Comm 203 Final
Two types of ways to study social science
Quantitative -prevalence (visibility) -portrayal (context) Qualitative -cultural/critical work -prototypes
race
Race included four categories: blacks, whites, Latinos, others
Questions that arise about the Werther effect is whether the effect is just a repositioning or rescheduling effect as opposed to an additive effect. Basically, would the people who committed suicide after the news story decide to commit suicide anyway at some later point in time?
Results showed that the sudden increases in suicide following a media story about a suicide result in a genuine addition to the number of suicides that would have occurred had the story never been published.
Weapons of Influence
Robert Cialdini identified at least 6 principles that he claims are ubiquitous in daily life. By learning to recognize these principles, you may be able to guard against the bombardment of persuasive attempts from the mass media. They are: Reciprocity Commitment and consistency Social proof Liking Authority Scarcity
Need for Cognition (NFC)
"a need to structure relevant situations in meaningful, integrated ways... a need to understand and make reasonable the experimental world." - Certain people have a high NFC compared to other people. (some people are simply motivated to think a lot) - people with a higher NFC were more likely to be interested in media dealing with politics. -people with a high NFC prefer public television and news programing. - some people may be more likely to think about a news report after exposure - Data shows that regardless of how much people trust or distrust the news, they still watch it because of need for cognition • Trustworthy or not, the news gives these high NFC folks stuff to think about.
Dixon & Maddox: Moderators
Skin Tone Prior News Viewing
Dixon & Maddox (2005)
Skin Tone, Crime News, and Social Reality Judgments: Priming the Stereotype of the Dark and Dangerous Black Criminal
Mok
Stereotypes of Asian Americans in the media
Dixon & Maddox: Participants and Design
- 130 undergraduate students (38 male, 92 female) - Random assignment to 1 of 4 conditions in which they were exposed to perpetrators of various skin tones (White, light skinned black, medium skinned black, or dark skinned black) - Daily TV news viewing assessed by asking how many hours/day they spent watching news programs
Dixon & Maddox: Stimulus materials
- 15 minute news program contained a 22 sec crime story about a black or white male perpetrator sought for the murder of a race-unidentified police officer - Introduced in a photograph for 3 seconds during the airing of the story
Dixon & Linz: Discussion
- 3 indexes to study portrayal of Blacks, Latinos, and Whites as lawbreakers and law defenders - Inter-group comparisons revealed that blacks and Latinos were more likely than whites to be portrayed as perpetrators of crime on TV news - Inter-role comparisons revealed that blacks and Latinos were more likely to be portrayed as perpetrators than as police officers - Inter-reality comparison revealed that blacks were overrepresented, Latinos were under represented, and whites were somewhat under represented as perpetrators
Nathanson: participants
- 83 Kindergarten through 6th grade kids (42% female) in elementary school - Classified as either younger children (K-2nd) or older (4th-6th)
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
- A model by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo that describes how ordinarily, people approach a persuasive situation with their defenses up.
Potential Problems with the inter- reality comparison
- All perpetrators, whether sought or arrested on TV news, are compared to arrest rates - Repeat perpetrators are included in the analysis • Inclusion of repeated perpetrators wasn't problematic because all of the racial groups had almost equal numbers of repeated perpetrators on TV news
Results: Inter-reality comparison of perpetrators
- Blacks more likely to be portrayed as perpetrators of crime on TV news than to be arrested, according to crime reports - Latinos less likely to be portrayed as perpetrators of crime on TV news than to be arrested, according to crime report - Whites less likely to be portrayed as perpetrators of crime on TV news than to be arrested
Nathanson: procedures
- Children tested in small groups (ranging 1-6) during school hours - Randomly assigned to one of three conditions • Mediation (34%) • No mediation (34%) • Non-viewing control group (32%) - Female experimenter debriefed the children; explained that TV doesn't always portray men and women accurately and directly contradicted the stereotypes the children viewed in the clip
Inter-reality comparisons of lawbreakers and defenders
- Comparisons of inter-role and inter-group tell us little about the accuracy of the media portrayals or the stereotypes and beliefs that are subsequently cultivated in viewers - TV news may disseminate an accurate picture of the world rather than cultivate a distorted view - Blacks comprised 36% of perpetrators on reality-based programs; Blacks accounted for 9% of police officers in reality based programs (Whites 91%) - In reality blacks comprise 30% of criminal suspects and 17% officers. - Research also showed that Latinos were under represented as homicide suspects, and that black and Latino victims were under represented as well.
Nathanson: rational for study
- Determine the effectiveness of a theoretically based active mediation strategy for reducing the harmful effects of gender stereotyped TV - Stereotyped TV can shape children's beliefs about gender roles - Gender Constancy → children's awareness of gender as a social category that doesn't change based on hair length, dress, etc. - Gender Schema Theory → stereotyped gender schemata learned from TV can be modified by repeatedly presenting children with information that contradicts the messages conveyed
How do Asian Americans see other Asian Americans?
- Different perceptions of Asian American men and women - Many Asian Americans accept some form of stereotypes about Asian men and Asian women • Recognize that it was often hard to have relationships with other Asian Americans because of the stereotypes - appear to believe some form of stereotypes that often lead to choosing White Americans as dating and marriage partners - Stereotype more positive for Asian American Women (women related their belief in Asian men being less socially skilled or "fun" when compared to White men, which led them to choose the latter as dating partners) • Not the case that Asian American women were perceived as desirable dating partners to everyone
Study Box 10-2
- Do Sports Programs Promote Body Dissatisfaction? - questionnaire distributed to 218 female college students - students asked to report the frequency of their exposure to 40 different TV Programs that were on the air in 2001 - Independent coders rated these programs on a scale designed to access the 'dominant body shape' seen in the program. 1 meant the dominant body shape was conspicuously thin and a 5 meant conspicuously fat -8 programs were identified: Friends, Dawson's Creek, Will & Grace, 7th Heaven, Felicity, ER, Dharma & Greg, and Gilmore Girls - Result: Unlike the results for the entertainment programs, none of the measures were significantly related to exposure to TV sports. The answer to the question posed in the title to this study box seems to be no
Nathanson: type of study
- Experiment
Results: Inter-reality comparison of perpetrators of crime on TV news to California Department of Justice Criminal Justice Profile
- First part of Hypothesis 3 supported • Predicted that the distribution of perpetrators of crime by race on TV news would be inconsistent with the distribution of arrests in crime reports by race
Nathanson: stimulus
- Four clips from 1 episode of the TV comedy 'One World' - Lasted about 1-2 minutes each and followed by 20 seconds of blank screen with no sound.
Results: Inter-group Comparisons of Black to White and Latino to White Perpetrators of Crime
- Hypothesis 1 supported • Blacks and Latinos will appear as perpetrators at a higher rate than whites
Results: Inter-role comparisons of black, Latino, and white perpetrators to black, Latino and White defenders of law on TV news
- Hypothesis 2 supported • Blacks and Latinos will appear as law breakers at a higher rate than as law defenders; white will appear as law defenders at a higher rate compared to law breakers
The Utility of inter-group and inter-role comparisons
- Important for 2 reasons: 1. Offer a convenient measure of the content of the TV news environment with regard to race and crime (can help when we compare various forms of mass media content or document trends in TV content over time) 2. they represent specific mixtures of TV content that may lead to particular psychological effects in viewers - comparisons of perpetrators by race on local TV news may be interpreted as indicators of the social reality potentially cultivated among TV viewers • Presentation of blacks as perpetrators relative to other roles or law defenders may lead viewers to believe that their social world is populated by African Americans who are dangers/prone to crime. - In social psychological terms, negative stereotypes as criminals my be perpetuated in the minds of viewers • If the inter-group and inter-role comparison reveals that blacks and Latinos are more likely to be portrayed as law defenders than as perpetrators, this might be a form of counter stereotypical information that discourages a cognitive association between blacks and law breaking - they identify content that may increase or decrease the cognitive linkage between people of color and criminal behavior
Direct Evaluation of Perpetrators
- Increased stereotype activation among heavy viewers did not influence direct evaluations of perpetrator
Inter-role comparisons of lawbreakers and defenders
- Involved comparing the number of portrayals of perpetrators of crime within a racial or cultural group to the number of defenders of law within the same group - Research shows that Blacks are more likely to be shown as perpetrators (72%) than as victims (47%) in the news.
Nathanson: results
- Mediation strategy derived from gender schema theory led to less favorable evaluations of stereotyped TV characters - Led to less positive evaluations of the program among children whose parents do not monitor their viewing - Less endorsement of stereotyped attitudes among younger children - Mediation is successful among children who may be especially vulnerable to media effects - Consistent with Hypothesis 1. Children who watched the show and her mediation had less positive evaluations of the show than those without mediation - H1 positive, H2 weak support
Nathanson: experimental conditions
- Mediation → During 20 second pauses, experimenter delivered an active mediation message that contradicted the stereotypical behavior children witnessed - No Mediation → During 20 second pauses, experimenter provided neutral information to explain why there were pauses - Control → Completed a version of the survey that didn't include any questions about the clips
Imbalance in Media Research
- Often, specific behaviors, rather than groups of people, are the main focus of content studies - More studies on the presence of media stereotypes than there are on the effects of those stereotypes on media consumers - The media literature reflects an imbalance between content studies and effects studies for 3 reasons
Nathanson: limitations
- One reason why the mediation did not affect the older children's attitudes toward gender roles is that the older children in the study already held non-stereotyped attitudes
Dixon & Linz: Limitations
- Only LA based stations were included → can't be generalized - Examined portrayals of Blacks and Latinos separately. Revealed that Blacks receive negative media attention, whereas Latinos don't receive much attention at all - Didn't include Spanish speaking stations
Shields: method
- Open-ended interview protocol, tested it, and conducted 14 telephone pilot interviews with members of the film industry. - Each interview of 20 minutes to 1-hour duration was transcribed. - Conducted a detailed textual analysis to find recurring themes, common assumptions, and points of interpretive disagreement - Wrote summary statements for each code - a summary of key findings presented to a focus group of 8 members of the entertainment industry (non of whom had been interviewed previously) - The focus group had the opportunity to confirm, disconfirm, or amplify the findings.
Utility of inter-reality measures
- Over representation of blacks as perpetrators of crime and under representation as law defenders on TV news compared to official reports may facilitate fears of victimization by black and Latino perpetrators among news viewers - Fears would be so unrealistic to the degree that they strayed significantly from the social reality of crime reports
Dixon & Maddox: Discussion
- Overall, the results are consistent with the hypothesis concerning race and skin tone in conceptual priming - Hypotheses 1 and 2 predicted increased priming effects for all black targets compared to whites and a linear relationship between magnitude of priming effects and skin tone of black targets yet it was found that exposure to a news story featuring dark skinned black perpetrator exaggerated story related perceptions. This was especially true among heavy TV news viewers (consistent with hypothesis 3)
Results: Emotional Concern Elicited by News Story
- Participants exposed to a dark skinned black perpetrator expressed more emotional concern about the crime story than those exposed to a white perpetrator - Light and heavy viewers only differed in degree of emotional concern
Shields: Type of study
- Qualitative in-depth interviews of entertainment industry personnel
Identification of Race
- Race indicators used to assess the race of perpetrators • Shown on videotape • Mug shot shown • Artist's sketch shown • Photo shown • Race stated - Race inferred based on characteristics of story when these apparent indicators weren't available • Surname • Family member of perpetrator shown • Prior news reports indicate race
Inter-reality comparison of law defenders on TV news to employment records
- Second part of Hypothesis 3 supported • Predicted that the distribution of law defender roles on TV news would be inconsistent with those in employment records • Whites more likely to be portrayed as police officers than to be employed as officers in LA and Orange counties • Latinos less likely to be portrayed as officers on TV news than to be employed
Obtaining a Representative Sample of the Program Population
- Selected with a modified version of the equal probability of selection method (EPSEM) - Two half hour time slots randomly selected for each channel during the week - Sampling frame was defined by 4 parameters (Channels, program types, sampling times, and sampling periods) - Only breaking news programs were coded
Hypothesis#1
Television news imagery of a black criminal will activate existing stereotypic associations between blacks and crime in memory involving violence, aggression, and dangerousness that will influence judgments of the news story
Nathanson: discussion
- Study suggests that active mediation can prevent harmful effects from viewing stereotyped TV - Mediation effective in decreasing younger children's tendency to endorse gender stereotypes
An experiment was done where researchers manipulated the face-ism ratios of the same individual and presented it to naïve judges
- These judges rated the people who were high on facial prominence in the photos as more intelligent, ambitious, and attractive. - People's perceptions of those with higher facial prominence are more positive - Results: if the media represents males with higher facial prominence than females, the experimental data would suggest that this has negative implications for the evaluation of women.
Inter-group Comparisons of Lawbreakers
- This measurement approach involves comparing portrayals of Black or Latino perpetrators of crime to White perpetrators portrayed on television. - When blacks and whites are accused of similarly serious offenses, blacks appear to be treated in a more 'dehumanized' manner
Three Indexes of Lawbreaking/defending
- Three indexes of black, Latino, and White law breaking and defending are applied to TV news representations 1. Inter-group comparisons of law breakers by race and cultural group 2. Inter-role comparisons of law breakers vs. law defenders within cultural and racial group 3. Inter-reality comparisons of law breakers presented on TV news with crime reports obtained from the California Department of Justice, and comparisons of law defenders presented on TV news with county employment records by racial and cultural group
Dixon & Linz: purpose
- To assess representations of Blacks, Latinos, and Whites as lawbreakers and law defenders. - Designed to ascertain whether TV news programs present crime in such a way as to perpetuate 'misrepresentations' or 'distortions' of African Americans and Latino citizens' susceptibility toward criminality in society.
Shields: purpose
- To learn how and why tobacco use is portrayed as it is on television and in the moves. - In contrast to the changes in smoking rates in the US (which have declined substantially in recent decades) research has documented that smoking was 3 times more prevalent in movies than in the general population from 1960-1990, and smoking in films and on television increased in the 1990s
Dixon & Maddox: Dependent Measures
- emotional concern for the crime story -punishment for perpetrator -evaluations of the victim -memorability of the perpetrator
Asian Americans and Media Messages
- often are used as "background color"— minor roles as waiters, cooks, servants, laundry workers, peasants, or gardeners. When they are cast in more prominent roles, these roles often lack depth, portraying Asians as villains, warmongers, geishas, karate experts, dragon ladies, or prostitutes -Media do not often portray the diversity that is inherent within the Asian American culture
Shields: interviewees
- participants were drawn from the California-based entertainment industry - 54 members of the entertainment industry: 28 men, and 26 women - Ages 24-64, mean age of 40 - 9 were smokers, 13 former smokers, 30 non smokers
How do Asian Americans see themselves?
- specifically pointed to the media as influencing their standards for beauty and attractiveness, painfully acknowledging that they wished they were born different from how they looked (the desire for blonde hair and blue eyes) - Often sense of frustration that there was no representation of oneself (Asians) on screen
Cultivation
- theory of media cultivation does not use the term 'persuade' because many people tend to think of persuasion in terms of a direct response to a single message - Cultivation refers to an attitude change. Yet according to this perspective, the cultivation process is gradual and cumulative. - Argues that the world of media entertainment presents a particular view of social reality. (About 12% of the male characters that hold jobs work in law enforcement when in reality, only 1% of employed males hold jobs in the general area of law enforcement.) - Thus, a person who makes a steady habit of watching prime time television gradually becomes 'cultivated' into the television view of social reality. - Heavy TV viewers are more likely to express fear of criminal cultivation and to overestimate their own chances of being involved in violence.
How do Asian Americans see white Americans?
- they are seen as embodying the standard for attractiveness - Asian Americans would relate having a friend who was White and seeing different paths their lives would take due to their race
Dixon & Maddox: Procedure
- told they would be participating in a study designed to assess memory for the news. - Participants watched a news program in which a crime story featured a black with varied skin tone or a white perpetrator and victim. - Second experimenter entered the room and administered a questionnaire that included information on prior news viewing habits.
"Yellowface" and Miscegenation
-"Asian" characters were played by white actors with their skin and hair darkened and their eyes taped back -'Asian' characters would generally resolve social dilemma of miscegenation by killing themselves
Model Minorities
-"Model Minority" → A stereotype that basically says: with strong family values, determination, and hard work, Asian Americans have been able to 'succeed' in US society -The myth of the model minority continues today
Rivandeneyra: Study 2 participants
-115 Latino undergraduates -59% women -age 17 to 24 (majority were 18-20) -most had spent majority of formative years in the US
Ward: participants
-156 AA high school students -70% female -14 to 18 years old -relatively equal representation of 9th, 10th, and 11 graders
Gender Roles
-1986 play M. Butterfly → Addresses the stereotype of the Asian woman who sacrifices herself for a White man- and how accepted such an image is -Protests centered around two issues: 1. That whites were cast in Asian roles 2. That Asians were depicted only as whores or pimps
health messages
-37% showed physical effect of smoking (coughing, turning green) -1 film specified a health message -2 films showed a character urging another character to stop smoking
Rivandeneyra: Study 1 participants
-40 Latino high school students -almost half girls -age 14 to 17 (9th to 12th grade) -equal distribution of 9th and 10th graders, fewer 11th and 12th
Thompson & Yokota: results
-43% of films featured tobacco use -range was from 2 seconds - 10.5 minutes -average 2.1 minutes -cigars, pipes, cigarettes the most frequent
Omidvari: sample & measure
-447 movies -top 10 movies of weekly box office -contemporary American movies released after 1990 -only PG, PG13, and R movies included -film with the majority of story taking place in the 1990s (to reflect contemporary life) -measured whether the top five characters smoked cigarettes at any time during the movies
black characters in films with black directors
-9.9% of movies that do not have a black director have black speaking characters -52.6% of movies that have black directors have black speaking characters
Mok: Historical Overview
-Asians Americas make 3% of US population -"Asian American" encompasses over 30 ethnicities -lumped together as a single group, one-dimensional -earliest films of 1920s reflect harsh anti-Asian sentiments -whites viewed them as financial competition -Chinese portrayed as "Yellow Peril" (economic threat to whites) -once Japan attacked China, Chinese portrayed as more hardworking peasants, while Japanes depicted as cruel -1949 communism became enemy focus in films -1968-1980 Hawaii Five-O filmed in state with highest percentage of Asian Pacific Americans in US
Prior News Viewing as a Moderator of Priming Effects
-Further examination of the role of skin tone -Interaction between racism and new viewing -In-group vs. Out-group membership -Influence of news viewing on social attitudes and judgement
black bucks
-Griffith's really great archetypal figures -always big, baaddd n*iggers, over-sexed and savage, violent and frenzied as they lust for white flesh -playing on myth of negro high-powered sexuality and the fear that every black man longs for a white woman -in TBOAN, they are psychopaths always panting and salivating -bestiality of black villainous bucks to arouse hatred
Asian Men
-Hollywood lumps together diverse ethnic groups and portrays one-dimensional stereotypes -'Asian' character Charlie Chan was played by 3 white actors • Depicted as an intelligent, wise sage • Mannerisms of spouting 'Confucian' based, fortune cookie maxims • Remained cool under pressure and always managed to outwit the White police -Charlie wasn't Asian, known to be a white actor playing an Asian -Thus anything Charlie Chan did that was good could be attributed to the White actor. -Any disparaging aspects to his character (eyes, mannerisms, accent) would be attributed to the Asian character he was portraying -Strengthened perception of white superiority -Portrayed as asexual and emasculated
Asian Women
-Image of the geisha was born in 1950s -Depiction of Japanese women as 'lotus blossoms' whose only desire was to selflessly cater to the whims of men -Japanese women seen as exotic, erotic creature able to please men in special ways -These images occurred during a time period in the US when laws banning interracial marriages were beginning to be struck down -Motion Picture Code lifted ban on interracial love scenes -Suzie Wong → A self-declared "hooker with a heart of gold"
Evidence Among Young Latino Viewers
-Latino youth can be especially vulnerable to tv's messages because of 1. higher levels of consumption & 2. greater acceptance of TV as a source of social information -frequent exposure to media featuring Caucasian models, Eurocentric features, unattainable thin ideal etc. may lead Latino viewers to feel dissatisfied with their own physical appearance
El Bandido
-Mexican bandit -villain in silent greaser films and Westerns -treacherous, shifty, dishonest, emotional, irrational, usually violent -limited intelligence with flawed strategies -dirty, unkempt, unshaven face, missing teeth, disheveled and oily hair -desire for money, power, and sexual pleasure -alternative versions: drug runner, gangster, Latin American rebel leaders, corrupt dictators, youth gang members -example: sadistic Cuban American gangster
Dixon & Linz: sample
-NTVS sample -ABC, CBS, KCAL, NBC, KCOP, FOX, KTLA -3-10:59pm -News programs drawn from broadcasts aired in LA and Orange County - Sample drawn using procedures developed in NTVS
the coon
-Negro as amusement object and black buffoon -lacked single-mindedness of tom -there were the pure coon and 2 variants of his type: pickaninny and uncle remus
R-Rated studio movies findings are consistent with "overall" findings except...
-SP for men > women -not higher for whites than nonwhites
R-Rated independent movies findings are consistent with "overall" findings except...
-SP for men is no different from women -SP for antagonists not different from protagonists -SP for white women not different from nonwhite women -SP for white men > nonwhite men
R-Rated Studio Movies vs. Independent Movies
-SP in R-rated independent movies > than studio movies -independent movies higher SP in men, women, protagonists, whites, white males, white women (than studio movies) -independent movies are NOT higher SP in nonwhite men and antagonists (than studio movies)
Omidvari: Conclusion
-SP is not higher in movies than in general population -SP is higher in movies targeted at the youth (R movies) -SP in R independent movies > than studio -previous reports state that films portray typical smoker as white, male, middle class, successful, attractive, and a hero -they found that films actually portray smoker that might be white and male, but are most likely to be of lower SEC, unsuccessful, and a villain
Portrayal of Latinos in the Media
-Underrepresentation in the media -Stereotypical representation in the media
Conceptual and Theoretical Perspectives
-absence from screen can make members feel unimportant, and might diminish their self worth and value -repeated exposure to STypical portrayals of Latinos as lazy, violent, uneducated, and criminal could make all races believe that these characterize Latinos IRL; Latino viewers might think of themselves and their group in this negative way and also diminish their SE
black viewers as a vulnerable audience
-absence from screen can make members feel unimportant, like they don't count, and don't matter -stereotypical portrayals can lead to the adoption of negative beliefs about AAs -black youths are especially vulnerable to television influence -cultivation theory
what should be done
-abstaining from discussing race with kids might confuse them/make them think it is bad -instead of ignoring it, parents should be proactive -tell kids is okay to recognize and talk about racial differences, but wrong to hold prejudices -talking and answering kids' questions about race may help them understand racial issues and become more tolerant -avoid language that induces fear -helping kids feel pride racial identity helps boost self esteem -avoid making race seem like a big/intimidating topic, and don't make kids feel awkward or inappropriate
Rivandeneyra: Study 2 Discussion
-addressed limitations from Study 1 -connections between greater media use and lower SE emerged only between specific media genres and particular domains of SE -most connections to SE centered on movies and PT comedies/dramas (less for soaps and MVs) -for women, frequent magazine reading and PT tv express more body dissatisfaction -active viewing related to lower social and appearance SE (ID with popular character played less prominent role) -repeated exposure to and active engagement with images of young, attractive, and caucasian women/men on tv might be a blow to their ego -more consistent correlations between media use and SE for women than for men (societal expectations and unrealistic media images make impact much stronger for young women than for men) -more consistent results for Latinos with strong ethnic ID (exposure and engagement with mainstream media are detrimental for students proud to be Latino; absence of portrayals and negative portrayals are more damaging to them)
Social Psychological and Common Uses of the Term
-all people stereotype -it's not something only bad, prejudiced, ignorant, or racist people do -not necessarily bad, but what people do with the process can make it bad -can turn into a hateful tool -dominant group assigns selective characteristics to other people (social, cultural, political, sexual, racial, class, and ethnic Others) as an ethnocentric means of underscoring differences
a fight we can win
-amygdala (vigilance-related) reactions vary by individual, corresponding to other signs of prejudice (people with more prejudice attitudes show more response) -changing social context can change the way the brain reacts to something -the environment can interact with human nature for good or ill -social conditions can reduce prejudice, just as they can foster or exacerbate it -science and history suggest that people will react on prejudices in the worst ways when stressed, pressured, or receiving approval -social conditions can reduce prejudice: putting people on the same team -under the right conditions, contact between members of different groups can reduce conflict/prejudice (they must also share common goals, cooperate to succeed)
Theoretical Justification: Social cognitive theory
-audience members construct the messages they take from tv viewing experience based on personal characteristics, features of messages, and personal connection to these messages -certain portrayals may have more salience that others due to these characteristics and prioritizes the role of viewer ID -not having Latino characters to identify with, identifying with white characters who are not like oneself, or identifying with negative/stereotypical portrayals of one's group could cause lower SE
black brutes
-barbaric black out to raise havoc -his physical violence was an outlet for a man who was sexually repressed -In TBOAN, subhuman, feral, nameless characters on a rampage full of black rage, flogging faithful servants and assaulting white men
Factor #1: The media's impact on SE may not be global, but may apply to specific aspects of viewers' self conceptions
-because of visual nature of tv and emphasis on certain attributes (physical appearance), some dimensions of SE may be more affected than others -although often positively correlated, SE and racial SE are not equivalent and may hold different relations to media use -investigations needed that make more extensive assessments of self-evaluations -3 to 8 different dimension: need to measure multiple aspects of the self
portrayal of African Americans on television
-black characters frequently appear in minor, not leading roles -serve as comic relief or side kicks -although AAs have achieved equity in terms of frequency of appearance (relative to real world numbers), the depth of their roles is limited -images of AAs have traditionally been negative, demeaning, and stereotypical (gangster, athlete, clown, poor, jobless, lazy -overrepresented as hustlers and criminals -ethnic group disparities in media portrayals remain
Bogel (2008)
-black stereotypes: tom, coon, tragic mulatto, mammy, and brutal black buck -entertain by stressing Negro inferiority -stereotypes that existed since slavery and popularized in American life and arts
Rivandeneyra: Limitations
-can't determine direction of causality -still a relatively small sample size -the term Latino is heterogeneous (no difference between Mexicans vs. Cubans vs. Caribbean) -didn't examine role of Spanish-language media on SE and body image of Latinos
Rivandeneyra: Study 2 procedure
-classes invited to complete survey packet in exchange for extra credit -measures of media use, SE, and ethnic identity used for the study
the mammy
-closely related to the comic coons -distinguished by her sex and fierce independence -usually big, fat, cantankerous woman -example: bossy mammy washerwomen who organize militant movement to keep their good-for-nothing husbands at home Aunt Jemima -offshoot of mammy -toms blessed with religion, or mammies who wedge themselves into dominant white culture -generally sweet, jolly, and good tempered -more polite and less headstrong than mammy -example: maids in the Mae West films
Underrepresentation in the media
-comprise 13% of the population IRL, but numbers in mainstream media often fall short -0.6 - 6.5% of characters -1% of television families -1 - 4.5% of commercials -2 of 147 lead characters (in top films) are Latino -in addition to underrepresentation, portrayals are also STypical
View 2
-consider how groups use stereotypes to interact with one another -different stereotypes based on power relationship between groups (stratified, oppositional, or cooperative) Stratified: unequal power; dominant group creates subdominant stereotypes with 2 sets of characteristics (harmless or dangerous); example: The 6 Hispanic stereotypes -harmless (childlike, irrational, emotional) when they pose no threat -dangerous (treacherous, deceitful, cunning) when they do Opposed: competing for resources; subordinate groups may view dominant as cold, exploiting, cruel, and arrogant (can become severely derogatory) Cooperative: peacefully coexisting in mutually beneficial relationship, relying on each other and describing other group as strong, hard working, or friendly
Theoretical Justification: Cultivation Theory
-cultivation theory: frequent media exposure leads people to cultivate beliefs about the real world that coincide with the media images presented -viewers might downplay importance of Latinos IRL because of absence on screen -adopt more STypical attitudes about Latinos from images presented on screen
Rivandeneyra: General Discussion
-despite some variation, there is consistent pattern that greater exposure and involvement with tv were associated with lower SE -connection between media use and SE is not limited to one sample or age group -similar associations between past and current PT viewing level, so relationship between exposure and SE might be a long-term one -negative associations for women and men (albeit fewer ones) show association is not restricted only to females, men are at risk too -no/little connection between exposure and performance SE (argument that Latinos might come to believe negative stereotypes about themselves might not be accurate)
Ward: Limitations of study
-does not permit conclusions about causality (direction of influence is ambiguous because both media use and SE were measured at same time) -3rd variables -lack of diversity of sample in terms of participant SES, age, and sex -future research should investigate under which circumstances media use is beneficial or detrimental, include further study of more media genres (talk shows, soap operas) and more specific demographic factors shaping media use (presence of sibling, parental co-viewing)
Ethnic Blame Discourse
-ethnocentric talk becomes normalized -shapes the thoughts and actions of persons exposed to the discourse -Frames problem behavior committed by ethnic Others as intergroup conflict -accentuates the harmful effects of the behavior for the in-group
Omidvari et al.
-evaluates the prevalence of smoking the movies
Omidvari: Discussion
-even though many G movies (animated films) show tobacco/smoking, they are excluded because they don't portray real life -sci-fi movies excluded for same reason -PG, PG13, and R movies are seen by overwhelming majority of population -independent movies > SP than studio movies in all 3 ratings -men smoke 2.5 times more than women in PG, but about the same for PG13 and R -data contradicts the idea that Hollywood is attempting to get minorities to smoke (no different in SP for whites and nonwhites) -contradicts idea that smoking is for middle class (lower SEC smokes most) -studio movies see smoking as antagonistic feature, independents deal with more mature human interests (antagonists don't smoke more than protagonists in independent films) -independent movies are antiestablishment and free-spirited
exploring the complexities
-evidence is mixed, for some viewers the effects were positive, for some negative -media exposure has not emerged as consistently negative correlate of self-esteem -AAs may not be as susceptible to negative influences of media portrayals as proposed -social comparison processes can make them less vulnerable to media images
Dixon & Maddox: Purpose/Rational of the Study
-examining the extent to which viewers' emotional discomfort with a crime story and perceptions of a perpetrator and victim could be influenced by the race and skin tone of the perpetrator portrayed in a newscast
The Female Clown
-female counterpart to male buffoon -represents way of neutralizing the overt sexual threat of halfbreed harlot -negates Latin female's eroticism by making her object of comic derision -causes antics and complications -example: Carmen Miranda, with colorfully exaggerated portrayals of Latin American women
hyper-sexuality and females
-females seen in sexy attire, some nudity, thin, and beautiful -black females slightly more likely (than whites) to be in sexy attire or some nudity -whites more likely (than blacks) to be thin and beautiful
second finding
-findings indicate significant associations between ID with popular tv characters and their SE, based on race of the portrayal -strong ID with black male characters predicted higher performance, appearance, and total SE -strong ID with white male characters predicted lower total SE -stigmatized groups use protective strategy of making mostly in group comparisons -black students who connect with/compare themselves more strongly to fictional black characters seem to be using this protective strategy and report higher SE -those connecting strongly with white characters and who don't use this protective strategy seem to place their own SE at risk
Ward: Discussion
-findings supported the expectation that negative associations between media use and SE would be tempered by the domain of self in question, content of media diets, strength of connections with individual characters, and relevant factors in students' backgrounds -both media diet and background of adolescent play key roles -three findings and a contradiction
Exotic, evil aliens: The Dragon Lady and Fu Manchu
-first movie images of Asians reflected the perception of Asians as foreign, exotic, and alien
pickaninny
-first of the coon types -negro child actor, generally harmless little screwball creation whose antics were pleasant and diverting -example: a group of nameless Negro children running around being referred to as snowballs, cherubs, coons, bad chillun, inky kids, smoky kids, black lambs, cute ebonies
the tom
-first socially acceptable Good Negro character -always chased, harassed, hounded, flogged, enslaved, and insulted -keep the faith, never turn against white masses, remain hearty, submissive, stoic, generous, selfless, and kind -endear themselves to white audiences and emerge as heroes of sorts -examples: a former slave selling himself back into slavery because he is so attached to his master and wants to help through a tough time -James B. Lowe signed for role in Uncle Tom's Cabin to meet realistic demands of the times -he became the first black actor to be publicized by his studio
Rivandeneyra: Study 1 gender and ethnicity as moderators
-gender plays significant role (more associations among young women than men for perception of sexuality, gender, body image, etc.) -stronger ID as Latino may be more or less affected by mainstream media portrayals
Bricoe-Smith
-gist: how kids learn about race and how their parents can foster tolerance -kids/infants see and notice racial differences from a very young age -even though they notice differences and have racial preference, they don't understand race the same way as adults -it is not unusual/unhealthy for children to gravitate towards the familiar so early in life -kids' views only become prejudiced once they link these physical traits to flaws
Fiske
-gist: prejudice might be hardwired in our brains, but we can still learn to override our prejudices and embrace difference -most people harbor more bias/prejudice than they think -prejudices are not inevitable, but quite malleable and shaped by changing mix of cultural beliefs and circumstances -we might be hardwired to have prejudice against those who seem different, but it is possible to override and reduce these prejudices -requires broad social efforts to challenge stereotypes and get people working together
Rivandeneyra: Study 1 trends that emerged
-global SE never correlated with tv viewing (associations only obtained when specific aspects of SE were examined) -significant individual outcomes emerging highlight the complex role of media use (specific genres associated with body dissatisfaction) -connections between viewing specific genres and feelings about social skills -no connection between media use and performance SE
R-Rated Studio Movies: Smoking prevalence in R-rated studio movies is...
-greater than general US population for both men and women -higher for men than women -greater in antagonists than protagonists -lower SEC > middle SEC > upper SEC -for white women than nonwhite women -not higher for white men than for nonwhite men -not higher for whites than nonwhites
R-Rated movies (overall): smoking prevalence in R-rated movies is...
-greater than general US population for both men and women -not higher for men than for women -greater in antagonists than protagonists -greater for whites than nonwhites -greater for white women than nonwhite women -lower SEC > middle SEC > upper SEC -greater in independent movies than studio movies
Black directors
-gross underrepresentation of black directors (only 33 of 565 directors) -assumption that people don't want to see movies by them
uncle remus
-harmless and congenial -quaint, naive, and comic philosophizing -his mirth/amusement indicated black man's satisfaction with the system
black youths especially vulnerable to televisions influence because...
-higher levels of consumption -positive feelings towards the medium -greater use of tv for learning about the world
R-Rated Independent Movies: Smoking prevalence in R-rated independent movies is...
-higher than general US population for both men and women -not different for men than women -not different for antagonists than protagonists -not different for white women than nonwhite women -higher for whites than nonwhites -higher for white men than nonwhite men -lower SEC > middle SEC > upper SEC
third finding
-highlight the significance of individual viewer characteristics like religiosity -when sample is viewed as a whole, media use was negatively associated with SE -when sample is divided, negative associations appeared only for students low in religiosity -religiosity may serve as indicator of how strongly one is connected to black community (strong religiosity is usually indicator of strong connection to community)
contradiction
-identifying strongly with favorite tv character was negative correlate of SE regardless of characters race -maybe higher levels of emulation or idolization of any kind (white or black) may indicate possible frailties or vulnerabilities in SE
Dual Coding Theory
-images might be processed differently than verbal information. -When a vivid image is presented alongside verbal information, it might actually tend to distract people from processing the verbal information efficiently -On the other hand, the vivid images themselves prove to be highly memorable and might even enhance memory for the information that comes right after the images appear. - Vivid images may tend to be memorable because they evoke more intense emotional reactions than spoken words or plain written text.
Rivandeneyra: results for Study 2 (connections between media use and self-conceptions)
-in accordance with H1, frequent media exposure and greater involvement associated with lower SE -frequent viewing of movies and PT programs significantly correlated with lower social SE and lower performance SE -more active viewing and stronger ID with characters reported significantly lower appearance and social SE -in accordance with H2, frequent media exposure and greater involvement associated with lower body SE -for women, active viewing and exposure to PT programs (present and past) associated with more body dissatisfaction -for men, frequent soap opera viewing associated with more body dissatisfaction
Rivandeneyra: results for Study 2 (possible moderating role of gender and ethnic identity)
-in accordance with H3, more significant associations between media use and body/SE among women than among men -negative associations between media use and self conceptions are more consistent among Latino viewers with strong ethnic ID -ethnic identity is not protective
the brutal black buck
-introduced in D.W. Griffith's "The Birth of a Nation" (one of the most slanderous anti-Negro movies ever released) (TBOAN) -unlike any film released before (with much rehearsing, filming, and editing) -two subgroups: black brutes, and black bucks (with minimal differences between)
Factor #2: The impact of media use on SE is likely to vary with the content of viewers' media diets
-large minority media market geared toward AAs featuring only AAs -blacks gravitate toward such media, watch them frequently, favorably judge black characters, and strongly identify with them -the degree to which they are exposed to black-oriented media is likely to shape the nature of the outcomes -mainstream content can have negative effects, niche programming can have positive
Concerns with previous studies
-limited selection of samples tested (only young children, or college-aged women) -limited in conceptualization of media use, focusing mainly on general exposure levels -limited assessments of self-concept in the literature, consisting solely of global assessments
Framing
The central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration
Results: RQ #2
-minimal findings -only one significant correlation across the whole table -stronger ID with popular black male characters associated with more positive evaluations of one's own physical appearance -exposure levels made no contribution -more frequent viewing of black oriented programs was not associated with students SE or racial SE
Stereotypical representation in the media
-more likely than other ethnic groups to have low status occupation in PT tv -in stories related to crime, and have conversations about crime/violence on PT tv -have accents, less articulate, and less professionally/appropriately dressed -Latino men seen as less intelligent and more hot tempered -Latino women seen as lazy, verbally aggressive, and low work ethic
Six Hollywood Stereotypes of the Hispanic
-most Hispanic characters in film/television have usually been one or combination of these -some are altered but the defining characteristics remain constant -stereotypes: el bandido, the halfbreed harlot, the male buffoon, the female clown, the latin lover, the dark lady -the first 4 are negative stereotypes, projections of the "bad" self -last 2 emphasize traits highly regarded by the in-group; embodiments of sexual characteristics lacking in the Anglo
pure coon
-most blatantly degrading of all black stereotypes -no-account n*iggers, those unreliable, crazy, lazy, subhuman creatures good for nothing more than eating watermelons, stealing chickens, shooting crap, or butchering the English language -example: Rastus (stealing Thanksgiving turkey, says he'd rather die than get married)
The Dark Lady
-mysterious, virginal, inscrutable, aristocratic, and alluring -cool distance makes her fascinating -circumspect, aloof, reserved, opaque -arouses American leading men's appetite
Rivandeneyra: Study 1 limitations
-not a very big sample -self reports (?) -couldn't control for background factors (age/social class) -should have investigated more/other influential media (like magazines) -did not consider link between media and SE for older adolescents or emerging adults
modern prejudice
-not like old-fashioned and blatant racism -much more subtle and unexamined form -images can evoke strong, immediate, and deep-seated emotional reactions -example: feeling pity towards disabled/elderly, disgust towards homeless, envy towards businessman -cultural stereotypes and prejudices register on the brain as quickly as a fifth of a second
Hypothesis #3b
The distribution of law defender roles on TV will be inconsistent with those in employment records
Hypothesis #3a
The distribution of perpetrators of crime by race on TV news will be inconsistent with the distribution of arrests in crime reports by race
The Latin Lover
-owed to Rudolph Valentino, for his famous and seductive tango scene -dashing and magnetic male Other -new screen lover and new love -erotic combination of characteristics: suavity, sensuality, tenderness, sexual danger
Research expanded to study how need for cognition affected the process of reading news stories on the internet because internet news is unique in the sense that readers can see the comments and opinions of other readers
-participants low on NFC were more likely to express personal views on the issues that were consistent with views expressed by other readers -contrastingly, participants high on NFC were far more likely to express personal views that disagreed with the views of others
us vs. not-us
-people make instant and unfortunate associations towards groups they don't consider to be their own -people automatically favor their own group over others -every culture names the 'us' and the 'not-us' -we gravitate towards the familiar and similar and too often rely on physical characteristics (race)
Rivandeneyra: Study 1 procedure
-questionnaires -media measures first in randomized order -self concept measures followed in randomized order -demographic data collected later and not completed by all participants
Resonance
-refers to what happens when a person's real-life environment strongly resembles the environment depicted in the media -Such a person receives a 'double dose' of the same message, making the impact of media cultivation particularly likely
Mainstreaming
-refers to what happens when people of different groups are exposed to the same media -Over time, the differences that might be expected on the basis of group membership become less pronounced because everyone is being similarly cultivated by media messages
problems with previous research
-reported only global assessments of SE (only one approach to measuring a multidimensional/hierarchical construct with multiple domains) -underlying assumption that since Blacks are underrepresented in media, heavy exposure means frequent viewing of mostly white portrayals; (Blacks do not only use mainstream media, but also a great deal of black-oriented minority media) -only examined viewers' media exposure levels, and neglected identification/connection with specific characters -only examine total SE and PT viewing
first finding
-results varied by domain of self and media genre in question -sports and MV were influential, while mainstream and black PT programs were less influential -if only total SE and PT was measured, results may have been null
The Male Buffoon
-second banana comic relief -stereotypical traits seen as threatening for the bandit are made targets of ridicule -comedy is a way to deal with accentuated differences -taming a Hispanic's fearful qualities -funny for his simple-mindedness -failure to master standard English -childish regression into emotionality -example: Ricky Ricardo in 'I Love Lucy'
The Halfbreed Harlot
-secondary character and not always half breed -lusty, hot-tempered, mainly functions to provide maximum sexual titillation -slave to her passions -premise of nymphomania -motivation for her actions is not given -example: prostitution because she likes the work, not because social/economic forces
all results combined
-smoking prevalence in movies vs. general US population is similar (not higher in movies than IRL) -in movies, men smoke more than women -SP is not higher among white than non-whites -SP in R > PG13 > PG -whites, nonwhites, men, and women smoke more in R than in PG13 or in PG -smoking is higher in antagonists -smoking in lower SEC significantly > middle SEC > upper SEC
Factor #4: The strength of the media's influence on SE may vary across individuals, with some viewers being more vulnerable to negative influence than others
-specific environmental forces are at work that counteract outside negative influences -religious involvement can have beneficial impact on black youths (provide social control, emotional support, and values and are associated with positive health/behavior) -if religiosity operates for blacks as a buffer against outside negative influences, it may also ward off negative effects on SE brought by media exposure
Rivandeneyra: results of Study 1
-specific types of media exposure were negatively related to specific domains of SE (as expected) -soaps associated with lower social SE and more body part dissatisfaction -more movies was marginally related to lower appearance SE -no significant results for PT programming, performance SE, or for global SE -identifying more strongly with one's favorite character associated with body dissatisfaction -being a more active viewer associated with lower social SE and body dissatisfaction -level of ID with popular same-sex characters played no significant role
Ideological Perspectives
-stereotype can be a negative mirror of dominant values -stereotyping can be tool of dominant ideology, and created/perpetuated in the media to maintain the status quo by representing dominant groups as "naturally" empowered and marginal groups as disenfranchised -ruling groups fashion society by their own views, values, sensibility, and ideology by stereotyping -as hegemony, stereotyping has two features: ethnocentrism and the belief in inborn/unalterable psychological characteristics -stereotyping is one of many factors that help shape the way a subject views the world -feminist: women viewed as the male Other (negative male) and women seen as passive, confined, pious, irrational, and compliant
nonspecialized every day use
-stereotype is an oversimplification, cliche, generalization used by one group (in-group/Us) about members of another group (out-group/Them) -negative connotation -ethnocentric prejudice, accentuates differences of out group and make them inferior/excluded -all-or-nothing logic, where stereotypes place anyone identified as out-group member in the category -stereotypes perceived as real and are endowed with great power -allows for little variation among members of the out-group
View 1
-stereotypes are pre-existing categories in culture, learned in socialization process -two important features: 1. vicious cycle aspect- learned stereotypes are expressed, reinforced, and thus validated and perpetuated 2. validation solidifies into norms that suggest how certain individuals and groups should be treated -stereotypes exist because they are implied programs for action
Ward
-survey -examine the affect of frequent media exposure on the self-esteem and racial self-esteem of African American youths -what happens when members of one's group are not represented in media, or when they are portrayed negatively?
Agenda-setting theory
-the news media set the public agenda -news coverage of issues helps define for the public what they should be thinking about -public opinion about what should be on the public agenda is heavily influenced by the topics and issues that appear in the news
Omidvari: hypothesis
-the prevalence of cigarette smoking is the same among the leading characters in contemporary American movies and in the general US population
A third, exploratory component (not a hypothesis)
-these associations would vary based on the specific media use mechanism (exposure levels vs. viewer involvement), amounts of particular genre consumed (MVs, PT comedies and dramas), and the domain of SE in question
Rivandeneyra
-type of study: survey -to test how underrepresentation and negatively stereotyped portrayals of Latinos in the media affect Latino adolescents self-esteem -lack of representation of social groups (minorities) might negatively affect young viewers -goal is to provide greater understanding of the circumstances under which media exposure may shape the self conceptions of Latino youth
the tragic mulatto
-usually likable and sympathetic (because of her white blood) -audience believe that the girl's life could have been productive and happy had she not been a victim of divided racial inheritance -example: a white man has child with both his white wife and black mistress; the white son and mulatto daughter grow up together, fall in love, and their lives are ruined when they realize they are siblings -example: fair-skinned mulattos attempting to pass for white -a movie maker's darling
Factor #3: Media use may be associated with Black viewers' SE, not only as a consequence of their viewing amounts but also because of their connections with individual portrayals
-viewers' connections with individual characters may be equally influential, regardless of their viewing amounts -specific depictions and characters matter -drench hypothesis: specific critical portrayals may exert a stronger force on impression formation and image building than might the sheer frequency of tv viewed -rare but positive portrayals of AAs could have deep effect on viewer and "drench" (overwhelm) the contributions of stereotyped roles
what did researchers want to make sure of?
-wanted to make sure that differences in facial prominence in media between males and females were not linked to actual anatomical differences -Evaluation of 150,000 medical body scans showed that the actual face-ism ratio from real bodies was actually larger for females than for males.
Who's faces do we see in the media?
-whites make up about 75-78% of characters seen in top grossing films, PT television, and children's tv -blacks make up about 10-13% of characters -Hispanics around 5%
Results: RQ #3
-yes -music video viewing and sports programming were significant negative predictors of SE -stronger ID with black male characters predicted higher performance, social, and total SE -stronger ID with white male character was predictor of lower SE on each dimension -religiosity does appear to buffer the negative effects of media use on SE -lower religiosity: heavy media use correlated negatively with SE and racial SE (especially concerning exposure to MVs, sports, and movies) -higher religiosity: greater exposure to and medium or genre was not related to SE or racial SE
Results: RQ #1
-yes and yes -genre of media played a central role -PT programs made no contribution -frequent viewing of sports negatively associate with performance SE, social SE, and racial SE -stronger ID with one's favorite character associated with less positive judgements of one's own social competencies and one's physical appearance -results were genre specific, but both frequent media exposure and strong viewer ID were associated with lower self-evaluations
Berg (1990)
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Briscoe-Smith (2008)
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Fiske (2009)
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Lecture Material
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Mok (1998)
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Nathanson et al. (2002)
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Omidvari et al. (2005)
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Sparks Chapter 10
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Sparks Chapter 8
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Sparks Chapter 9
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Thompson & Yokota (2001)
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Ward: Research Questions
1. Are heavier exposure to and connection with mainstream programs and characters negatively associated with SE and racial SE? Do these associations vary by media genre? 2. Are heavier exposure to and connection with black-oriented programs and black characters positively associated with SE and racial SE? 3. To what extent does religiosity buffer negative (or positive) media influences concerning SE or racial SE?
According to ELM, there are two main routes by which people might be persuaded:
1. Central Route to Persuasion 2. Peripheral-route Persuasion
Three dimension of persuasion
1. Change in attitude 2. Change in behavior 3. Persistent change over time
Three Issues
1. Differentiation: mass media portrayals often fail to differentiate between Asians and Asian Americans (makes them seen homogeneous) and are either seen as positive (wise sages, exemplary students) or negative (sadistic executioners, devilish heathens) 2. Power: Asians are seen as attempting to gain power in the world through oriental knowledge (drugs, diabolical torture, etc.) 3. Assimilation: appears the only way Asians can be accepted into US society is to be passive, dependent, and Americanized
Three parts of stereotyping process:
1. scene of the action: historical reality that serves as the basis for stereotype 2. human picture of that scene: constructed stereotype 3. human response to that picture: what is done with the stereotype and how it affects lives
What they predicted
2 hypothesis and a third exploratory component (not a hypothesis)
Nathanson: research questions
2 research questions
Dixon & Maddox: Hypotheses
3 hypotheses
Nathanson: hypothesis
3 hypotheses
Dixon & Linz: Hypotheses
3 hypotheses (#3 is two parts)
Thompson & Yokota: stipulations
60 minutes in length 81 films
Reason 1
Although content studies are often more time-consuming and tedious than studies of media impact, they also permit the researcher to avoid a number of obstacles that inevitably appear whenever people, instead of media messages, are the units of analysis in a study. • Researchers who need human subjects must worry about securing approval from a human-subjects committee about the procedures that are planned • Once approval is granted, people don't always show up for the study. Or they show up and then decide they don't want to participate.
additionally, photos of whites and blacks were examined
As predicted, evidence showed that people represented with higher facial prominence were perceived as being more dominant. Whites had higher facial prominence than blacks did.
crime
Behavior or information either pertaining to the commission of a particular law breaking act, or social or legal reaction to law breaking more generally (only crimes tracked by the US Department of Justice)
Hypothesis #2
Blacks and Latinos will appear as law breakers at a higher rate compared to law defenders; however, whites will appear as law defenders at a higher rate compared to law breakers
Hypothesis #1
Blacks and Latinos will appear as perpetrators at a higher rate compared to whites
Hypothesis 1
Children who hear active mediation will have less favorable evaluations of a stereotyped program than children who don't hear active mediation
Key Principles in Media Persuasion
Credibility Simplicity and repetition Fear, guilt, and humor
Research Question 2
Do children's exposure to parental mediation and TV viewing habits moderate the effect of active mediation? • Environmental factors may shape their responses (parents • Viewing amounts might moderate effects
Research Question 1
Does children's age moderate the effect of active mediation? • Mediation may be better received among kids who are les at risk for experiencing negative media effects • Younger children may be more receptive to mediation
Hypothesis #3
Drawing from both previous findings and from assumptions of social cognitive theory, personal characteristics (gender and ethnic identity) would temper the relationship between media use and SE among Latinos a. correlations between media use and SE would be more consistent for females than for males b. ethnic identity would moderate associations between mainstream media use and SE. However, because no previous work has examined this association with Latino youth, the direction of influence was not specified
Hypothesis #2
Due to overrepresentation of Caucasian beauty ideals... a. frequent media exposure would be associated with lower body esteem among Latino adolescents (as per cultivation theory) and b. greater media involvement (ID with characters) would be associated with lower body esteem among Latino adolescents (as per social cognitive theory)
Hypothesis #1
Due to the infrequent and stereotypical portrayals of Latinos in mainstream media... a. frequent media exposure would be associated with lower SE among Latino adolescents (as per cultivation theory) and b. greater media involvement (ID with characters) would be associated with lower SE among Latino adolescents (as per social cognitive theory)
"Drip-drip-drip" hypothesis
Effects that emerge after steady, long-term exposure (opposite of drench).
Drench Hypothesis
Emphasizes the power of 'critical images' to overwhelm the stereotypical ones that appear regularly. Critical images are ones that 'stand out.' They're deviant, are intense, and thus are important viewing experiences. Severely contrasting portrayals can be powerful enough to counter ideas/stereotypes.
Two chief components of credibility
Expertise Trustworthiness
Rivandeneyra: Study 1 measures
Exposure Levels: -PT English-Language comedy and drama hours -soap opera hours -MV hours -movie viewing hours Viewer Involvement Levels: -viewer activity/passivity -ID with popular same-sex character -favorite tv character Self-Conceptions: -Self esteem -body esteem (body dissatisfaction)
Hypothesis#2
Exposure to dark skinned black perpetrator in particular will lead to increased activation and use of the stereotype compared to a light skinned perpetrator
Hypothesized negative effects of media exposure on self-esteem may be tempered by 4 factors
Factor #1: The media's impact on SE may not be global, but may apply to specific aspects of viewers' self conceptions Factor #2: The impact of media use on SE is likely to vary with the content of viewers' media diets Factor #3: Media use may be associated with Black viewers' SE, not only as a consequence of their viewing amounts but also because of their connections with individual portrayals Factor #4: The strength of the media's influence on SE may vary across individuals, with some viewers being more vulnerable to negative influence than others
Crime Story Level
Following variables coded: • The race of police officers • The race of prosecutors • The race of judges • The location of crimes
Perpetrator Story Level
Following variables coded: • The race of the perpetrators • The crime committed
Cultivation Theory
Heavy consumers of media will tend to be cultivated in terms of their attitudes and values toward the view of reality depicted by the media
Hypothesis#3
Heavy television news viewers will be more likely than light viewers to apply the black criminal stereotype to race and crime phenomena
Shields et al. (1999)
Hollywood on Tobacco: How the Entertainment Industry Understands Tobacco Portrayal
Reciprocity
If someone does something for you, you feel that you need to reciprocate and do something in return. Ex/ charity sends you free mailing labels so you donate.
Priming
If the media continue to associate blacks with the perpetration of crime and whites with law enforcement, these associations may become so strong in a person's mind that merely thinking about one could prime thoughts of the other
Liking
If we like someone, we are more susceptible to being influenced by that person.
Werther Effect
In the book The Sorrows of Young Werther, the main character takes is own life. Suicides increased in Europe to such a degree that some countries banned the book. Many refer to imitative-suicide effect as the Werther Effect.
Dixon & Linz: 3 Types of Comparisons
Inter-group comparison Inter-role comparison Inter-reality comparison
Face-ism Effect
This representation of the human body/face is not limited to the US media. It is apparent in other countries as well
Two processes that show evidence of media cultivation
Mainstreaming Resonance
Rivandeneyra: Study 2 measures
Media Measures -current media exposure (for PT comedies/dramas, soap operas, MVs, movies, and magazines) -viewer involvement (active viewing and ID with characters) -previous media exposure (PT viewing amounts) Self Esteem Measures -self esteem (performance, social, appearance) -body esteem (body dissatisfaction) Ethnic Identity Measure -affirmation and belonging to ethnic group
Nathanson et al.
Mediation and female stereotypes
Clark's Four Stages
Non-recognition: invisibility Ridicule: something to laugh at, stereotypes Recognition Respect: like equal pay very few have successfully gone through all four stages (women have not)
Dixon & Linz (2000)
Overrepresentation and underrepresentation of African Americans and Latinos as lawbreakers on Television News
Commitment and consistency
People strive for consistency in their behavior. Sometimes, your determination to appear consistent can be used against you. After using the mailing labels, a few months later the charity contacts you and you feel more inclined to maintain consistent with your prior commitment
Results: Perceptions of Perpetrator and Victim
Positive and negative trait ratings: o Heavy news viewers rated victims of black perpetrator more positively than victims of white perpetrators o Light, medium, and dark skinned perpetrator conditions were equal to one another Memorability: o When asked how memorable the perpetrator and alleged victim were, the white perpetrator was less memorable than a dark skinned black perpetrator o Victim more memorable when perpetrator was black with medium skin tone compared to when perpetrator was white
Ward: measures
Viewing amounts: -PT comedies and dramas exposure (from this also assessed number of hours viewing programs with predominantly black casts) -music videos and sports events programming -movies on cable/satellite, in theaters, or rented videotapes Identification with popular tv characters -ID with both black and white male or female characters -favorite tv character and ID with him/her -State SE scale used to measure global SE and consists of 3 subscales 1. Performance SE 2. Appearance SE 3. Social SE -racial esteem (feelings about being black) -religion as moderator
Scarcity
We tend to go after things that appear to be high in demand. If everyone wants it, it must be good. "Only while supplies last."
Authority
We tend to respond more easily to messages delivered by people whom we regard as authority figures.
Social proof
When we are not sure how to behave, we look at others around us for guidance. People are persuaded that the content of the show is humorous if they hear other people laughing.
Accessibility principle
When you are asked a question such as 'estimate the percentage of the workforce who held the job of an attorney,' you tend to rely upon information that is most accessible - or the information that tends to pop into your mind the first.
Dixon & Maddox: Independent Variable
White, light skinned black, medium skinned black, or dark skinned black perpetrator
stereotyping
a psychological mechanism having to do with the creation of categories, which allows people to manage the swirl of data presented them from the environment
Fear of Isolation
an important motivating factor in an individual's decision to be quiet. - can eventually gather steam and spiral into silence. The more often people who feel as if they are in the minority decide not to speak their views, the less we hear about those views, and the more we tend to believe that most people agree with the majority viewpoint. - can lead to views that eventually die out and exert little influence, even though they are held by substantial numbers of people. - More likely to happen if the issue is a moral one
Study #2...
attempts to resolve these issues by retesting the first two hypotheses with demographic controls, additional media genres, and a slightly older a sample, with a third hypothesis
Spiral of Silence Theory
based on the idea that most of us don't feel comfortable speaking out about our views if we perceive that we are in the minority. If we think that our view is really the minority view, we would rather keep quiet than risk being isolated or rejected by those to whom we wish to feel attached.
Skin Tone Bias
behavior toward members of a racial category based on the lightness or darkness of their skin - Also described as colorism or color consciousness - Anecdotal and experimental evidence suggests that blacks and whites engage in discriminatory behavior based on skin tone. - Darker skin tone is associated with negative social outcomes
Hypothesis 3
children who hear active mediation will be more accepting of nontraditional gender roles than children who do not hear active mediation
Hypothesis 2
children who hear active mediation will have les favorable evaluations of the characters in a stereotyped program than children who don't hear active mediation
why is tobacco used in film?
consider... intrinsic reasons extrinsic reasons
Dixon & Linz: type of study
content analysis
Levels of Analysis
crime story level perpetrator level
Prior News Viewing
depends on: 1. Level prejudice or racism: individual differences in racism towards blacks moderate the effect of exposure. (The priming effect of crime news that causes perceivers to judge black criminals and crime policy more harshly is exacerbated in racists) 2. Individual differences in prior TV news viewing: heavy TV news viewers should be more likely to access and use black criminal stereotype when making judgments. Should be especially true after exposure to dark skinned black perpetrators.
Reason 3
documenting media effects is considerably more difficult than documenting the presence or absence of media content.
Selective Exposure
emphasizes that people come to any communication message with their own attitudes, interests, beliefs, and values. - These beliefs help guide attention to particular messages. If a person is interested in a story, attention is high. If story is uninteresting, the person will tune out. - Intense/vivid images might affect what people remember from a news story - people are able to recall facts and topics better if they had been presented without a vivid visual
Rivandeneyra: goal
employ more extensive assessments of SE, older age groups, different forms of media, and different avenues of media influence to better examine this issue -focuses on mainstream, English-language programming
Dixon & Maddox: Type of Study
experiment
Entertainment Overcoming Resistance Model to persuasion (EORM)
exposed 353 college students to two different TV programs. The first was a new style show that interviewed teens and parents and the second was a show designed for teens called The OC. This model showed that the entertainment narrative of The OC would draw people into the story line in such a way that their natural persuasive defenders would be lowered.
what they did
first: summarizes existing findings on portrayals of AAs and its impact on self conception of black viewers second: outline explanations for the nature of those current findings third: test connections between media use and self-conceptions among sample of black high school students
Trustworthiness
has to do with the extent to which people find the source of the message to be reliable or truthful
Expertise
has to do with the extent to which people perceive that the source of the message is a real expert on the topic he or she is speaking about.
cultivation theory
heavier media exposure leads people to cultivate expectation about the real world that coincide with the media images presented
Thompson & Yokota: unit
instance of continuous display of a tobacco product on screen
change over time
instance of smoking has declined over time
television as an arena
less impressive and more progressive
Nathanson: measures
manipulation check evaluation of the program liking of characters stereotyped attitudes TV viewing parental mediation
Rivandeneyra et al. (2007)
media exposure and Latino's self-esteem
film as an arena
more elite
Central Route to Persuasion
o A highly rational or cognitive route o People scrutinize the message carefully and tend to think up many counter arguments that the persuader must defeat to be successful o highly popular route among those who know that the message they will hear is counter attitudinal (a position that is different from the position one holds)
Peripheral-route Persuasion
o Persuasion that takes place with less careful scrutiny of the message o In this route, certain cues in the message lead people to accept the persuasive proposition with little cognitive thought or scrutiny
Dixon & Linz: Random Sampling Procedure
o Sampled news programs from TV stations in the Los Angeles area over a period of 20 weeks (Oct 1995-June 1996) o Sample contained 116 news broadcasts
Ward: goal
provide greater understanding of the circumstances under which media use may be negatively (or positively) associated with the self-esteem of Black youths
Major results
rates of portrayal product placement who makes the decision? why is tobacco used in film? how deliberate is the decision? how essential is tobacco depiction? reasons for non-depiction industry responsibility how to best approach the industry
Thompson & Yokota: measures
seconds of tobacco use types of character physical effects
Ward (2004)
self-esteem and racial esteem of black adolescents
Berg
stereotypes of Hispanic characters in film
Do certain news reports cause more people to die?
the more publicity given to a suicide, the greater the number fatalities following the story. The increase in crashes and suicides are limited to the states in which the suicide story was most heavily publicized.
Reason 2
the obligation to document the presence or absence of content before doing a study on media impact.
Face-ism
the tendency to represent people in terms of their face or head as opposed to their body - In a study of more than 1,700 published photos in the news and advertising sections, it was noticed that males were more likely to be represented in terms of their heads/faces, whereas females were more likely to be represented in terms of their bodies (look at page 251 for a photo reference)
Thompson & Yokota: purpose
to examine smoking in G-rated films (alcohol, illicit drug use)
Sociological Perspectives
two views
African-Americans shown as one of two extremes...
violent criminal or upper class citizen (hides vast majority of the real population)
Entertainment Education
when entertainment programs are used deliberately to persuade people to adopt behaviors that contribute to their overall health
Stereotyped Attitudes
• 14 item version of the Gender Stereotyped Attitudes Scale for Children • Asked who can engage in a number of behaviors or occupations • Response options included men, women, and both men and women
TV Viewing
• 3 questions asked children to indicate when they watch TV • Averaged to create a measure of average weekday viewing • Children asked to report how often they watch TV on weekends • Average daily viewing scores computed
Liking of Characters
• 3 separate questions • Asked to rate how much they liked each teenage girl • Not at all (coded as 1) to very much (coded as 4)
how to best approach the industry
• Asked about their awareness of the controversy surrounding smoking on screen, and the extent to which the topic had become a point of discussion among their colleagues. • Nearly half of respondents were unaware that tobacco use depiction had even become a controversial issue • Among those who were aware of the public scrutiny had been focused on smoking in the media, responses were varied. • some did not feel it had had much of an impact • others (particularly from the movie industry) were angered by the attempt of politicians to influence their work, with many believe that tobacco was a minor issue
Parental Mediation
• Assessed whether parents mediate their TV viewing • Options ranged from not at all true (coded as 1) to very true (coded as 4) • 3 questions assessed parental active mediation and 3 for restrictive mediation (extent to which parents have rules about viewing)
who makes the decision?
• Broad agreement that it could be any of several people.
Dixon & Maddox: Limitations
• Character in the story was portrayed as a perpetrator, not a suspect → stereotypes more likely to influence judgments based on vague behavior. All they know is that it is a perpetrator; they don't know exactly what kind of behavior he exhibited. • Use of a single photo does not control for all perceived characteristics in facial features o People in the same racial category exhibit a variety of facial features • did not measure racial prejudice • Social desirability
Inter-reality Comparisons
• Compared the percentages of whites, blacks, and Latinos who appeared in TV crime stories with percentages that showed up in actual crime statistics in the LA area. • In reality, blacks = 21% of criminal arrests, white = 28%, Latinos = 47% • On TV, blacks = 37%, white = 21%, Latinos = 29%
Inter-role Comparisons
• Compares the distribution of the same group of people according to particular roles • Coded the race of the police officers as well as that of the perpetrators in news stories • 87 blacks depicted. Of those 87, 69 appeared as perpetrators, 18 appeared as officers • Of 133 whites who appeared in crime stories, 93 appeared as officers and 40 appeared as perpetrators
Intergroup Comparisons
• Compares the percentage of one group to that of another group • Found that news coverage included 129 perpetrators of criminal offenders o Of those 129, 69 were black and 40 were white perpetrators • Inter-group comparison is a convenient way to compare data for different groups
Cognitive associations (of Blacks and Latinos with law-breaking, and Whites with law-breaking) that emerge as a result of Ethnic Blame Discourse
• Cultivation hypothesis - heavy viewers of TV come to believe that the real world is much like the TV world • Stereotype theories of social cognition - stereotypes may be formed by consistently seeing out group members in stereotypical roles on TV over a long period of time - White viewers would come to cognitively link law breaking behaviors with African Americans and Latinos as a group if they were over represented as criminals on TV news.
Fear
• Fear increases persuasion. Higher levels of threat lead to greater persuasion than lower persuasion. For example, according the protection motivation theory, the extent to which fear appeals convince an audience member of: a. Their vulnerability to the threat b. Their ability to respond effectively to the threat they will be persuasive.
Guilt
• Guilt, however, has been seen as an over-used marketing technique that over the long run may cause people to comply less with a persuasive request. Most people tend to avoid and devalue those who make them feel guilty. And because there is no individual person who has to be confronted directly, media campaigns that are based on guilt may tend to backfire.
intrinsic reasons for portrayal of tobacco use
• Help to develop or reveal some aspect of the character (help create an aura of sexiness/sophistication, or show addiction, self-abuse, or neurosis) • to enhance a film/scene's real- ism. Specific groups, such as high school drop- outs, historical periods, such as mid-century, or locations, such as a bar, would not seem real—many of our interviewees suggested— without the presence of smoking.
Evaluation of Program
• How much they liked it, how funny it was • Not at all (coded as 1) to very much (coded as 4)
Humor
• Humor does influence persuasion. If people are laughing, they can't be thinking too hard about the arguments against your message.
Interaction between racism and news viewing
• Individual differences in racism and news viewing might interact to produce differential activation of stereotypes as a function of race and skin tone.
Manipulation Check
• Measured children's perceptions of representativeness of the program • Asked: "How many girls in real life only care about clothes and makeup like the girls on the TV show" and "how many girls in real life are afraid of bugs like the girls on the TV show" • Responses ranged from no girls (coded as 1) to all girls (coded as 4)
Results: Punishment of Perpetrator
• No main effectors or interactions in recommendations for time of imprisonment or the death penalty
Influence of news viewing on social attitudes and judgement
• Not only are Blacks more likely than Whites to have punitive crime-policy decisions directed toward them, but this may be exaggerated for Blacks with darker skin tone. These individuals may be even more likely than light-skinned Blacks to receive differential negative treatment by the criminal-justice system based on skin tone.
rates of portrayal
• Research suggests that smoking in the movies has increased over the past decade • People's impressions differ from objective rate counts • When asked about trends in on-camera smoking, several interviewees spontaneously compared current rates to the 'classic' periods of film suggesting that there's less smoking now on TV than there was in the 30-60's.
reasons for non-depiction
• Some answers simply reflected the flip side of the reasons for portrayed. • The theme 'It just didn't fit the character' was echoed in numerous interviews. • Many commented on cigarettes being overused props • Some observed that a few film studios, most notably Disney, have a cultural identity that people working for them know, even without explicit guidelines, that most tobacco depiction is inappropriate.
Further examination of the role of skin tone
• Some evidence to support the idea that variation in skin tone is associated with variation in stereotype activation
how deliberate is the decision?
• Some interviewees believe generally, little thought is given to tobacco depiction. • Other felt like it was nearly impossible not to give careful though to tobacco depiction because it is so much in the public consciousness and because it causes problems in filming and editing.
product placement
• The industry voluntarily agreed to stop all paid tobacco product placements, although some documents suggest that placements may have continued well into the 90's • Yet no interviewee spontaneously suggested paid product placement as a reason for why tobacco use is included in entertainment media products • Virtually everyone agreed that there was no product placement in television. In fact, several commented on the extent to which networks go to eliminate the mention of brand names
Simplicity and repetition
• The message should be simple and to the point and repeated, but not burnt out.
In-group vs. Out-group membership
• The size of the sample was not large enough to permit an examination of this influence • Other research has suggested that both Blacks and Whites are attentive to variations in skin tone and are aware of cultural stereotypes regarding light- and dark-skinned blacks.
how essential is tobacco depiction?
• Three categories 1. useful, but rarely necessary and thus somewhat of a problem 2. gratuitous and highly problematic 3. quite useful and not a problem. • Most interviewees fell into the first category- those who felt tobacco depiction might have negative social repercussions, but still felt its usefulness as a communication device took precedence in some instances.
industry responsibility
• We asked about the extent to which Hollywood shaped society and the extent to which it was shaped by society. • most interviewees began by acknowledging a reciprocal influence between society and the entertainment industry (Example: Hollywood can influence peoples' style appearance, but what the public responds and watches determines what gets made)
Interested in...
• Who decides when to include tobacco in a project; • How that decision is made; • What issues are considered; • Messages intended; • How secondhand smoke is considered; • what advocacy methods might be useful for influencing future decisions about tobacco portrayal
extrinsic reasons for portrayals of tobacco use
• to project an edgy or gritty image, thus enhancing box office appeal. Several interviewees commented on how independent films in particular seek to be "edgy", targeting a market that either is or would like to be "counter-culture". In contrast, television studios have more of a corporate culture and desire to project a trendy, yet mainstream, image. • The most significant cause of smoking on-camera apart from the artistic reasons, however, is simply that many actors smoke in real life.
Skin Tone
→ Research has found that blacks with more Afrocentric facial features (dark skin, broad nose, full lips) are more closely associated with stereotypical or negative evaluations. Darker skin is more typical of the cultural representation of Blacks than lighter skin tone is. Therefore, dark skin is more likely to activate cultural stereotypes of Blacks
