Comm Final

Ch 26 - Semiotics

semiotics The study of signs and symbols of all kinds, what they mean, and how they relate to the things or ideas they refer to. parole The particular instances of using language. (speech) signifier From Saussure's model of the sign, the form of the sign. signified From Saussure's model of the sign, the meaning of the sign. representamen From Pierce's model of the sign, basically saussure's signifier. Aka sign vehicle interpretant From Pierce's model of the sign, the meaning we take from the sign. Comes from combining the other two sign parts. object From Pierce's model of the sign, the actual object referred to-- whether concrete or general. aka the referent. natural When there is a recognizable connection between the signified and the signifier. Like onomatopoeia or gestures. arbitrary When there is no recognizable connection between the signified and the signifier. symbolic From Pierce's model of the sign, the mode in which signifier doesn't resemble signified but which is fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional (letters, punctuation, words, etc.) iconic From Pierce's model of the sign, a mode in which the signifier is perceived as resembling the signified. Like cartoon, scale model, onomatopoeia indexical From Pierce's model of the sign, a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is directly connected in some way that can be observed/inferred. Like trademarks-- handwriting/catchphrases-- or natural signs-- smoke, thunder,footprints,etc. paradigm A vertical set of items that can be substituted for one another syntagmatic relationship The way horizontal set of items that is associated with one another. narrative A type of sequential syntagmatic relation in which texts are structured for maximum impact and have an abstract, orientation, complicating action, result/resolution and coda. abstract The part of the narrative that says what the story's gonna be about. orientation The part of the narrative that gives background complicating action The part of the narrative that builds tension and introduces a problem/plot point result The part of the narrative that solves the problem/resolves the complicating action coda The part of the narrative that basically states the moral of the story. metaphor A rhetorical trope in which x is portrayed as y. metonymy A rhetorical trope in which something is suggested by something else related to it. synecdoche A rhetorical trope in which a part is substituted for the whole, or vice versa. irony A rhetorical trope in which the signifier says one thing, but we know that it means something completely different. radical realism Says there is an objective reality and signs correspond to that reality. Signs don't construct reality, but can distort it. radical idealism Says there is no objective reality, only representations of it created through the use of signs. spatial The syntagmatic relationship in which the elements are arranged visually somehow. sequential The syntagmatic relationship in which the elements are arranged in temporal or spatial sequence conceptual The syntagmatic relationship in which the elements are an association of ideas. binary An opposition with only 2 parts-- relies on antonyms. non-binary An opposition with more than 2 parts privative An opposition with two elements opposed as a pair-- one with a general meaning and the other adding more detail (i.e. poet poetess) equipollent An opposition with any number of elements equally opposed to eachother. None are special types of others. Like boy and girl, types of dogs, etc. polar An opposition in which only endpoints come into play. Like freezing and boiling, on and off, alive and dead. There's no inbetween scalar An opposition which has an entire range/scale. Like cold and hot (can be warm), tall and short, pretty and ugly, etc. digital A representation which breaks up into small pieces with specific, finite values (like polar, kind of) An mp3 recording or a digital clock analog A representation that can have infinitely variable representations. Like an analog clock or an old school vinyl. Kind of scalar. You can always tell exactly what point it is. Grice's maxims Four basic conversational rules-- like a contract we agree to when we enter into a conversation maxim of quality Make your contribution a true one, don't say what you think is false, and don't say something without adequate evidence. maxim of relevance Be relevant to the conversation. maxim of quantity Give just enough information-- no more, no less. Make it as informative as required. maxim of manner Avoid obscurity and ambiguity, be brief and orderly. maxim of politeness A rule added by Lakoff, saying you should be polite, avoid imposing, and make the listener feel good. presupposition Background information that is assumed. (Is Tom late again?) Grice's general cooperative principle Make the contribution that is expected of you, at the point in the conversation when you make it, in keeping with the purpose and direction of the conversation. implicature A conclusion drawn in conversation that is based on warranted evidence, though not necessarily logically valid. denotation The literal meaning of the word, like the dictionary definition connotation Associations that are connected to a certain word-- the emotional suggestions related to that word. (Fine is worse than good, etc.) myth A real or fictional story, recurring theme, or character type that appeals to our consciousness by embodying cultural ideals or expressing deep, commonly felt emotions. code Sets of conventions used to communicate meaning, they provide a framework within which signs make sense interpretative codes Codes for which there is less semiotic agreement as semiotic codes. perceptual codes Visual perception-- how you make sense of what you hear and see. textual codes Set of codes that are essentially representation codes. Include scientific/mathematical codes, aesthetic codes, genre, rhetorical, and stylistic codes, and mass media codes. social codes Set of codes that evolves within society. Include verbal or language codes, bodily codes, commodity codes, and behavioral codes. In a broader sense, all semiotic codes are these. intertextuality A way of approaching texts that says that our interpretation of texts is colored by our knowledge of other texts. Texts don't exist in a vacuum. genre A class of art (or artistic endeavor) having a characteristic form or technique reflexivity How self-conscious the use of intertextuality seems to be. encoding What/how the creator/addresser puts into the text. decoding How/what the listener/viewer gets out of the text. Can sometimes interpret what the creator didn't mean. manipulation To control or play upon by artful, unfair, or insidious means especially to one's own advantage. An illegitimate purpose of advertising, that's uncooperative, and camouflages its intention.

CH 32 - Face Negotiation Theory

Face-Negotiation Theory Ting‐Toomey assumes that people of every culture are always negotiating face. Face The projected image of one's self in a relational situation. Facework Specific verbal and nonverbal messages that help to maintain and restore face loss, and to uphold and honor face gain. Type of Culture--> Type of Self-Construal--> Type of Face Maintenance--> Type of Conflict Management Face Maintenance The crucial intervening variable that ties culture to people's ways of handling conflict. Collectivistic Culture People identify with a larger group responsible for providing care in exchange for group loyalty; we‐identity. (2/3 of world) (high-context cultures) Individualistic Culture People look out for themselves and their immediate families; I‐identity. (1/3 of world) (low-context cultures) Self-Construal Self-image; the degree to which people conceive of themselves as relatively autonomous from, or connected to, others. Collectivistic Culture (Japan) Interdependent ************ Individualistic Culture (U.S.) Self ------------------Independent Self (Some cultures in-between) *People within a culture differ on the relative emphasis they place on individual self‐sufficiency or group solidarity Interdependent Self Values we‐identity and emphasizes relational connectedness. Independent Self Values I‐identity and is more self‐face oriented. Face Extension of self‐concept, a vulnerable, identity‐based resource. Face Concern Regard for self-face, other-face, or mutual face (universal concern). Three Orientations: 1) Self-face 2) Other-face 3) Mutual-face Face-Restoration Self‐concerned facework strategy used to preserve autonomy and defend against loss of personal freedom. Face-Giving Other‐concerned facework strategy used to defend and support another person's need for inclusion. Predictable Styles of Conflict Management Initially identified five distinct responses to situations where there is incompatibility of needs, interests, or goals. 1) Avoiding (withdrawal) 2) Obliging (giving in) 3) Compromising (negotiation) 4) Dominating (problem solving) 5) Integrating (competing) Three New Conflict Management Styles Ting-Toomey and Oetzel identified three additional styles of conflict management that American, individualistic-based scholarship has missed. 1) Emotional expression ("whatever my heart tells me") 2) Passive aggression 3) Third-party help Power Distance Way a culture deals with status differences, social hierarchies. Large power distance- tend to accept unequal power as natural. Small power distance- value equality and regard most differences bases on status as unjust. Face Threat • Violated facework rule • Mistrust • Importance of topic • Power of the other • Harm that will be done • The other initiates conflict • Regard the other as an outgroup member *Collectivistic cultures --> avoidance. *Individualistic--> aggressive. Intercultural Facework Cultural knowledge, mindfulness, and facework interaction skill are the three requirements for effectively communicating across cultures. 1) Knowledge- most important dimension of facework competence. 2) Mindfulness- things are not always what they seem. 3) Interaction skill- ability to communicate appropriately, effectively, and adaptively in a given situation.

CH 27 - Cultural Studies

Ideology The mental frameworks different classes and social groups deploy in order to make sense of the way society works Democratic pluralism The myth that society is held together by common norms such as equal opportunity, respect for diversity, one person-one vote, individual rights, and rule of law Articulate The process of speaking out on oppression and linking that subjugation with media representations; the work of cultural studies Cultural Studies A neo-Marxist critique that sets forth the position that mass media manufacture consent for dominant ideologies Economic determinism The belief that human behavior and relationships are ultimately caused by differences in financial resources and the disparity in power that those gaps create Hegemony The subtle sway of society's haves over its have-nots Discourse Frameworks of interpretation Discursive formation The process by which unquestioned and seemingly natural ways of interpreting the world become ideologies Cultural industries The producers of culture; television, radio, music, film, fashion, magazines, and newspapers

Ch 23 - Dramatism

Kenneth Burke Perhaps the most important twentieth-century rhetorician, this critic is the founder of dramatism. Marie Hochmuth Nichols A University of Illinois rhetorician who popularized Burke's dramatistic methodology within the speech communication field. Identification The recognized common ground between speaker and audience, such as physical characteristics, talents, occupation, experiences, personality, beliefs and attitudes; consubstantiation. Dramatistic Pentad A tool to analyze how a speaker attempts to get an audience to accept his or her view of reality by using five key elements of the human drama—act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose. Act The dramatistic term for what was done. Texts that emphasize act suggest realism. Scene The dramatistic term for the context for the act. Texts that emphasize scene downplay free will and reflect an attitude of situational determinism. Agent The dramatistic term for the person or kind of person who performs the act. Texts that emphasize agent feature idealism. Agency The dramatistic term for the means the agent used to do the deed. Texts that emphasize agency demonstrate pragmatism. Purpose The dramatistic term for the stated or implied goal of an act. Texts that emphasize purpose suggest the concerns of mysticism. God Term The word a speaker uses to which all other positive words are subservient. Devil Term The word a speaker uses that sums up all that is regarded as bad, wrong, or evil. Guilt Burke's catch-all term for tension, anxiety, embarrassment, shame, disgust, and other noxious feelings intrinsic in the human condition Mortification Confession of guilt and request for forgiveness Victimage Scapegoating; the process of naming an external enemy as the source of all personal or public ills. Kenneth Burke - rhetorical critic -analyzed the language that speakers and authors used so he could discern their message -critics task is one of assessing motives -rejected the commonly held notion that communication is primarily a process of message transition dramatism a technique of analysis of language and thought basically modes of action rather than means of conveying information motivational jungle philosophy. literature, psychology, economics, linguistics, sociology, and communication dramatistic pentad -a tool critics use to discern the motives of a speaker or writer by labeling five key elements of the human drama: act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose -best known method to figure out the motive behind a message god-term the word a speaker uses to which all other positive words are subservient devil-term the term that sums up all that a speaker regards as bad, wrong, evil act -that which is done by the person scene the context surrounding the act agent the person performing the act agency the means used to perform the act purpose the goal the agent had for the act attitude the manner in which the agent positions relative to others Guilt -Burke's catchall term to cover every form of tension, anxiety, embarrassment, shame, disgust, and other noxious feelings intrinsic to the human condition Ratio the relative importance of any two terms of the pentad as determined by their relationships perspective by incongruity -calling attention to a truth by linking dissonant or descrepant terms - "rotten with perfection" - our seemingly admirable drive to do things perfectly can hurt us and others in the process guilt redemption cycle -getting rid of guilt is the ultimate motive for public rhetoric (basic plot of human drama) -rhetoric is the public search for a perfect scapegoat -Burke regarded almost every rhetorical act as part of a continual pattern of redemption through victimage mortification -confession of guilt and request for forgiveness -option to purge guilt through self-blame victimization -he process of naming an external enemy as the source of all personal or pubic ills, scapegoating -god-terms are only as powerful as the devil-terms they oppose -most common "old rhetoric" persuasion "new rhetoric" identification identification -consubstantiality -the common ground that exists between speaker and audience -overlap of physical characteristics, talents, occupation, friends, experiences, personality, beliefs, and attitudes homophily perceived similarity between speaker and listener-behavioral scientist rhetoric -an ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion" - Aristotle -"rhetoric is an act which works and takes effect only through the medium" - Socrates substance -identifying what you're not consubstantion when appeals made make audience members feel the rhetor is one of them the pentad persuasion is the communicators attempt to get the audience to accept his or her view of reality as true burke analysis -focus on dominant accounts that are beyond doubt -develop alternative versions within the comedic frame -one of the least used theories

Ch 21 - Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations

Organizational Communication 1. All corporate communication is an outcome of political processes that are usually undemocratic and harmful to democracy. 2. Corporations subtly produce meanings and values, shaping social reality through the ongoing social construction of meaning. 3. Deetz emphasizes the issue of power permeates all language and communication. 4. The issue of power runs through all language and communication. A Critical Orientation 1. Multinational corporations are the dominant force in society. 2. Corporations are political as well as economic institutions. 3. Corporate control has sharply diminished the quality of life for most citizens. 4. Deetz questions the primacy of corporate prosperity. Corporate Colonization Encroachment of modern corporations into every area of life outside the workplace. Informational Model Communication is a conduit for the transmission of information. Communication Model Language is the principal medium through which social reality is produced and reproduced. Managerialism A discourse practice based on a systematic logic, a set of routine practices, and an ideology that privileges top-down control. Managerial Control Corporate decision processes that systematically exclude the voices of people who are affected by the decision. Strategy The overt practice of managerial control. Codetermination Corporate decision processes that invite open dialogue among all stakeholders. Consent The process by which an employee actively, though unknowingly, accomplishes the interests of management in the faulty attempt to fulfill his or her own interests. Promoting Consent ~Systematically distorted communication -Restricts what can be openly expressed or even thought. -Employees unaware of process. Preventing conflict Discursive closure -those with power suppress potential dissent. -employees do not realize they are complicit in their own censorship. Discursive closure (cont.) 1. People may be "disqualified" to speak on certain issues. 2. Arbitrary definitions may be labeled "natural." 3. Values behind decisions may be kept hidden. 4. Discussion of certain topics may be discouraged or discounted. Involvement Organizational stakeholders' free expression of ideas that may or may not affect managerial decisions. - Forums -Voice means expressing interests that are freely and openly informed and having those interests represented in joint decisions. -Participation Participation The process by which all stakeholders in an organization negotiate power and openly reach collaborative decisions. List the six classes of shareholders. 1. Investors. 2. Workers. 3. Consumers. 4. Suppliers. 5. Host communities. 6. Greater society and the world community. -No group privileged over another -Managers would be mediators, not persuaders PARC model -Politically Attentive Relational Constructionism -A collaborative view of communication based in conflict processes. -Managers should mediate, rather than persuade, coordinating the conflicting interests of all parties. Explain the PARC model with its requirements for effective negotiation (Negotiation Requirements) 1.Invite stakeholders with divergent interests 2. Stakeholders possess roughly the same level of communication skills 3. Set aside authority relations and power positions 4. All stakeholders have equal opportunity to express themselves 5. Open investigation of stakeholder wants 6. Transparent sharing of information and decisions 7. Facts and knowledge claims revisited 8. Focus on outcomes and interests 9. Stakeholder jointly make decisions What are PARC's Six Areas of Conflict to Be Discussed? 1. Inner Life 2. Identity and recognition 3. Social order 4. Truth 5. Life narratives 6. Justice Inner Life What feelings are present and possible? What organizational practices are necessary for those feelings to surface? Identity and recognition Who are the people involved? Given their identities, what rights and responsibilities do they have? Social order What behaviors, actions and ways of talking are considered appropriate? What norms and rules support these? Truth What do members think is true? How do they back up these claims? What are the processes for resolving different views? Life narratives How does the world work for them? What would a good and beautiful future look like? Justice What is fair? How should limited goods and services be distributed? Strengths -Affirms importance of democratic participation, fairness, equality, diversity, and cooperation (values) -The constitutive nature of all communication helps us understand unjust communication practices that can create or perpetuate an imbalance of power in the workplace. -It generates alternatives for social action (praxis). Limitations -If we create social realities, there are no inherent truths, e.g., democratic participation. (logical inconsistency). -Positive alternatives to managerialism are difficult to work out in conception and in practice (lack of utility). List the four premises of Deetz's critical orientation. 1. Multinational corps are dominant 2. Corps are political and economic institutions 3. Corp control has diminished quality life of citizens 4. Questions primacy of corp prosperity

Ch 29 - Cultivation Studies

Overview 1. Television is the key storyteller in our culture (recall Narrative Paradigm) - In 98% of U.S. homes - Requires no literacy - Is free - Combines pictures and sound - Ageless - Available on mobile devices - Democratizer 2. Television content is symbolic - Like ritual perspective - Major cultural function is to stabilize social patterns and to cultivate resistance to change (e.g. Programs promoting a "good life") - Doesn't so much persuade us as paint a more or less convincing picture of what the world is like - "The substance of the consciousness cultivated by TV is not so much specific attitudes and opinions as more basic assumptions about the 'facts' of life and standards of judgment on which conclusions are based." 3. Violence is television's principal message, and particularly for devoted viewers - Residual message; what's leftover when don't remember details 4. Heavy television viewing creates an exaggerated belief in a mean and scary world 5. Cultivation theory does not speak to what we will do as a result of watching violent TV, instead it assumes that watching violent TV makes us afraid - Not looking at behavior, doesn't answer i people will go out and do bad shit - About beliefs Gerbner's beliefs about tv - Tv dominant force in shaping modern society - Medium is not message, TV's power comes from symbolic content of the real-life drama shown hour after hour, week after week - TV = institutional storyteller - TV gives coherent picture of what exists, what's important, what's related to what, and what's right - TV = key member of household - People watch TV religiously - Violence affects viewers' BELIEFS about the world around them and the FEELINGS connected to those beliefs - Theory of cultivation as part of his cultural indicators paradigm Cultivation - A cumulative process of promoting a common world view, common values, and common perceptions on how men and women should think, behave, and act - Not bullet paradigm Cultivation Theory - A theory that suggests heavy television viewing creates an exaggerated belief in a mean and scary world 1st prong - Institutional Process Analysis -Why media produce the messages they do - Scholarship that penetrates behind the scenes of media organizations in an effort to understand what policies or practices might be lurking there - Hollywood concerned with how to export its product globally for maximum profit at minimum cost -- why so much violence on TV - Violence is cheap to produce and speaks in a language that's universally understood so studies adopt policies that call for their shows to include lots of violent content - Gerbner fond of promoting own views about inner working of Hollywood but not always clear whether those views were based on systematic scholarship (cult theory focus on second and third prongs) 2nd prong - Message system analysis - Message system analysis: scholarship that involves careful, systematic study of TV content, usually employing content analysis as a research method (content analysis) Index of violence - Dramatic violence: As part of the plot, depicting overt physical force against the self or others, or compelling others to do something against their will through threats of pain, injury, or death - Definition rules out verbal abuse, idle threats, and pie-in-the-face slapstick - Includes physical abuse presented in cartoon format Observation - Researchers randomly selected a week during fall season and videotaped network shows - Annual index of violence remarkably stable and alarmingly high Findings - Over half of prime-time programs contain actual bodily harm or threatened violence - Weekend children's shows average 20 cases an hour - Two-thirds of the major characters are caught up in violence; heroes are just as involved as villains - By the time the typical TV viewer graduates from high school, he or she has observed 13,000 violent deaths - The cumulative portrayal of violence varies little from year to year Relationship to Reality - Crime in prime time is at least ten times as rampant as in the "real world." - The violence was quite unlike that found in the "real world." - However, the index offered no evidence that televised violence had any impact on the "real world." PROD index - Proportional Representation of Diversity - Examines the representation of co-cultures in the media - Marginalized: over 65, under 18, Asians, African- Americans, women, Latinos, gays, lesbians, disabled, the poor, blue collar workers are underrepresented. - Marginalized people then exhibit the most fear of violence (symbolic double jeopardy: underrepresented and over-victimized) 3rd prong - Cultivation analysis diff than message analysis cause msg anal deals with content of tv whereas cult anal deals with how the content may affect viewers - Cultivation: contribution tv viewing makes to ppl's conceptions of social reality - Cultivation analysis: research designed to find support for the notion that those who spend more time watching TV are more likely to see the real world through a TV lens - Audience surveys - Comparison of viewers - Cultivation process is like pull of gravitational field Cultivation is like - Pull of gravitational field - NO matter where the pool balls are on the table (indiv vieweres), they'll be affected by the magnetic pull of hte cue ball and tend to move closer to it - Although magnitude of TV's influence isn't the same for every viewer, all are affected by it Accessibility principle - Explains TV's cultivating impact - When ppl make judgments about the world around them, they rely on the smallest bits of information that come to mind most quickly - the info that's most accessible - For those who watch shit ton of TV, most accessible info for making judgments is more likely to come from TV shows than anywhere else 2 Types of Viewers 1. Light Viewer - A person who watches up to two hours of television per day Heavy Viewer - A person who watches four or more hours of television per day - Television type (aka heavy viewer aka couch potato) Four Findings 1. Positive correlation between TV viewing and fear of criminal victimization - Ppl with heavy viewing habits tend to overestimate criminal activity believing it to be 10 times worse than it really is 2. Fear of walking alone at night - Heavy viewers overestimate the danger by a factor of ten 3. Perceived activity of police - Heavy viewers believe that 5% of society is involved in law enforcement - TV world is filled with police officers, judges, and government agents 4. General mistrust of people - Heavy viewers are suspicious of others' motives - "Most ppl are looking out for themselves" - Mean world syndrome The "Mean World" Syndrome - The cynical mind-set of general mistrust of others subscribed to by heavy television viewers Cultivation differential - Gerbner sought to discover this - This term is used instead of media effects because media effects implies before-TV exposure to compare to but there is no such condition - Difference in percent giving the "television answer" within comparable groups of light and heavy viewers - Heavy viewers see the world as meaner - Amount of television viewing is the best predictor of people's answers Mainstreaming - The blurring, blending, and bending process by which heavy TV viewers from disparate groups develop a common outlook through constant exposure to the same images and labels - Tv homogenizes its audience so that those with heavy viewing habits share the same orientation, perspectives, and meanings with each other - TV pulls those who might initially be different from each other into a common perception of reality that resembles the TV world - Occurs when, especially among heavy viewers, television's symbols dominate other sources of information and ideas about the world Mainstreaming Effects Audience homogenization - Heavy viewers share the same orientations, perspectives, and meanings based on a culturally dominant reality that is pictured on the media (although this is not the actual reality) - They tend to believe the "mainstreamed" reality that the world is a more dangerous place than it really is - The differences that usually are associated with the varied cultural, social, and political characteristics of these groups, are diminished in the responses of heavy viewers in these same groups Heavy viewers: - Assume that they are middle class - Believe they are political moderates (but mostly conservative) Media malady effect - Refers to people's increasing concern about personal safety after watching disaster- related news coverage The Three B's of Television 1. Blurs traditional distinctions among people's views of their world 2. Blends people's realities into television's cultural mainstream 3. Bends that mainstream to the institutional interests of television and its sponsors Resonance - Condition that exists when viewers' real-life environment is congruent with the world of TV - Broadcast messages are most effective when they strike a responsive chord in the audience, thus evoking stored experiences from the past - Those viewers are most susceptible to TV's cultivating power - Resonance + Cultivation (heavy viewer) = a "double dose" of the same message Research on Cultivation Analysis - Takes place over months and years - Use surveys instead of experiments Strengths of Cultivation Theory 1. Heurism - Method is used often in a variety of studies; not limited to violence 2. Community of agreement - Claim that dramatic television content creates a fearful climate makes sense for most people (community of agreement) 3. Testability - Long-term research on real people Limitations of Cultivation Theory 1. Critics note that correlation between TV viewing and fear of criminal victimization interpreted in more than one way (utility) - Fear of crime causes people to watch more TV - Fear of crime and TV viewing could be caused by a common third factor (correlation vs. causation) 2. Violence not presented uniformly. (utility) 3. Ignores perceived realism of violent content. (utility) 4. Cognitive processes may be more important than sheer amount of viewing. (utility) 5. Changing media use may make it increasingly difficult to discern differences between light and heavy viewers. (test of time)

CH 22 - Aristotle's Rhetoric

Rhetoric Discovering all possible means of persuasion, Aristotle's regarded as being the man behind it. Five Cannons of Rhetoric Invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery. Inartistic Proofs External evidence the speaker doesn't create. Artistic Proofs Internal proofs that contain logical, ethical or emotional appeals. Ethos Perceived credibility, which comes from the speaker's intelligence. Pathos Emotional proof, which comes from feelings the speech draws from its listeners. Logos Logical proof, which comes from the line of argument. Syllogism A three-part argument: Major premise (class of things), Minor premise (particular thing), Conclusion based on previous experiences Enthymeme An incomplete version of a formal deductive syllogism that is created by leaving out 2/3 or less of the premise. Common in persuasive discourse, requires audience participation, considered the strongest of proofs; most common type - joke. Deliberative Political speaking, attempts to influence legislators or voters who decide future policy. Forensic Courtroom speaking, which addresses judges who are trying to render a just decision about actions alleged to have taken place in the past. Epideictic Ceremonial speaking, heaps praise or blame on another for the benefit of present-day audiences. golden mean the virtue of moderation; the virtuous person develops habits that avoid extremes invention a speakers hunt for arguments that will be effective in a particular speech Canons of rhetoric the principle divisions of the art of persuasion established by ancient rhetoricians-- invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory pathos emotional proof, which comes form the feelings the speech draws out of those who hear it ethos perceived credibility which comes form the speakers intelligence, character, and goodwill toward the audience, as these personal characteristics are revealed through the message enthymeme an incomplete version of a formal deductive syllogism that is created by leaving out a premise already accepted by the audience or by leaving an obvious conclusion unstated Logos logical proofs, which comes form the line of argument in a speech artistic proofs internal proofs that contain logical, ethical or emotional appeals inartistic proofs external evidence the speaker doesn't create rhetoric discovering all possible mans of persuasion Inartistic proofs external evidence the speaker doesn't create EX: testimonies of witnesses or documents such as letters and contracts artistic proofs internal proofs that contain logical, ethical or emotional appeals EX: ethos, logos and pathos Rhetoric (for Aristotle) • An intentional act of using words to have an effect • a systematic study of the relationship between the speaker, the speech, and the audience • Focus on the particular case logos logical proof, which comes from the line of argument in a speech two forms of logos the enthymeme and the example enthymeme an incomplete version of a formal deductive syllogism that is created by leaving out a premise already accepted by the audience or by leaving an obvious conclusion unstated the strongest of proofs three qualities of source credibility intelligence: the quality of intelligence has more to do with practical wisdom (phronesis) and shared values than it does with training at Plato's academy. Audience judge intelligence by the overlap between their beliefs and the speaker's ideas. character: the speaker's image as a good and honest person. be charitable toward your enemies possibly goodwill: positive judgement of the speaker's intention toward the audience pathos emotional proof, which comes from the feelings the speech draws out of those who hear it Anger versus Mildness people feel angry when they are thwarted in their attempt to fulfill a need Love or Friendship versus Hatred consistent with present-day research on attraction. Similarity is the key to mutual warmth Fear versus confidence fear comes from a mental image of potential disaster. paint picture of tragedy Indignation versus pity We all have a built-in sense of fairness Admiration versus envy people admire moral virtue, power, wealth and beauty. 5 canons of rhetoric Invention, Arrangement, Style, Delivery, and Memory Aristotle begs what question about ethics Is it ethical to alter a message to make it more acceptable for a particular audience? How did Aristotle see wisdom? in the person who avoids excess on either side. moderation is best Golden mean the virtue of moderation; the virtuous person develops habits that avoid extremes Critiques of Aristotle's rhetoric people generally accept all of his stuff people are puzzled by his failure to define the exact meaning of enthymeme critics wished he included a fourth component - the situation Offers a synthesis (or compromise) between the Sophists and Plato • Rhetoric is not all bad • Rhetoric and Truth can be compatible Rhetoric is the counterpart to Dialectic 1. Because truth and justice have a natural tendency to prevail—if bad decisions are made we should blame the speaker 2. Because (some) audiences are incapable of understanding philosophically derived truths; we use rhetoric to "instruct" them 3. Because we should be able to see both sides of an issue—so that we can make a stronger case and find fault with false claims 4. Because rhetoric is not inherently evil. It is no different than any other good thing (wealth, strength, medicine, etc.) it can be used for good or evil. Aristotle invents "probability" Context of Aristotle •The importance of public speaking in Athens •Identifies three main "arenas" or forums for public speaking -The courts -At ceremonies -The legislature •Each defines a unique relationship between speaker, speech, and audience The Courts: Forensic Speaking •Issues of the past •Questions of fact •Judges and Juries who decide what is justice Ceremonies: Epideictic Speaking •Issues of the present •Questions of praise or blame •Audiences who are moved by values The Legislature: Deliberative Speaking •Issues of the future •Questions of expedience •Attempts to influence public policy How to find available means of persuasion • Understand context (occasion and audience) -Audience analysis • Knowledge of topics (topoi) -General Topics (common place/stock arguments) •Justice, War & Peace, Cause and Effect, Beauty, Virtue, Health, etc. -Specific Topics •Related to particular fields like physics, medicine, law, or finances • Knowledge of the forms of proof -Inartistic (found) -Artistic (invented) Aristotle is skeptical of pathos Key terms/Assumptions • Proofs -Rhetoric (persuasion) as rational process -Prescriptive—how it should work -Pathos and Ethos supplement Logos— • Situation (particular case) -Communication is situational "in each particular case" • 3 key elements: Relationship between the speaker, the audience, and the occasion -Liner model -Psychological approach to rhetoric • Communication as intentional Critique of Aristotelian Rhetoric •Limited as a critical method -Because it is mostly a handbook for public speakers -It does provide categories for analysis •Understanding of audience is limited (basically uses a liner model of communication) -Audience as passive (targets or receivers) •Pays little attention to the broader cultural context of communication

CH 34 - Genderlect Styles

Zimmerman and West (1975) Recorded same sex conversations between students and found that 96% of the interruptions caused were by the men. Lakoff Women change the use of speech depending on their status and he situation they are in, when talking to males they tend to use more polite forms and standard English. when taking to females, women generally use more tag questions and hedge. Trudgill - men and covert prestige (1983) when a group of men were interviewed they stated that they tended to use more non-standard forms; however research and study shows otherwise - tis is a sign of prestige. Cheshire - Theme park study Men seek covert prestige, while women seek overt prestige. When researching male covert prestige, found that males that use non-standard forms most often had reputations of deviance to uphold. However, males who used more standard forms of English weren't classed as as 'tough' and were often the victim of boys' jokes and excluded from group activities. Fishman Fishman studied three white, American middle-class heterosexual couples and found the different ways in which both men and women contribute to the conversation. He especially found that women had to work tat little bit more in order for the conversation to flow more smoothly. Beattie - Examining Zimmerman and West This study decided to test an argue the research that was carried out by Zimmerman and West and pointed out that: 'the problem with this is that you might simply have one very voluble man in the study which has a disproportionate effect on the total'. O'Barr and Atkins Wanted to test Lakoff's 'Women's Language Hypothesis'. They studied court room cases for 30 months, observing a wide variety of witnesses. Used three men and three women for their data analysis. They discovered that Lakoff's conclusion was not entirely reliable as language difference were not necessarily the result of being a woman. Instead, it was because the participant was powerless in the conversation. Kessler - Describing photographs Wanted to test the ability of two groups of men and women to give verbal descriptions of pictures. She chose 3 male and 3 female physicists, and 3 male and 3 female art historians as her informants. She gave them a series of photographs taken from magazines. She asked each person to describe and discuss the image. Her findings are as followed: The proportions of the total number of words used were interesting - - Male art students = 33% - Female art students = 30% - Male physicist = 24% - Female physicist = 13% She pointed out that men are more wordy (verbose) than women even though women 'chatter' stereotypically. She also found men use the most colour terms. Matthew Hassan - Sibling Study In order to find out who used more prestige forms, Hassan recorded a telephone conversation between a brother and sister. Whilst the sister used more prestige forms when communication, her brother used more glottal sounds and dropped the 'h' sound meaning that he spoke in a more non-standard form. Holmes - Tag Questions Eve though both genders use tag questions in a conversation, women are more likely to use them more often and use them in order to soften a question or statement; this makes people feel more welcome when the are engaging in the conversation with women. Tannen This study looked at the difference model and said that since male and females row up differently the communication between the genders is similar to something like a conversation between people from different cultures. Cameron In this study looks at the differences between people who are within the same gender rather than between the two genders. Janet Hyde - Corpus Analysis In this study, the hypothesis was to look at he gender similarities in speech. In order to do this, Hyde went back a few decades and combined the results to look at gender differences. She found very small differences in most of similar conversations.

Ch 31 - Communication Accomodation Theory

Communication Accommodation Theory the ability to adjust, modify or regulate your behavior in response to another Social identity theory our social identity is determined by the groups that we belong to In-group influence how do the people that you identify with influence you; groups that come together are constantly comparing communication cultures Convergence coming together. Adapting your communicative behavior to adapt to that person Selective Process you choose how to adapt based on social identity attraction Stereotyping can negatively affect convergence Evaluation what we do, how we act towards everyone. Linked to stereotyping. Divergence you extenuate the verbal and the non-verbal differences between yourself and the other to maintain your personal identity "i am not like you, i am like me" Reasons for divergence we want to make the other person less powerful -OR- we want to push the out-group person away Over-accommodation miscommunication with a purpose; patronizing; result of stereotyping Types of over-accommodation Sensory: you over adapt to the other person because you perceive them as somehow limited--dependency:when we make the other person seem dependant upon us; make them feel like they are less powerful and knowledgeable than we are (Ex. doctor using medical terms that patient does not understand) -- intergroup: stereotyping

Ch 20 - Cultural Approach to Organizations

Geertz says culture is: shared meaning, shared understanding, and shared sensemaking. Pacanowsky says we need to concern ourselves not only with the structures of cultural webs but with: the process of their spinning as well. that process is communication. it's communication that creates and constitutes the taken for granted reality of the world. Corporate Culture: some observers use the term to describe the surrounding environment that constrains a company's freedom of action. others use the term to refer to a quality or property of the organization. culture is synonymous to: image, character, or climate culture webs of significance, systems of shared meaning. it is not whole or undivided. even close-knit societies have subcultures and countercultures. Cultural Performance actions by which members constitute and reveal their culture to themselves and others Ethnographers map out social discourse. they do this to discover who people think they are, what they are doing, and to what end they think they are doing it. Thick Description a record of the intertwined layers of common meaning that underlie what a particular people say and do. Thick Description starts with: a state of bewilderment. the only way to reduce the puzzlement is to observe as if one were a stranger in a foreign land. Metaphor clarifies what is unknown or confusing by equating it with an image that's more familiar. metaphors can offer the ethnographer a starting place for accessing the shared meaning of a corporate culture. Lattice Organization the crosshatched lines would show the importance of one-on-one communication and reflect the fact that no person within the company needs permission to talk to anyone else. the lack of hierarchical authority within the lattice organization is captured in the egalitarian title of associate given to every worker. Pacanowsky suggests 3 types of narrative that dramatize organizational life: Corporate stories, personal stories, and collegial stories. Corporate Stories tales that carry management ideology and reinforce company policy. Personal Stories tales told by employees about themselves that puts them in a favorable light. Collegial Stories positive or negative anecdotes about others in the organization. descriptions of how things really work. Pacanowsky claims that fictional descriptions can fully capture: both the bold outlines and the crucial nuances of cultural ethos. Ritual texts that articulate multiple aspects of cultural life, often making rites of passage or life transitions father confessor a warm nonjudgmental person with a genuine concern for their lives. symbols are the tools of: management Geerts regards the quest to alter culture as: inappropriate and virtually impossible

Ch 25 - Media Ecology

Media should be understood Ecologically Ecology The branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings Media enviromentalists Study how people interact with media and how those interactions shape our culture and experiences Symbolic environment Socially-constructed, sensory world of meaning society that in turn shapes our perceptions, experiences, attitudes, and behavior Media A generic term for all human-invented technology that extend the range, speed, or channels of communication Medium This is a specific type of media: newspaper, television, book, Internet, radio, film Media is Plural Medium is Singular Media Ecology Study of different personal and social environments created by the use of different communication technologies Evaluation of media ecology is Hard because all environments are intangible and interrelated Technology Human inventions that enhances communication Over determination Equifinality; a systems theory assumption that a given outcome could be effectively caused by all or many interconnected factors Tribal age An acoustic era; a time of community because the ear is the dominant sense organ. Literary age A visual era; a time of private detachment because the eye is the dominant sense organ. Print age A visual era; mass produced books usher in the industrial revolution and nationalism, yet individuals are isolated. Electronic age An era of instant communication; a return to the global village with all-at-once sound and touch. Global village A worldwide electronic community where everyone knows everyone's business and all are somewhat testy. Digital age A possible fifth era of specialized electronic tribes contentious over diverse beliefs and values. Faustian bargain A deal with the devil; selling your soul for temporary earthly gain. Technological determinism A society's technology determines its cultural values, social structure, or history. Media ecology's primary task Make moral judgements Boundary shifts A blurring line of formally distinct roles or places. -What was once private is now public. Technopoly The cultural state of mind that assumes technology is always positive and of value.

CH 18 - Group Decision Making

Objective perspective -Attempts to predict success or failure of a group based on communicative interaction. Sociopsychological and cybernetic tradtions 4 requisite functions needed for effective group decision making: Problem Analysis: groups commonly skip over, don't think necessary Setting goals and establishing criteria for solution: Identification of alternatives: different solutions Evaluating the positive and negative consequences of the alternative biases groups sometimes suffer from: Positive: only looking at positive consequences/characteristics of something Negative: groups are only focusing on the problems types of communication that occur in decision making groups: 1. Promotive: task communication, working towards reaching specific goals 2. Disruptive: diverting the group from reaching their goal, keeps group from working through the functions 3. Counteractive: trying to get the group back on track *the more a group stays on task, the more likely they will have a better outcome (positive) à scientifically sound criticisms: 1) it doesn't address the importance of how groups need to go through emotional and social development *to be effective groups need to bond à bonding usually personal 2) doesn't address the groups history or the history of the group that it resides in 3) doesn't apply to all decisions groups need to make

CH 19 - Symbolic Convergence

Rhetorical Socio-psychological The central principle to SCT Sharing group fantasies creates symbolic convergence Fantasy chain A symbolic explosion of lively agreement within a group in response t a member's dramatizing message. Fantasy The creative and imaginative shared interpretation of events that fulfills a group's psychological or rhetorical needs. Fantasy theme Content of the fantasy that has chained out within a group; SCT's basic unit of analysis. Symbolic cue An agreed-upon trigger that sets off group members to respond as they did she they first shared the fantasy. Fantasy type A cluster of related fantasy themes; greater abstractions incorporating several concrete fantasy themes that exist when shared meaning is taken for granted. Symbolic convergence Two or more private symbol worlds incline tower each other, come more closely together, or even overlap; group consciousness, cohesiveness. Rhetorical vision A composite rama that catches up large groups of people into a common symbolic reality. Fantasy theme analysis A type of rhetorical criticism used to detect fantasy themes and rhetorical visions; the interpretive methodology of SCT.

Ch 36 - Muted Group Theory

What is muted group theory? Muted group theory is a language system that was devised primarily by well-to-do men to represent their own experiences. What is the focus of Muted Group Theory? Muted Group Theory focuses on the power to name experiences. How is the language of a particular culture limited in its ability to serve all members of that culture equally? People are muted because their native language often does not provide a good fit with their life experiences. Are all women muted, and do all men have voice? Yet it isn't the case that all women are silenced and all men have a voice. In what way is MTG a critical theory? Muted Group Theory points out problems with the status quo and suggests ways to remediate these problems. What observations of Edwin and Shirley Ardener led to the development of MGT? That groups making up the top end of the social hierarchy determine the communication system for the culture. Lower power groups in the society, such as women, the poor, and people of color, have to learn to work within the communication system that the dominant group has established. What constitutes muted groups? How do sex and gender differ? Muted Groups are made up of any nondominat group Sex and gender differ because sex is meant to mean biological categories male and female determined by the presence of XX chromosones for females and XY chromosones for males In contrast gender is defined as the learned behaviors that constitute feminimity and masculinity in a given culture Sex biological category divided into male and female Gender social category consisting of the learned behaviors that constitute masculiinity and feminimity for a give culture What are the assumptions of muted group theory? Be sure you know what each means. • Women perceive the world differently than men because of women's and men's different experiences and activities rooted in the division of labor. • Because of their political dominance, men's system of perception is dominant, impeding the free expression of women's alternative models of the world. • In order to participate in society, women must transform their own models in terms of the received male system of expression. What does assumption one of Muted Group Theory Mean? Gender Based Differences in Perception. The first assumption of muted group theory begins with the premis that the word is a different place for women and men and that their experiences differ from each others. What does Assumption two of Muted Group Theory Mean? Assumption two of muted group theory deals with Male Dominance. This assumption states that men are the dominant group, and their experiences are given preference over a women's preference. What does assumption three of Muted Group Theory (MGT) mean? Assumption three talks about women's translation process. The speaks to the process of translation that women go through in order to participate in social life. What are the four types of behavior that function to silence? 1. Ridicule 2. Harassment 3. Control 4. Ritual What are the four types of behavior that function to silence? Be able to recognize examples of each. • Ridicule:-- we make fun of someone; to tribulize; to make less than or small • Ritual:-- we use social rules/rituals that will silence people • Control:-- interruptions • Harassment:-- verbal and non-verbal threats What strategies of resistance that you text suggests? • Naming the strategies of silence, through this process the silencing is made accessible and a topic for discussion. • Reclaim, elevate, and celebrate "trivial" discourse.