups because the individuals would be roughly identical in terms of age and other third variables, reducing the chance of third variables causing delinquency.
What is zero-tolerance policing?
Even minor acts of crimes are sanctioned
What is a before-and-after study or evaluation?
Examining the levels of delinquency before and after juveniles participate in a program
List and briefly describe the major types of juvenile correctional facilities.
Group home / halfway house --- nonsecure facilities that house a small number of juveniles Wilderness/ outdoor programs --- Juveniles have physically challenging activities and learn to work together, follow directions, and overcome challenges that are designed to increase their coping skills and self-esteem Training Schools --- Closest to adult prisions.. Focus on security and do not offer sufficient treatment. a lot of violence and inmate subculture
Describe the evaluation data on diversion programs.
Higher rates of recidivism than those who experienced traditional juvenile court sanctions
What is Direct discrimination?
If African Americans are treated more severely than similar whites
What are Detention hearing?
If the case if to be formally processed, the intake officer must also decide whether to release the juvenile to his or her parents or guardians or detain the juvenile while he or she is awaiting trial
The OJJDP advocates a system of "graduated sanctions." Describe this system.
Immediate sanctions for first-time nonviolent offenders, intermediate sanctions for more serious offenders, and secure care programs for the most violent offenders.
What are graduated sanctions?
Immediate sanctions for first-time nonviolent offenders, intermediate sanctions for more serious offenders, and secure care programs for the most violent offenders.
What is an "implementation" or "process" evaluation? Why is it important to do such evaluations?
Implementation or process evaluation is used to determine whether the program was properly implemented which may help explain why they are not effective in reducing delinquency. Especially if certain things were not implemented properly.
How might we go about increasing the certainty of punishment?
Increasing the police staff and the juvenile court staff in order to punish the juveniles. Increasing crackdowns through a rotating crackdown. Providing more resources for the juvenile courts and correctional agencies.
How are informally processed cases dealt with? What are diversion programs and the alleged advantages of such programs? Why is it that diversion programs do not save as much money or staff time as expected?
Informal probation for a brief period of time like 90 days and the juvenile is supervised by a probation officer with requirements for the juvenile to do. The case is usually dismissed if the juvenile finishes the informal probation requirements. Diversion programs feature juveniles who might have been released by the court in the past rather than formally processed.
What is Informal processing?
Informally processed cases are dealt with through informal probation or the juvenile may be required to attend school, abide by a curfew, attend a drug treatment program, participate in family counseling. If informal probation is completed then case is usually dismissed
What is a Cognitive-behavioral approach?
Instructors describe to juveniles what they want Instructors display or model what it is they want juveniles to do Instructors get the juvenile to practice the technique Juvenile begins to apply technique to situation s in the real world Juvenile reaches a point where regular instruction is no longer necessary
What are intermediate sanctions? List and briefly describe the major intermediate sanctions. What do the evaluation data say about the effectiveness of intermediate sanctions?
Intermediate sanctions are designed to provide more control and punishment than what juveniles receive on regular sanctions. Restitution + Intensive supervision programs + boot camps. Reasonably popular but generally do not produce promising results
What are the disadvantages of incapacitation as a crime control strategy?
It's difficult to determine who are high-rate offenders. Ethical problems of someone who commits the same offense with one being "predicted" as going to commit more being given more time than someone who is predicted as going to commit fewer future offenses.
What is a Judicial Waiver?
Judges can waive cases that meet certain criteria to adult court. A waiver hearing must be held usually after intake and petition. Based off "amenable to treatment" and probable cause
List two ways in which the confidentiality of juvenile court hearings has been reduced
Juvenile court hearings used to be closed to public and name never revealed. Now less concern for protecting juvenile offender and more concern with protecting society. 1) Require permit/open source hearings for juveniles accused of certain serious crimes 2) Allow the names of juveniles convicted of certain serious offenses to be released to the public 3) Allow greater access to juvenile court records 4) Make it more difficult for juveniles to expunge or destroy their court records
What are blended sentences?
Juvenile courts can sentence serious offenders to long period of confinement by beginning their time in juvenile correctional institutions then adult institutions
Why doesn't the juvenile court system give out more severe sanctions?
Juvenile courts can't sanction an individual without good evidence that they committed the crime. Emphasis on rehabilitation over punishment
What is Adjudication?
Juvenile equivalent of an adult trial. Hearing before juvenile court judge to determine whether the juvenile committed the offenses described in the petition.
What are wilderness or outdoor programs?
Juveniles are provided physically challenging activities and learn how to work together, follow directions,, and overcome challenges that are designed to increase coping skills and self-esteem
What is Boot Camp?
Juveniles are sent to military style boot camps for 3-6 months with officials like drill sergeants.
What is group effect?
Juveniles commit crimes in group and locking up one in a group does not stop the rest from committing the crime
What is Gault decision?
Juveniles have the following rights: 1) The right to notification of the charges against them 2) The right to an attorney-- with the state providing an attorney if the juvenile's family cannot afford one 3) The right to confront and cross-examine witnesses 4) THe right against self-incrimination
What is Situational crime prevention?
Juveniles most likely to engage in delinquency when they are in situations where they are provoked by others and purpose is to reduce the likelihood of encountering someone who will provoke them
What is Intake screening?
Juveniles referred to juvenile court are screened by an intake officer. Feature an interview with the juvenile and his/her parents or guardians and potentially victims
What is Intensive supervision probation (ISP)?
Juvenils are subject to frequent home visits and random drug tests. Juveniles may be subject to electronic monitoring (tamper proof) and confined to homes
What is Group home or halfway house?
Nonsecure facilities that house a small number of juveniles . Group homes are are places instead of a more secure institution whereas a halfway house is after serving time in an institution
Why do we state that "larger social forces" play a crucial role in the prevention of delinquency? What larger social force do we highlight, and why?
Larger social forces play a major role in generating problems such as dysfunctional families, school failure, gangs, and neighborhoods plagued by crimes and other problems Economic forces are most important because poverty contributes to a range of problems conducive to crime and delinquency
How do the institutional experiences of females differ from those of males?
Males are more likely to be confined for serious violent crimes and females more likely to be confined for status offenses. Females more likely to be confined for violations of probation or parole. Female more likely to have been victims of abuse and to have run away from home. Treatment programs less available in female than male institutions. Male and females cope differently with confinement (females create stronger bonds & males have inmate subculture)
Why do some criminologists predict that males are more likely than females to be severely punished for serious delinquent acts, while females are more likely to be severely punished for many status offenses?
Males are seen as more dangerous than females and will be punished severely for serious delinquent acts while females who engage in sexual behavior / engage in certain status offenses will sanctioned more severely because they are viewed more seriously.
Describe the evidence on gender-based discrimination by justice officials.s
Males more likely to be arrested and treated severely for delinquent offenses than females. Males more likely to be seen as a threat. Females more likely to be treated severely for status offenses, especially running away and being incorrigible. Association between status offenses and more promiscuous sexual behaviors.
Briefly describe mandatory minimum sentences, sentencing guidelines, and blended sentences.
Mandatory minimum sentences --- Certain offenses have a minimum amount of time that someone must serve Sentencing Guidelines --- Taking into account the offense, extent of prior record, and age, the juvenile receives a recommendation of a minimum sentencing and a maximum sentencing Blended Sentences --- The juvenile court needed to be able to be more powerful, so juveniles may spend their juvenile years in a juvenile facility and then transition into an adult jail.
Describe the evaluation research on community policing
Many community policing efforts have not been subject to rigorous evaluation but DARE doesn't work but neighborhood watch and problem-oriented policing appears to reduce crime in some circumstances. Holds promise for reducing crime
Why are prevention and rehabilitation programs unlikely to eliminate delinquency?
Many programs are difficult to implement, so it's difficult to ensure that everyone who needs the programs participates in them.
Briefly describe the other prevention and rehabilitation programs that were mentioned (eg. mentoring, supervised recreational opportunities) and the evidence on their effectiveness
Mentoring --- Mentor delinquent juveniles with nonprofessional volunteers. Serve as role models / offer guidance and help juveniles deal with problems Supervised recreational opportunities--- After school programs that attempt to monitor youth who might otherwise be unsupervised Vocational Training and Employment Programs--- Programs teach job skills and help juvniles find employment Situational Crime Prevention--- Strategies developed to reduce the likelihood that individuals will encounter situations that will make them engage in delinquency Programs that address drug use, mental health, and guns --- Drug courts. Mental health courts. Reduce prevalence of guns. Community Crime Prevention --- Attacking community problems that contribute to delinquency such as economic deprivation. Neighborhood watch.
What is Restitution?
Monetary payment or work directly to the crime victim. Holds juveniles accountable for their offenses and pay back for the harm that they may have caused
What is substitution effect (regarding incapacitation)?
No crime is prevented because people are interchangeable. One criminal is caught then another person replaces them . It's higher for certain crimes like drug selling
Describe the evaluation data on the effectiveness of juvenile correctional facilities.
No more effective at reducing offending than many community-based alternatives. Some data says it may be easier to reduce re offending community-based programs
Describe the two major types of nonrandomized experiments (the "nonequivalent control group" design and the "time series" design) .Describe the disadvantages of these designs (compared to randomized experiments).
Nonequivalent Control Group --- Researchers attempt to create a control group that is similar to the treatment group by "matching" two groups on all relevant variables that may affect subsequent delinquency or find a state with similar laws. [Disadvantages: may not be sure that the treatment and control groups are roughly identical] Time Series Design--- Researchers periodically measure delinquency before the program or policy takes effect and then after the program or policy takes effect [Disadvantages: Decrease in delinquency could be due to factors that coincided with introduction of the new law like improved economy]
Police crackdowns do not appear to displace crime from one area to another. Why might this be the case?
Offenders may mistakenly believe that the crackdowns include the surrounding areas and do not engage in crime at that time
Describe the major goals of juvenile court. Indicate how these goals have changed over time and why
Originally set up to rehabilitate juveniles rather than punish them. Now: Increased emphasis on holding juveniles accountable for their offenses and punishing them.
We provided moderately detailed descriptions of prevention and rehabilitation programs in parent training, For each area, describe what is done to prevent delinquency and rehabilitate delinquents, describe the effectiveness of such efforts, and describe the causes of delinquency that the prevention or rehabilitation program address.
Parent Training Programs--- Teach parents how to more effectively discipline their children. Teach family members how to better resolve conflicts with one another. Also teach family members better communication skills, alter the expectations that parents have for their children and encourage family members to spend more time together in pleasurable activities. Strengthens the bond between parent and child, improve parental discipline and reduce family conflict and abuse. Effectiveness: Promote the social learning of conventional behavior. Increase in control (direct). Reduce negative labeling. Addresses: Weak emotional bonds b/t parents and child, poor supervision, abuse and neglect, and family conflict
What is Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy (CAPS)?
Patrol officers are organized into beats corresponding to local communities with some officers permanently assigned. Encouraged to interact with community members
Describe zero-tolerance policing.
Police are cracking down on minor signs of disorder. Minor acts of crimes are sanctioned. The strategy has a modest effect on crime --- especially if focused on high-crime areas or hot spots.
What are police crackdowns?
Police attempting to improve their ability to detect crimes or solve crimes by focusing their resources on a particular area
How do the police spend most of their time?
Police cruise their beat, performing administrative tasks like filling out paperwork, and taking breaks. Not spent on answering calls or on officer-initiated encounters with the public usually
Describe the strategy of "police crackdowns." Indicate what it is that the police crackdown on. What causes of crime do police crackdowns address?
Police focus on certain areas or "hot spots" where crime is common and on certain types of crime. They address the problems of stretched resources.
How does "random assignment" differ from selecting a "random sample"?
Random assignment differs from random sample because most juveniles are not from a random sample because they are referred by a court for offenses and those do not constitute a sample of all juveniles
We provided moderately detailed descriptions of prevention and rehabilitation programs in school factors. For each area, describe what is done to prevent delinquency and rehabilitate delinquents, describe the effectiveness of such efforts, and describe the causes of delinquency that the prevention or rehabilitation program address.
Preschool Programs--- Head Start program ~ focuses on pre-school children in disadvantaged areas and attempt to promote the social and intellectual development of these children. In-School Programs--- Attempt to improve the school performance of individual students and address other school experiences related to delinquency. Tutoring to students & contracts with juveniles to attend school, do schoolwork, and behave properly Altering the classroom environment --- Interactive teaching, proactive classroom management, and cooperative learning groups. Changing the School Environment--- Creating teams that include school administrators, teachers, parents, students, and others that attempts to reduce downtime of students and have more active parent involvement. Effectiveness: Substantial impact on school factors that are associated with delinquency Addresses: Poor school performance, low attachment to school, low school involvement, low educational goals, and poor relations with teachers
What is preventative patrol?
Preventative patrolling involves a uniformed officer cruising around an assigned beat in a marked patrol car
What are prevention programs?
Prevention programs attempt to increase other types of control, reduce strain or the tendency to respond to strain with crime, reduce the social learning of crime, and/or reduce negative labeling. Try to prevent juveniles from becoming delinquent in the first place
We provided moderately detailed descriptions of prevention and rehabilitation programs in individual traits. For each area, describe what is done to prevent delinquency and rehabilitate delinquents, describe the effectiveness of such efforts, and describe the causes of delinquency that the prevention or rehabilitation program address.
Problem-Solving Training --- 1) Search for cues in the environment 2) Interpret these cues 3) Generate possible responses to the situation 4) Consider the possible consequences of the responses 5) Enact the chosen responses Anger Management--- Teach juveniles how to limit or control their anger with the goal of promoting more adaptive behaviors. Explore causes and consequences of anger and then learn techniques to control it. Then practice applying it in real situations. Effectiveness: Targeting individual traits may reduce strain, reduce negative labeling, increase control, and foster the social learning of conventional behavior. Super-traits of low self control and irritability contribute to delinquency
What is a Prosecutor discretion?
Prosecutors allowed to determine whether cases that meet certain criteria will be tried in juvenile or adult court
What is "general deterrence"?
Punishment deters delinquency among juveniles in the general population, including those who were not punished.
How can we punish in a more effective manner?
Punishments are likely to deter further crime under the following circumstances: 1)The likelihood of meaningful punishment is high 2) Individuals who are punished have some concern for the costs of crime 3)Punishment is combined with rehabilitation 4) Steps are taken to minimize or counteract the negative effects of punishment
What is indirect discrimination?
Race is associated with other variables that influence treatment by police and court
What is Incapacitation?
Reducing crime by locking up or incarcerating specific individuals so that can not commit crimes on the street
List and briefly describe the major dispositions or sentences received by adjudicated delinquents and their relative frequency of use.
Regular Probation ---- Supervision and treatment of the juvenile in the community by a probation officer. Must satisfy certain conditions Intermediate Sanctions --- Restitution and Fines and Intensive Supervision Programs and Boot camps Out-of-Home placements --- juveniles placed out of their homes in residential facilities featuring private residential facilities, wilderness programs, and training schools
What is Nonequivalent control group design?
Researchers cannot randomly assign individuals to the treatment and control groups, so they may attempt to deliberately create a control group that is similar to the treatment group
What is implementation or process evaluation?
Researchers evaluate whether the program was properly implemented which may explain the effects on delinquency
How do researchers try to determine if juvenile justice officials discriminate against minority group members?
Researchers examine "decision points" in the juvenile justice process such as the decision to arrest a juvenile, refer the juvenile to juvenile court, to formally process the juvenile, to detain the juvenile, or to place the juvenile in an institution.
How have researchers tried to determine the size of the incapacitation effect? Why do researchers sometimes overestimate the size of the incapacitation effect?
Researchers examine how many crimes an offender commits each year that they are free and then multiply it by how many years they are in prison to show how many crimes are prevented per year.
What is random assignment?
Researchers start out with a single group of individuals are randomly assign each juvenile to either the treatment or control group
What is Generalizability?
Researchers who evaluate a program rarely can begin with a random sample of juveniles and instead there is no guarantee that the program may be effective for other juveniles; results of a program evaluation may not necessarily be generalized to other juveniles
What is the restorative justice approach? Describe the goals of restorative justice, how the approach is implemented (e.g., the conference), and how the approach tries to sanction in a more effective manner.
Restorative justice approach ---Sanction offenders in a more effective manner by holding delinquents accountable for their offenses and impose meaningful sanctions on them. Restorative Justice Conference --- The conference includes the offender, the offender's family, supporters of the offender, the victim, a few supporters of the victim, police to have the victim describe the wrongdoing, the community representative discuss the effect on the community, and discuss how the crime might be repaired. Restitution. The approach tries to sanction more effectively because it tries to approach it in a way as to not increase the likelihood of further crime and address parts of causes of crime beyond direct control.
What does the evaluation research say about the restorative justice approach?
Restorative justice approach attempts to sanction offenders in a way that does not increase the likelihood of further crime. Also tries to address at least the causes of crime beyond direct control
What is Due Process Rights?
Rights such as the right to an attorney and to present and cross-examine witnesses.
What is Risk and needs assessment instruments?
Risk Assessment Instruments --- Attempt to predict which juveniles are most likely to commit offenses in the future. Instruments measure the juveniles' standing on a number of factors found to predict future offending in that particular court in a sample of juvenile courts Needs Assessment Instruments --- List those factors known to cause delinquency, like individual, family, school, and peer problems
What is restorative justice?
Sanction offenders in a more effective manner by holding delinquents accountable for their offenses and impose meaningful sanctions on them.
What are Hotspots?
Sections of a high-crime area that produce significant amount of crime
What is "selective incapacitation"?
Selective incapacitating involves choosing to confine high-rate offenders to create a bigger incarceration effect.
What is selective incapacitation?
Selectively confining high-rate offenders
How have researchers tried to determine if punishments have a specific deterrent effect?
Sending juvenile offenders to institutions if no more effective at reducing offending than many community-based alternatives. They conduct studies on the effects of each punishment.
What are sentencing guidelines?
Sentencing guidelines typically classify the juveniles into categories based on seriousness of offense, extent of prior record, age then specify minimum and maximum sentences for juveniles in each category.
What are the two most important determinants of how juveniles are treated in the juvenile justice system?
Seriousness of their offense Prior record
What are Diversion Programs?
Services like individual and family counseling, mentoring, tutoring, drug treatment and employment counseling
What are the Parent Training Programs?
Target families of delinquents or juveniles at risk for delinquency. Help with poor parenting
What are training schools?
Similar to adult prisons --- large, focused on security, and do not offer sufficient treatment
What is aftercare?
Similar to probation: juvenile is supervised by someone associated with the juvenile justice system.
Why is it important for researchers studying discrimination to examine all the major points in the juvenile justice process??
Small to moderate amounts of discrimination at several points in the juvenile justice process may have a large overall effect, leading to an overall larger proportion of African Americans that are confined in institutions.
What is "specific deterrence"?
Specific deterrence is reducing the likelihood of delinquency among those who are punished
Why do we suggest that efforts to incapacitate juvenile offenders have only a modest effect on the level of juvenile crime?
Substitution Effect ---- Someone else takes place of the offender so when one person is locked up, another person is committing the crime. Group Effect --- Juveniles typically commit crimes in groups so the group may continue with the crimes even after someone is locked up Juvenile offenders mature out of delinquency when they get jobs, enter college, or form families of their own Additional offenders may be exaggerated because additional offenders may not commit as much crimes as the offenders who are already locked up. They might commit crimes at a lower rate
We provided moderately detailed descriptions of prevention and rehabilitation programs in delinquent peers and gangs. For each area, describe what is done to prevent delinquency and rehabilitate delinquents, describe the effectiveness of such efforts, and describe the causes of delinquency that the prevention or rehabilitation program address.
Suppression Programs by the police and courts --- Target gangs in certain areas by gathering information, increasing patrols of hot spots, and monitoring gang members. Crisis Intervention Programs--- Mediators make an active effort to learn about disputes or conflicts between gang members that might erupt into violence. Encourage people to call them and try to reduce gang conflict. Rehabilitation Programs--- Offer counseling, mentoring, programs focusing on family problems, help with school problems, vocational training, and assistance finding a job Prevention Programs--- Attempt to discourage juveniles from joining gangs and to teach them the skills to resist gang and peer influence. Effectiveness: Some approaches have failed while others show promise Associating with delinquent peers and gang members is a major cause of delinquency. Reduces control, contributes to the social learning of crime, exposes juveniles to delinquent models, teaches beliefs favorable to delinquency, and reinforces delinquency.
What is an inmate subculture?
System of values that emphasize the exploitation of weaker inmates and noncooperation with the staff
Describe how a typical teen court works, from referral of case to sentencing. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of teen courts (e.g. do you think teen courts reduce labeling, increase control, and so on?)
Teen courts receive referrals from intake officers and are typically first-time offenders with minor offenses. They hear the facts surrounding the offense and determine the disposition. Advantages: Avoid formal labeling Disadvantage: Informal labeling
Describe the police crackdown in Boston, focusing on gun violence.
The Boston police told gang members to stop the violence or face intensive police scrutiny and the police saturated the areas where gangs hung out, disrupting drug markets and placed severe restrictions on gang members.
Why do many criminologists believe that the United States places too much emphasis on get-tough approaches?
The approaches have no effect or only a modest effect on delinquency yet they only address one of the many causes of delinquency.
What is restorative justice conference?
The conference includes the offender, the offender's family, supporters of the offender, the victim, a few supporters of the victim, police to have the victim describe the wrongdoing, the community representative discuss the effect on the community, and discuss how the crime might be repaired. Restitution
What is the purpose of adjudicatory hearings?
The equivalent of an adult trial. Determines whether the juvenile has committed the offenses described in the petition.
What is certainty and severity of punishment?
The extent of the punishment and how much it's guaranteed for the offender which increases the fear of punishment among those who are punished and those in the general population
What is meant by an "incapacitation effect"?
The incapacitation effect is how many crimes are prevented by locking up offenders.
What is a control group or comparison group?
The juveniles who do not participate in the program. The two groups are roughly identical with one another
What is a treatment group?
The juveniles who participate in the program
What steps are the police taking to reduce abusive police behavior?
The need to focus more narrowly on known offenders, by monitoring repeat offenders and working with communities to identify problem individuals Expand existing police officer training to encourage respectful policing that makes people feel as if they are treated fairly Emphasize strategies aimed at reducing the number of stops that escalate to threats of physical force
it is difficult for the police to permanently crack down on all "hot spots" for crime. What alternative strategy do Sherman and associates suggest that the police pursue?
The police should rotate crackdowns in an unpredictable manner which would then reduce crimes
What do we mean when we say that the police are primarily "reactive" in nature?
The police usually don't discover crimes instead people report it to the police instead. They may try to do detective work but they generally are reactive in nature
What is police discretion in making arrests?
The police's decision on whether to arrest suspected offenders
What are the major purposes of intake screening?
The purpose of intake screening is to gather information about the case and decide what to do with the juvenile
What is a social history or predisposition report?
The report is designed to provide a detailed picture of the juvenile and his or her problems and to suggest supervision and treatment plans
What is Time series design?
The researcher periodically measures delinquency before the program or policy takes effect then after the program or policy takes effect
What is Probation?
The supervision and treatment of the juvenile in the community by a probation officer
What major challenges have researchers faced when trying to determine whether hiring more police will reduce crime? What does the most recent evidence in this area indicate?
There are third variables that may affect both the number of police and crime rates. Reciprocal effect ~ increase in number of crime cause police hires and demonstrating a higher police per capita No good evidence that increasing number of police will reduce crime
Why has the Supreme Court not granted juveniles the right to jury trials?
There is still some difference between the goals of juvenile courts and those of adult courts. Juries would be highly disruptive of the informal, cooperative atmosphere in which everyone tried to find the child's best interests
What are intermediate sanctions?
These sanctions are designed to provide more control and punishment than juveniles receive on regular probation, but they are less extreme and costly than confinement in an institution
What do risk and needs assessment instruments try to do? What are their advantages? What special programs might arise when they are used with females and African Americans?
They attempt to predict which juveniles are most likely to commit offenses in the future and list known factors to cause delinquency like family, school, and peer problems
How do prevention and rehabilitation programs differ from get-tough approaches? How does prevention differ from rehabilitation?
They do not try to reduce delinquency by increasing direct control by the juvenile justice system. Prevention programs try to prevent juveniles from becoming delinquent in the first place; rehabilitation programs try to reduce the delinquency of juveniles who are already delinquent
How is it that many status offenders are still confined?
They may be charged with minor criminal offenses which allow for confinement
What happens to juveniles placed on probation? What are the two major functions of probation officers? What do the evaluation data say about the effectiveness of probation?
They must satisfy certain conditions such as reporting to their probation officer at regular intervals, attending school regularly, being home by a certain hour every day, and not associating with certain people. Probation does little if not properly enforced
Why did we state that the over-representation of African Americans at various points in the juvenile justice process does not by itself prove that discrimination exists?
They potentially commit more delinquent acts. African Americans engage in more delinquency and more serious delinquent act than other groups.
What is Crisis Intervention Programs (for gangs)
Try to prevent disputes from escalating into violence for gang members. Mediators make an active effort to learn about disputes that might erupt and patrol the gang areas and encourage people to call when problems arise and reduce gang conflict
What are Rehabilitation programs?
Try to reduce the delinquency of juveniles who already are delinquent.
What is the War on Poverty?
War on Poverty was initiated by President Kennedy in the early 1960s and the purpose was to reduce crime and delinquency by increasing the opportunities for people to achieve success through legitimate channels
Under what conditions are police crackdowns most likely to be effective?
When the police are able to do the following things: 1) Identify the key individuals or high crime areas to be targeted 2) Clearly communicate to these individuals or the people in these areas that some or all illegal acts will not be tolerated 3) Adequately monitor the behavior of these individuals or the people in these areas 4) Consistently punish illegal acts, with punishments being reasonably swift and meaningful
Under what circumstances are the police most likely to catch offenders? Why is it that efforts to improve police response time have had little effect on the likelihood of catching offenders?
When the police do make an arrest, it is usually because they catch the offender at the scene or there is someone who can identify or help identify the offender. The large majority of people don't call the police until after the crime is over so response time makes little difference
What is Referral?
Youth are referred to the juvenile court by the police