Complete Set: AP World History Vocab

Hijra

"Migration" Muhammad's departure from Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E. Prompted by the opposition of the merchants of Mecca and marking the consolidation of the first Muslim community, starting point of official Islamic calendar

Ibn Rushd

(Averoës), Arab philosopher in Spain Turned to Aristotle in twelfth century, profoundly influenced Christian scholasticism

Middle Kingdom

"Center of Civilization," China's political theory

Sultan

"Chieftain" or "Ruler" True source of power in Abbasid empire

Dar al-Islam

"House of Islam" Refers to lands under Islamic rule

Ulama

"People with Religious Knowledge" Ruled locally during Abbasid Dynasty

Montesquieu

- He was a French philosphe that believed in the separation of powers; idea of having multiple branches in a gov't; America represents this with the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Kamikaze

-"Divine winds"

Mustafa Kamal

-"Father of modern Turkey". Drove out allied forces, proclaimed the Republic of Turkey, emancipation of women, western dress and law, secular rule, constitutional democracy

Mehmed II

-1451-1481, captured Constantinople in 1453; referred to a "Mehmed the Conqueror"; Constantinople became the new Ottoman capital; Mehmed worked to stimulate its role as a commercial center; presented himself as a true emperor, ruler of "two lands" (Europe and Asia) and the "two seas" (Black Sea and Mediterranean). Laid the foundations for a tightly centralized absolute monarchy; his army faced no serious rival. after his death, his successors abandoned his plans for expansion in western Europe

Montecuzoma II

-1466-1520, Aztec emperor of Mexico (1502-1520), was overthrown and killed by the Spanish conquistador Cortés

Fidel Castro

-A Cuban politician and revolutionary who served as Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and President from 1976 to 2008

Jacobin

-A member of a democratic club established in Paris in 1789. The Jacobins were the most radical and ruthless of the political groups formed in the wake of the French Revolution, and in association with Robespierre they instituted the Terror of 1793-4.

St Scholastica

-A nun, St. Benedict's sister. Provided guidance for religious life of women

Divine Right

-A political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God. Kings of in Europe used this to rule, the equivalent of "The Mandate of Heaven"

Fascism

-A political movement and ideology that sought to create a new type of society, developed as a reaction against liberal democracy and the spread of socialism and communism. Attracted millions of followers and proved attractive to the middle class and rural populations; sought to create a new national community; wanted to bring back national traditions. Movements emphasized nationalism

Maize

-A tall, annual grass cultivated for its edible yellow grains. Became staple food for Olmecs 5,000 B.C.E., was also cultivated by the Maya and other Mesoamerican societies

Lebensraum

-Additional territory considered by a nation, especially Nazi Germany, to be necessary for national survival or for the expansion of trade

Pogrom

-An organized massacre of a particular ethnic group, in particular that of Jews in Russia or eastern Europe

Pogrom

-Anti Jewish riot-- persecution of Jews

Heresy

-Belief or opinion contrary to orthodox religious (especially Christian) doctrine

Peace, Land & Bread

-Bolshevik slogan. Appealed to workers and peasants, power of the common people

Zambo

-Born of indigenous and African parents. Prominent group in Brazilian society

Aswan

-City in southeastern Egypt on the Nile river. Known for trade between Egypt and Nubia, name derived from Egyptian word swene meaning "trade"

GATT

-General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreement under which countries met periodically to negotiate tariff reductions that were mutually advantageous to all members, but contained loopholes that enabled countries to avoid trade-barrier reduction agreements

Abraham

-Hebrew patriarch came from Ur and migrated to northern Mesopotamia about 1,850 B.C.E. possibly because of disorder in Sumer. Founder of ancient Hebrew nation

Jawaharlal Nehru

-Indian statesman and leader with Indira Gandhi (Indian stateswoman; prime minister 1966-77 and 1980-84; sought to establish secular state and to lead india out of poverty) in the struggle for home rule; first Indian Prime Minister

Indira Gandhi

-Indian stateswoman; prime minister 1966-77 and 1980-84; sought to establish secular state and to lead india out of poverty

Nationalism

-Intense feelings of national identity; the nation must focus on political loyalty

Monotheism

-It is the belief that there is only one true God. First proposed by Moses, led to this type of religion in modern day, major religions

Alfred Dreyfus

-Jewish army officer convicted of spying for Germany in 1894. See Zionism.

Teotihuacan

-Large and bustling city, located about 50 kilometers northeast of modern day Mexico City, at its peak, its population approached fifty thousand. The city's most prominent monuments were the pyramids of the sun and the moon.

Kingdom of Israel

-Located above the Kingdom of Judah and below Phoenicia. Assyrian rulers conquered the northern kingdom in 722 B.C.E.

Peninsulare

-Migrants born in Europe; came from Iberian peninsula. Stood at the top of social hierarchy

November Revolution

-Minority Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd soviet. Armed force seized power from provisional government in name of all soviets. "Bloodless Revolution"

Abdul Hamid II

-New sultan (1876-1909) proved an autocrat: suspended constitution, dissolved parliament, and punished liberals. Reformed army and administration: became source of the new opposition

Papyrus

-Paper-like material fashioned from inside of reeds from a plant that flourished along the Nile river. Allowed societies to record information with pigments/quills

Nomad

-Pastoralist who kept herds of animals including horses, sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. Two social classes: nobles and commoners

Indo-European

-Relating to the family of languages spoken/culture over the greater part of Europe and Asia as far as northern India. More than half of the modern day world speaks these languages

Quipa

-Rods with ropes with knots for their mail system, would carry these to transfer the messages since they did not have a written language

Duma

-Russia's first parliamentary institution. Lacked the power to create or bring down governments but this act was a major concession

Raja

-Sanskrit term related to the Latin word rex ('king'). Leaders of an individual chiefdom, they governed in collaboration with a council of village elders.

Sumer

-Southernmost half of Mesopotamia, (Sumerians) likely migrants attracted to agricultural potential, population approached 100,000 which was unprecedented, elaborate irrigation networks, dominant people of Mesopotamia around 4,000 B.C.E. Considered the cradle of civilization, invention of writing and states as we know them today

Great Purge

-Stalin removed from posts of authority all persons suspected of opposition; the victims faced execution or long-term suffering in labor camps; in 1939 eight million Soviet citizens were in labor camps and three million were dead as a result of the "cleansing"

Monopoly

-The exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service. British industrial monopoly, 1750-1800, forbade immigration of skilled workers.

Bloodletting

-The removal of blood to cure or prevent illness or disease. Used in medicine around the times of the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians. Most times it was actually harmful to the patient.

Weimar Republic

-democratic; replaced the German empire in 1919

Socrates

A Greek philosopher who is famous for his socratic method to discover the truth through questions.

Daoism

Chinese philosophy based off of humility and piety. Developed by Lao-Tzu

Analects

Collection of short literary/philosophical writings

Essenes

Community formed in Palestine around 100 BCE - had strict moral code - baptism was used to allow new members - they look for a savior who would deliver them from Roman rule

Neo Confucianism

Confucians of the Song dynasty studied the classic works of their tradition, but they also became familiar with the writings of Buddhists. They found much to admire in Buddhist thought. Buddhism not only offered a tradition of logical thought and argumentation but also dealt with issues, such as the nature of the soul and the individual's relationship with the cosmos, not systematically explored by Confucian thinkers. The combining of Confucianism and Buddhism, their thought reflected the influence of Buddhism as well as original Confucian values

Hellenistic Empires

Consisted of three empires the Antigonid, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid. The Antigonid was located in Macedon and the Greek peninsula. The cities of Athens and Corinth flourished during this time. Ptolemaic was located in Egypt and the City of Alexandria grew to be the most powerful city in the Mediterranean. The Seleucid Empire spread from Anatolia to the Indus, it was easily the largest and was heavily influenced by Greek cultural as many Greeks and Macedonians migrated there.

Kushan

Descendents from people that lived in the region of the Kush mountains. Lived in India.

Imperial bureaucrats

Development of cosmopolitan empire

Silla Dynasty

Dynasty in Korea. During the seventh century, Tang armies conquered much of Korea before the native dynasty rallied to prevent Chinese domination of the peninsula. Both dynasties preferred to avoid a long and costly conflict, so they agreed to a political compromise: Chinese forces withdrew from Korea, and the Silla king recognized the Tang emperor as his overlord.

Yongle

Encyclopedia, (Yongle was Hongwu's successor organized encyclopedia that compiled all significant works of Chinese history, philosophy, and literature). Signaled Ming rulers' interest in supporting native Chinese cultural traditions

Darius

Greatest Achaemenid empire.Expanded territory, made largest empire world has ever seen

Ming

Hongwu overthrew Mongol rule and established this dynasty in 1368. Centralization of government, revival of Chinese traditions, established Confucian educational and civil service systems, Emperor ruled China directly without aid of chief ministers

Fast-Ripening Rice

In Vietnam they encountered strains of fast,ripening rice that enabled cultivators to harvest two crops per year. When introduced to the fertile fields of southern China, fast,ripening rice quickly resulted in an expanded supply of food.The foundation of economic development in Tang and Song China was a surge in agricultural production.

Sufi

Islamic mystics, sect of Islam This branch of Islam had the most effective missionaries. They encouraged devotion to Allah by passionate singing or dancing and led ascetic and holy lives which won respect of the people. Al,Ghazali believed that human reason was too frail and confusing. They encouraged followers to revere Allah in their own ways and they tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs.

Qadis

Judges Ruled locally during Abbasid Dynasty with the Ulama

Leopold II

King Leopold II of Belgium (reigned 1865-1909) employed Henry Morton Stanley to help develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free State (modern-day Democratic Republic of the Congo) in the basin of the Congo River.

Angkor Wat

Kingdom 889,1431 C.E., built by Khmers at Angkor Thom and later here.The city was a microcosmic reflection of Hindu world order. It turned to Buddhism during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Thais invaded the capital in 1431 and Khmers abandoned in.

Zoroastrianism

Monotheistic pre islamic religion in Persia

Sind

Province in northern India. Conquered by Arab Muslims and passed to Abbasids, incorporated into Umayyad, passed into hands of Abbasid caliphs

Monsoons

Rains in spring and summer. Irrigations systems were needed for dry months, no big river in southern India so waterworks included dams, reservoirs, canals, and wells, one reservoir during eleventh century cover two hundred and fifty square miles, population growth (53 million 600 C.E., 105 million 1500)

Bureaucracy of Merit

Recruited governmental officials from the ranks of candidates progressed through Confucian education system and mastered a sophisticated curriculum concentration on Chinese literature and philosophy. Tang Dynasty relied heavily on this policy, civil service exams

Sunni

Sect of Islam, "Traditionalists" Did not accept legitimacy of early caliphs, ongoing conflict with the Shia

Caste system

See chapter nine. Provided guidance in absence of centralized political authority, helped to integrate Turk and Muslim merchant immigrants into Indian society, expansion especially to southern India

Carthage

Started as a phoenician colony - this city was the political power in north africa during the time - Rome would go into war for this

Parthian Empire

Stretched from Iran-Mesopotamia, Customs from nomadic/casia people. Did Not have centralized government but had federation of leaders, Had the best Heavy armed cavalry

Eunuch

The Ming emperors turned to them for governmental services. Earlier Chinese emperors, as well as rulers of other lands, had long relied on them, since they could not generate families and build power bases that might challenge ruling houses.

Juarez

- Rose to power as Mexican president from 1806-1872. Led the liberal La Reforma, which sought to limit the power of the military and the Roman Catholic Church over society. Advocated and emplaced a constitution that guaranteed the man's right to vote, freedom of speech, and other civil liberties. His actions left Mexican elites divided against the country. As the country was suffering from financial problems he suspended loan payments to foreign countries and this eventually led to a foreign invasion (Cinco de Mayo).

Sultan

-"Chieftain" or "Ruler". The caliph recognized the Saljuq leader Tughril Beg as this

Glasnost

-(In the former Soviet Union) the policy or practice of more open consultative government and wider dissemination of information, initiated by leader Mikhail Gorbachev from 1985

Oliver Cromwell

-1599-1658 Leader of parliament (against Charles I). Captured Charles I; tried him for tyranny; and in an act that shocked Europe, marched him up on a platform and beheaded him in 1649

Shang

-1600-146 B.C.E. Ruled the Yellow River of China

Vedic Age

-1750-500 B.C.E. Period of Indian history in which the oldest scriptures of Hinduism were composed (Vedus). Tribal society then turned into an agricultural society with social classes

Camillo di Cavour

-1810-1861, Prime minister to King Vittore Emmanuele II of Piedmont and Sardinia

Slavic

-A branch of the Indo-European family of languages, usually divided into East Slavic (Russian, Ukrainian, Byelorussian), West Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Sorbian), and South Slavic (Old Church Slavonic, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene)

Gaucho

-A cowboy of the South American pampas

Sudetenland

-A mountainous region in the N. Czech Republic, including the Sudetenland and the Erzgebirge: annexed by Germany 1938; returned to Czechoslovakia 1945. September 1938, Hitler moves troops into the Sudetenland in Czech, 3 million Germans lived there

Apartheid

-A policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race

Sharecropping

-A system of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on the land

Ahimsa

-A term meaning 'compassion' and 'not to injure'. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs - to strike; hiṃsā is injury or harm, a-hiṃsā is the opposite of this, i.e. cause no injury, do no harm.

Zeppelin

-A type of rigid airship named after the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin who pioneered rigid airship development at the beginning of the 20th century. New technologies favored defensive tactics over offensive ones

APRA

-Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (Popular American Revolutionary Alliance) gave voice to those critical of Peru's ruling system. This party's followers known as Apristas advocated indigenous rights and anti-imperialism among other causes.

Sepoy

-An Indian soldier serving under British or other European orders. Ruled domains with small British force

Solidarity

-An independent trade union movement in Poland that developed into a mass campaign for political change and inspired popular opposition to communist regimes across eastern Europe during the 1980s

League of Nations

-Created to maintain world peace. Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe, had no power to enforce its decisions, collective security depended on all major powers, but the US never joined

Balfour Declaration

-Declaration issued by Balfour supporting the creation of Israel

Mussolini

-Former socialist. Encouraged Italian entry into the Great War (he was convinced that the war represented a turning point for the nation). Established the Italian Combat Veteran League; his movement gained widespread support after 1920 and by 1921, the league managed to elect thirty five fascists to the Italian parliament

Kwame Nekrumah

-Ghanaian statesman; prime minister 1957-60; president 1960-66; first prime minister after independence

Zaibatsu

-Government owned businesses sold to private entrepreneurs (Japan)

Jacques Rousseau

-He believed that the natural goodness of man was warped by society. His ideas influenced the French Revolution (1712-1778). He wrote the Social Contract.

John Calvin

-He was a frenchman who converted to Protestantism. He organized a model Protestant community, which was also a missionary center, in Geneva in the 1530s. Calvinist missionaries were successful in Schotland, Low Countries, and in France and England. He composed an influential treatise, Institutes of the Christian Religion, that codified Protestant teachings and presented them as a coherent and organized package.

NEP (New Economic Policy)

-Implemented by Lenin but he didn't live to see the success of the NEP. Temporarily restored the market economy in Russia. Other features included a vigorous program of electrification and the establishment of technical schools to train technicians and engineers

Tripartite Pact

-Japan's Triple Pact with Germany and Italy 1940, neutrality pact with Soviet Union 1941

Bantu

-Language group from west central Africa (sub-saharan Africa). Migrations of this people spread knowledge of agriculture and iron metallurgy throughout all of sub-Saharan Africa

National Socialist German Workers' Party

-Nazi movement; Hitler attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic; Hitler was thrown in jail

Partisan

-One-sided. Strongly supporting a specific party, cause, or person

Demographic Transition

-Population change typical of industrialized countries. A pattern emerged of declining birthrate in response to declining mortality. Voluntary birth control was used through contraception.

Anti-Semitism

-Prejudice against Jews. It was prominent in Austria-Hungary and Germany, but not as much in Italy and the Netherlands. It often turned violent in eastern Europe. Beginning in 1881 and lasting to the early twentieth century, massacres known as pogroms claimed the lives and property of thousands of Jews. During the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, millions of Jews migrated to other European lands or to North America to escape persecution and violence.

Bolsheviks

-Radical party: demanded power to soviets, withdrawal from war. Headed by V.I.Lenin

Eugenics

-Social movement claiming to improve the genetic features of human populations through selective breeding and sterilization, based on the idea that it is possible to distinguish between superior and inferior elements of society

Absolutism

-Stood on a theoretical foundation known as the divine right of kings; this theory held that kings derived their authority from God and served as "God's lieutenants upon earth." Most conspicuous absolute state was the French monarchy

Multi-nationalists

-The establishment or operation of multinational corporations. Like Apple, LG, Starbucks, etc.

Mao Zedong

-The leader of CCP, developed Maoist ideology. The founding father of the People's Republic of China, advocated women's equality, socialism

Wannsee Conference

1942, German officials set out a systematically plan for exterminating Jews in concentration camps.

Huns

An aggressive people originating from central Asia. Gathered under military leader Attila. Invaded Hungary and pestered the Roman borders and Germanic people.

Free people

Artisans,craftsmen,merchants etc. were free but didn't enjoy the privileges of the rich

Ashoka Maurya

Ashoka-grandson to Chandragupta,started as a conqueror capturing Kalinga who had major trading roots. Central administration made policies for the whole empire. Wanted to spread maurya culture all over

Laozi

Author of tao te ching, founder of Daoism also known as Lao-Tzu

Olympic Games

Began in 776 B.C.E. was held every four years until it stopped, but then started again in 1896. It was an athletic competition were communities would send their best athletes to win.

Zimbabwe

Best known and powerful of east African kingdoms, refers to the dwelling of a chief. By the ninth century, chiefs began to build stone residences, (Great Zimbabwe in twelfth century), kings organized flow of gold, ivory and slaves which enabled them to forge alliances with local leaders

Mecca

Birthplace of Muhammad, spiritual center of Islam

Bantu

By 1,000 C.E., these people had settled in most parts of Africa south of the equator, and Kushite, Sudanese, Mande, and other peoples had also established communities in lands far from their original homes. They introduced agriculture and iron metallurgy to most regions of sub,Saharan Africa.They had a Kin,based society, but after 1,000 C.E., they used chiefdoms.

Constantinople

Capital city of Rome built by Constantine. Overlooked the Bosporus.

Persepolis

Capital city, served as an administrative center and a monument to the Achaemenid empire

Murasaki

Composed the Tale of Genji, lady,in,waiting at the Heian court. Wrote Japanese syllabic script rather than Chinese characters

Mencius

Confucian scholar who expanded confucianism's beliefs "Human nature is good"

Latifundium

Conquered lands that fell into the hands of the wealthy that became big plantations - these often brought small holders out of business

Jizya

Head tax For those who did not convert to Islam, (were allowed to practice their religion but had to pay tax)

Trojan War

It was a battle between the Mycenaeans and the City of Troy in Anatolia. During this time productivity declined and so did population. People left the Greek peninsula in search of a better life.

Persians

Migrated from central Asia to Persia; Indo-European; Pastoralists; shared cultural traits with Aryans

Zheng He

Ming emperor. Permitted foreigners to trade at Quanzhou and Guangzhou, refurbished the navy and sent seven large expeditions to the Indian Ocean basin to control foreign trade and impress foreign peoples, his ships were the largest marine crafts in the world and visited southeast Asia, india, Ceylon, Arabia, and east Africa, voyages enhanced Chinese reputation, end of voyages led to Confucian ministers mistrusting foreign alliances, resources redirected to agriculture and defense of northern borders, technology of building large ships forgotten, nautical charts destroyed

Constantine

One of the co emperors, took claim of sole emperor. By 324 C.E., he had a the status of emperor and ordered a new capital city to be built, Constantinople. Reunited Eastern and Western Rome.

Sericulture

Production of silk from silk worms. Chinese secret.

Hadith

Record of the sayings of prophet Muhammad Provided moral and religious guidance, scholars have used them as guides for interpreting the Quran

Seleucid Empire

Selecus took over for Alex the great. Founded new cities and attracted greeks to occupy them, also stimulated trade

Boer War

The influx of thousands of British miners and prospectors led to tensions between British authorities and Afrikaners, culminating in the South African War (1899-1902; sometimes called the Boer War). Although the brutal conflict pitted whites against whites, it also took a large toll on black Africans, who served both sides as soldiers and laborers. The internment of 100,000 black Africans in British concentration camps, for example, left more than 10,000 dead.

Tyrant

These people were usually notable and well recognized people who claimed power over poleis. They weren't necessarily oppressive leaders, yet many of them were extremely popular leaders.

Monsoon System

Winds in the Indian Ocean enabled mariners to sail more reliably and effectively. The knowledge of these winds allowed for long distance trade between societies in this region.

Muslim League

Worked with the Indian National congress. The most prominent organization working to advance the political and social interests of Muslims, who made up about 25 percent of the Indian population.

Chang'an

The former capital city of the Han dynasty. After the dynasty fell the city fell into ruins as well.

Cape Town

-In search of commercial opportunities, Europeans struck alliances with local peoples and intervened in disputes with the aim of supporting their allies and advancing their own interests. They became especially active after Dutch mariners built a trading post at Cape Town in 1652. There they encountered the hunting and gathering Khoikhoi people, whom they referred to pejoratively as Hottentots. With the aid of firearms, they claimed lands for themselves and commandeered Khoikhoi labor with relative ease. By 1700 large numbers of Dutch colonists had begun to arrive in south Africa, and by mid-century they had established settlements throughout the region bounded by the Orange and the Great Fish rivers. Their conquests laid the foundation for a series of Dutch and British colonies, which eventually became the most prosperous European possessions in sub-Saharan Africa.

Lords & Retainers

-In the absence of an effective central authority, local notables or lords mobilized small private armies composed of armed retainers. Some of these lords were descendants of Carolingian or other ruling houses, and others were ambitious strongmen, essentially local warlords. Both the lords and retainers were warriors with horses, weapons, and military expertise. Lords sometimes rewarded their retainers with grants of land or some other valuable.After 1000, lords hired their retainers. They constituted themselves as privileged political and military elites who dominated local regions.

Allies

-Included Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States. These countries fought against the Central Powers which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. Archduke Ferdinand, of Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by a Serb on June 28, 1914.

Taino

-Indigenous inhabitants. Columbus called them "Indians"

Putting-Out System

-Instead of relying on urban artisans to produce cloth, for example, they organized a "putting-out system" by which they delivered unfinished materials such as raw wool to rural households. Men and women in the countryside would then spin the wool into yarn, weave the yarn into cloth, cut the cloth according to patterns, and assemble the pieces into garments. The entrepreneur paid workers for their services, picked up the finished goods, and sold them on the market. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, entrepreneurs moved the production of cloth, nails, pins, pots, and many other goods into the countryside through the putting-out system. The putting-out system represented an early effort to organize efficient industrial production.

Fulani

-Islamic group in sub-Saharan Africa. Originally a pastoral people who kept cattle in the savannas of west Africa; by late seventeenth century many had settled in cities where they observed a strict form of Islam like that practiced in north Africa and Arabia. Led a series of military campaigns in 1680-nineteenth century to establish Islamic states and impose their own brand of Islam in west Africa; promoted spread of Islam beyond the cities to the countryside; established schools in remote towns and villages to teach Quran and Islamic doctrine; their campaigns strengthened Islam in sub-Saharan Africa and laid a foundation for new rounds of Islamic state building and conversion efforts in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

King David

-Israelite King whose reign was from 1,000-970 B.C.E., a warrior, father of King Solomon. United the people of Israel and led them to victory in battle, conquered territory between Syria and the Sinai peninsula

King Solomon

-Israelite King whose reign was from 970-930 B.C.E., son of King David. Erected a temple his father could not because he was a warrior, much peace-Jews and Israelites did not fight, but learned from one another

Stalemate

-It refers to the 'trench-warfare' which consisted of miles of trenches cut into the earth which were supported by machine guns and artillery. If either side tried to move forward, they would be mowed down by the machine guns. So many people had to die to take a few feet of ground that it was considered a stalemate. The advent of Tanks neutralized this since it allowed for something to hide behind while advancing. The defensive weapons proved to be too strong to overcome with the offensive weapons at the time.

Comfort Women

-Japanese army forcibly took women from Japanese colonies to serve in military brothels. "Comfort women" catered to between 20 and 30 men each day; stationed in war zones, many became casualties of war; Soldiers massacred large numbers after war to hide operation; those living were shamed

Manchukuo

-Japanese established puppet state, but in reality Japan had absorbed Manchuria into its empire, challenged the international peace system, and begun a war

Keynes

-John Maynard Keynes 1883-1946, most influential economist of the twentieth century. Wrote "The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money"- this was his answer to the central problem of the depression. Urged governments to play an active role and stimulate the economy by increasing the money supply which would lower interest rates and encourage investment; also advised gov'ts to undertake public works projects to provide jobs and redistribute incomes through tax policy

Black Hand

-Just prior to World War I, under the orders of the Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence, Serbian Military Officers and remnants of the by then moribund Black Hand organized and facilitated the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria on occasion of his visit to Sarajevo, Bosnia. This was the group that was behind the assassination

Ilkhanate of Persia

-Khubilai's brother Hüllegü toppled the Abbasid empire and established the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia. Crushed ruling regimes in large settled societies

Kingdom of Judah (Judea)

-Kingdom of the Hebrews in southern Palestine, including the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. New Babylonian empire conquered this kingdom and then destroyed Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.

Hundred Years War

-Kings of France and England sparred frequently over lands claimed by both; hostilities eventually resulted in Hundred Years' War (1337-1453); protracted series of intermittent campaigns in which the warring factions sought control of lands in France. Kings of France and England began to levy direct taxes and assemble powerful armies; French kings taxed sales, hearths, and salt; English counterparts instituted annual taxes on hearths, individuals, and plow teams; both asserted the authority of the central gov't over the nobility; England did not establish a standing army but raised powerful forces when rebellion threatened public order; France (King Louis XI) maintained a permanent army of about fifteen thousand troops

Joint-Stock Company

-Large trading companies such as the English East India Company and its Dutch counterpart, the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC), spread the risks attached to expensive business enterprises and also took advantage of extensive communications and transportation networks. The trading companies organized commercial ventures on a larger scale than ever before. They were the principal foundations of the global economy that emerged in early modern times, and they were the direct ancestors of contemporary multinational corporations.

Mohenjo-Daro

-Larger one of the chief cities in Harappan society with a population about 40,000 at its peak. Had city walls, fortified citadel and a large granary that was possibly a site for collection and redistribution of taxes paid in the form of grain, represented considerable investment of human labor and other resources

Mohandas Gandhi

-Leader of the Indian independence movement and advocate of nonviolent resistance. He became leader of the Indian National Congress in 1920. He appealed to the poor,led nonviolent demonstrations against British colonial rule, and was jailed many times. Soon after independence he was assassinated for attempting to stop Hindu-Muslim rioting

Hidalgo

-Led a peasant revolt in Mexico in 1810 but was defeated by conservative creoles

Ho Chi Minh

-Led the Vietminh against the Japanese during World War II, fought the French until they were defeated in 1954 and Vietnam was divided into North and South Vietnam, and deployed his forces in the guerrilla struggle that became the Vietnam War

Blitzkrieg

-Lightning war, surprise attacks

No-Man's Land

-Littered with dead, barbed wire, traps, and other harmful things. The deadly space between two trenches of opposing sided, the harsh reality of trench warfare

Papacy/Popes

-Located in Rome, the "Pope". Claimed continuing spiritual authority over all the lands formerly embraced by the Roman empire, leaders of the Roman Catholic Church, they thought they were better than another bishop, became independent and distingues from the Eastern Orthodox Church

Kingdom of Kongo

-Located in central Africa; in the basin of the Congo River. Emerged in the fourteenth century; its rulers built a centralized state with officials overseeing military, judicial, and financial affairs. In 1483 a small Portuguese fleet reconnoitered the estuary of the Congo River and initiated commercial relations w/ Kongo; within a few years, they had established a close political and diplomatic relationship w/ each other; Portuguese supplied Kongo w/ advisors, provided a military garrison to support the kings and protect Portuguese interests, and brought tailors, shoemakers, masons, miners, and priests to Kongo. Kings of Kongo converted to Christianity as a way to establish close commercial relations w/ the Portuguese merchants and diplomatic relations w/ the Portuguese monarchy. Relations w/ Portugal led eventually to the destruction of the kingdom and the establishment of a Portuguese colony in Angola

Çatal Hüyük

-Located in south central Anatolia (modern day Turkey), occupied from 7250-5400 B.C.E. then abandoned, 5,000 residents, trade items found, close proximity to large obsidian deposits. Town was a center of production and trade in obsidian tools.

Hagia Sophia

-Magnificent domed structure ranked as one of the world's most important examples of Christian architecture, was later turned into a mosque by the Ottoman conquerors, contained gold, silver, gems, and thousands of lamps, its name means "Holy Wisdom"

Book of Changes

-Manual instructing diviners in the art of foretelling the future. Writing from the Zhou dynasty

Giza

-Massive pyramids built during the Old Kingdom stand here near modern-day Cairo. A complete understanding/knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, architecture, carving stones, using the Nile river to bring some granite stones from Aswan in large boats were needed

Sandinista

-Members of a leftist coalition that overthrew the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasia Somoza in 1979 and attempted to install a socialist economy. The United States financed armed opposition by the Contras. The Sandinistas lost national elections in 1990

Cinco de Mayo

-Mexican army's 1862 victory over France at the Battle of Puebla during the Franco-Mexican War (1861-1867). The Battle of Puebla took place on 5 May 1862 near the city of Puebla during the French intervention in Mexico. The battle ended in a victory for the Mexican Army over the occupying French forces. The French eventually overran the Mexicans in subsequent battles, but the Mexican victory at Puebla against a much better equipped and larger]French army provided a significant morale boost to the Mexican army and also helped slow the French army's advance towards Mexico City.

Lazaro Cardenas

-Mexican president (1895-1970). Nationalized the oil industry, much of which was controlled by foreign investors from the US and GB. there was little chance for peaceful resolution to this between Mexico and the US

Utopian

-Modeled on or aiming for a state in which everything is perfect; idealistic. Charles Fourier and Robert Owen established model communities based on principle of equality and stressed cooperative control of industry and education for all children.

Karakorum

-Mongol Capital, ruins lie on the upper Orhon River in north-central Mongolia. In 1220 Genghis Khan established his headquarters there and used it as a base for his invasion of China. In 1267 the capital was moved to Khanbaliq (modern Peking) by Kublai Khan. In 1235 Genghis Khan's son and successor, Ögödei, surrounded Karakorum with walls and built a rectangular palace supported by 64 wooden columns standing on granite bases. It was an early center for sculpture, especially noteworthy for its great stone tortoises. Boucher (a French goldsmith and painter) lived there for 15 years.

Khanate of Golden Horde

-Mongol Khanate that overran Russia. Prized the steppes north of the Black Sea as prime pastureland for their horses, maintained large army from which they mounted raids into Russia

Prophets

-Moral and social critics who blaster their compatriots for their materialism, and their neglect of the needy. Between the ninth and sixth century, they urged the Israelites to rededicate themselves to their faith and obey Yahweh's commandments.

Palestine

-Moses led Israelites to this part of modern day Israel. They organized into a loose federation of twelve tribes. These Hebrews, known as the Israelites, fought bitterly with the other inhabitants and carved out a territory for themselves. They split up into three regions, to the north, Phoenicia, the middle is the kingdom of Israel, and to the bottom is the kingdom of Judah. The kingdom of Israel and Judah were conquered by the Assyrians and Babylonians.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

-Most celebrated woman of her day, she supported troubadours and encouraged good manners, refinement, and romantic love. Code of chivalry and romantic poetry softened manners of rough warriors.

Spanish Inquisition

-Most distinctive institution that relied on religious justifications to advance state ends. Fernando and Isabel founded the Spanish Inquisition in 1478; obtained papal licensed to operate the institution as a royal agency. Was originally meant to ferret out those who secretly practiced Judaism or Islam but then it was responsible for detecting Protestant heresy in Spain. Throughout late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, it served political and religious purposes. Inquisitors had broad powers to investigate suspected cases of heresy; often framed innocent victims and subjected them to torture. Inquisition deterred nobles from adopting Protestant views out of political ambition and used its influence on behalf of the Spanish monarchy

Maya Calendar

-Most elaborate calendar of the ancient Americans. Interwove two kinds of years: a solar year of 365 days that governed the agricultural cycle, and a ritual year of 260 days that governed daily affairs by organized time into twenty "months" of thirteen days apiece

St. Thomas Aquinas

-Most famous of the scholastic theologians, harmonized reason with Christianity. Saw no contradiction between Aristotle and Christian revelation but, rather, viewed them as complementary authorities: Aristotle provided the most powerful analysis of the world according to human reason and Christianity explained the world and human life as the results of a divine plan. By combining Aristotle's rational power with the teachings of Christianity, St. Thomas expected to formulate the most truthful and persuasive system of thought possible.

Giuseppe Manzini

-Nationalist activist 1805-1872. Formed a group called Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state, lived much of his life in exile but used the opportunity to encourage the organization of nationalist movements in new lands

Aboriginal

-Native people of Australia. Lived by hunting and gathering food until large numbers of Europeans established settler communities in Australia in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries C.E.

Henry VIII

-New monarch from England. Sought to enhance their treasuries by developing new sources of finance. Marshaled resources, curbed the nobility, and built strong centralized regimes. Didn't introduce new taxes but increased revenues by raising fines and fees for royal services. He severed ties b/w English and Roman churches; dissolved the monasteries and confiscated church wealth in England... this enabled him to enhance royal responsibilities

Fernando & Isabel

-New monarchs from Spain. Sought to enhance their treasuries by developing new sources of finance. Fernando and Isabel founded the Spanish Inquisition in 1478; obtained papal licensed to operate the institution as a royal agency

Mukden Incident

-Night of September 18th, 1931. Japanese troops used explosives to blow up a few feet of rail on the Japanese-built South Manchuria Railway north of Mukden. They accused the Chinese of attacking their railroad. This "Mukden incident" became the pretext for war between Japanese and Chinese troops.

Anarchist

-No government, many revolutionaries were anarchists, opposed all forms of government and believed Believe that individual freedom cannot be realized until all government is abolished, and used terror tactics, assassination

Saljuqs

-Nomadic Turkish peoples, Muslims. Beginning in the eleventh century sent waves of invaders into Anatolia (agricultural heartland of Byzantine empire), defeated Byzantine army in the battle of Manzikert which gave them almost free rein in Anatolia, by late twelfth century they seized much of Anatolia

Vaishyas

-One of four main varnas including cultivators, artisans, and merchants/traders. Third in caste system, provided and traded the food

Kshatriyas

-One of four main varnas including warriors and aristocrats. Second in social hierarchy, responsibility to rule and to protect, competed with Brahmin for top of social hierarchy

Janissaries

-Ottomans required the Christian population of the Balkans to contribute young boys to become slaves of the sultan; they received special training, learned Turkish, and converted to Islam; either entered into administration or military; those who became soldiers were known as Janissaries. quickly gained a reputation for esprit de corps, loyal to the sultan, and readiness to employ new military technology

Benazir Bhutto

-Pakistani politician who, as prime minister (1988-1990 and 1993-1996), was the first woman to lead a primarily Muslim nation in the postcolonial era, facing accusations of corruption, she went into self-imposed exile (1998-2007), after she returned to Pakistan to reenter politics and was subsequently assassinated at a campaign rally

Yasser Arafat

-Palestinian statesman, chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization from 1968 and Palestinian president 1996-2004

Vikings

-Part of Nordic expansion of Scandinavia due to population growth and quest for wealth through trading and raiding in European lands to the south of Scandinavia , depended on shipbuilding techniques and seafaring skills developed during seventh and eighth centuries (used rugged shallow draft boats with oars), many were merchants seeking commercial opportunities or migrants but most raided and plundered, the term originally referred to a group that raided the British Isles but came to refer generally to Norse mariners who mounted invasions and plundered settlements from Russia and eastern Europe. Posed external pressure on Carolingian empire from the north and were the most feared invaders, mounted raids in northern France even during Charlemagne's lifetime, first began to attack unprotected monasteries in the 790s then more daring raids

Catholic Reformation

-Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, Roman Catholic authorities undertook an enormous reform effort within their own church. The Roman Catholic authorities sought to define points of doctrine so as to clarify differences between Roman and Protestant churches, and to persuade Protestants to return to the Roman church, and to deepen the sense of spirituality and religious commitment in their own community.

Smoot-Hawley Tariff

-Passed by the US Congress in 1930. Raised duties on most manufactured products to prohibitive levels. Other nations immediately retaliated by raising tariffs on imports of US products

Hebrews

-Pastoral nomads who inhabited lands between Mesopotamia and Egypt during the second millenium B.C.E., some settled in Mesopotamian cities. Recognized Mesopotamian deities, values, and customs, their law borrowed the principle of lex talionis from Hammurabi's code, received their name from the language they spoke

Caesaropapism

-Policy where the emperor not only ruled as secular lord but also played active and prominent role in ecclesiastical affairs initiated by Constantine

Cultural Revolution

-Political upheaval in China 1966-68 intended to bring about a return to revolutionary Maoist beliefs; carried forward by the Red Guard, it resulted in attacks on intellectuals, a large-scale purge in party posts

Urban II

-Pope Urban II launched crusades in 1095. Spoke at the Council of Clermont (in central France) and warned church leaders that Muslim Turks were threatening the eastern border of Christendom; urged European princes to stabilized Christendom's borders and then go further to recapture Jerusalem/restore Christian rule to the holy land

Trading Post

-Portuguese trading posts were the earliest trading post empire. Goal was to control trade routes by forcing merchant vessels to call at fortified trading sites and pay duties there. More than 50 trading posts from west africa to east asia by mid-sixteenth century

English East India Company

-Powerful joint-stock company founded in 1600; its counterpart: United East India Company. Private merchants advanced funds to launch both these companies, outfit them w/ ships and crews, and provide them w/ commodities and money to trade. Enjoyed gov't support, but were privately owned enterprises. Company agents concentrated strictly on profitable trade. Company experienced immediate financial success. Contributed to the early formation of a global network exchange

Dollar Diplomacy

-President William Taft suggested that the US should substitute "dollars for bullets" in its foreign policy. He wanted businessmen to develop foreign markets through peaceful commerce and believed that expensive military intervention should be avoided as much as possible.

Juan Peron

-President of Argentina (1946-1955, 1973-1974). As a military officer, he championed the rights of labor. Aided by his wife Eva Duarte, he was elected president in 1946. He built up Argentinean industry, became very popular among the urban poor, but harmed economy.

Woodrow Wilson

-President of the U.S., 1914-1916. Made U.S. officially neutral, American public opposed participation in a European war, U.S. companies sold supplies, gave loans to Allies, By 1917, Allied ability to repay loans depended on Allies victory

Prince Henry the Navigator

-Prince of Portugal, wanted to find ocean route around Africa to Asia, and locate source of gold in Africa. Never actually took part in the exploration, merely financed it. Launches age of Portuguese exploration and colonial ventures. Became interested in the outside world after the Crusade against the Muslims.

Mummification

-Process of preserving the dead in hope that there was an afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, Egyptians believed that only the ruling elites would survive, so they preserved only pharaohs and their close relatives. Later, however, other royal officials and wealthy individuals merited the posthumous honor of the afterlife.

Enlightenment

-Progress of people being optimistic about the future of the world and humanity produced ideas of the philosophies that natural science will lead to greater human control over the world while rational sciences of human affairs would lead to individual freedom and construction of a prosperous just and equitable society. Enlightenment then meant was thought to encourage the replacement of Christian values but encourage political and cultural leaders to subject decided to rational analysis and intervene actively and it's a fair is in the interest of promoting progress and prosperity which is continue to be influenced and European and Euro American society still today. Newton's work suggested the rational analysis of human behavior could lead to fresh insights about the human as well as the natural world.

Lend-Lease

-Proposed in late 1940 and passed in March 1941, the Lend-Lease Act was the principal means for providing U.S. military aid to foreign nations during World War II. It authorized the president to transfer arms or any other defense materials for which Congress appropriated money to "the government of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States." By allowing the transfer of supplies without compensation to Britain, China, the Soviet Union and other countries, the act permitted the United States to support its war interests without being overextended in battle.

Christopher Columbus

-Proposed sailing to the markets of Asia by a western route. On the basis of wide reading of literature on geography, Columbus believed that the Eurasian landmass covered 270 degrees of longitude and that the earth was a relatively small sphere with a circumference of about 17,000 nautical miles. Although Fernando and Isabel of Spain eventually agreed to sponsor Columbus's expedition, Italian bankers actually financed the voyage. In August 1492 his fleet of three ships departed Palos in southern Spain. He sailed south to the Canaries, picked up supplies, and then turned west with the trade winds. On the morning of 12 October 1492, he made landfall at an island in the Bahamas that the nativeTaíno inhabitants called Guanahaní and that Columbus rechristened San Salvador (also known as Watling Island). Thinking that he had arrived in the spice islands known familiarly as the Indies, Columbus called the Taíno "Indians." In search of gold he sailed around the Caribbean for almost three months, and at the large island of Cuba he sent a delegation to seek the court of the emperor of China. When Columbus returned to Spain, he reported to his royal sponsors that he had reached islands just off the coast of Asia.

St Benedict

-Provided a set of regulations, individuals gave up their personal possessions and lived communally. Virtues of Benedictine monks: poverty, chastity, and obedience

Domestication

-Providing for animals' needs and supervising their breeding. Peoples of southwest Asia herded cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, more reliable source of food despite the hard work needed

Mahatma Gandhi

-Raised as a well-to-do Hindu, studied law in London. Spent twenty-five years in South Africa, embraced tolerance and nonviolence, developed technique of passive resistance, followed a simple life, became political and spiritual leader, called the Mahatma ("Great Soul"), opposed to caste system, especially the exclusion of untouchables, 1920-1922, led Non-Cooperation Movement; 1930, Civil Disobedience Movement

Urbanization

-Rapid population growth drove a process of equally rapid urbanization. Some cities grew because rulers chose them as sites of government. Madrid, for example, was a minor town with a few thousand inhabitants until 1561 when King Philip II decided to locate his capital there. By 1600 the population of Madrid had risen to 65,000, and by 1630 it had reached 170,000. Other cities were commercial and industrial as well as government centers, and their numbers expanded along with the European economy.

Encomienda System

-Recruitment of labor came through an institution known as the encomienda, which gave Spanish encomenderos ("settlers") the right to compel the Taíno to work in their mines or fields. In return for labor, encomenderos assumed responsibility to look after their workers' health and welfare and to encourage their conversion to Christianity.

Crusade

-Refers to a holy war; derives from the Latin term "cruz" meaning "cross". When a Pope declared a crusade, warriors would "take up the cross" as a symbol of their faith, the wars that Christians fought against pagans in the Baltic and Muslims in the Mediterranean were crusades, and so was the campaign waged by Roman Catholic Christians against Cathar heretics in southern France. Generally refers to the huge expeditions that Roman Catholic Christians mounted in an effort to recapture Palestine (the land of Christian origins), and the holy city of Jerusalem from Muslim authorities

Mahmud II

-Reformer; became sultan after revolt(reigned 1808-1839), proposed for a new European-style army in 1826 brought him into conflict with the Janissaries. Mahmud's program remodeled Ottoman institutions along western European lines. Highest priority went to the creation of a more effective army.When Janissaries resisted, Mahmud had them killed; cleared way for reforms

Babylonia

-Region Hammurabi controlled that dominated Mesopotamia until 1,600 B.C.E., near modern day Baghdad. Known for its regular taxation and law code with high standards for behavior and stern punishments, stationed deputies in territories instead of taking army to each city that had to provide for them

Mesoamerica

-Region including the central portion of modern Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador. Peoples of Mesoamerica include the Olmecs, the Mayans, and the Teotihuacans

Louis XIV (France)

-Reigned 1643-1715 Ruler who best epitomized royal absolutism; declared himself "the sun king"; surrounded himself with splendor benefitting one who ruled by divine right; built magnificent resistance at Versailles - a royal hunting lodge near Paris... in 1680s he moved his court there. Sun King was the center of attention at Versailles; court officials hovered around him tending to his every need; all prominent nobles established residences at Versailles for their families and Louis encouraged them to live at court where he and his staff could keep an eye on them. Ran the state along w/ his ministers; provided the nobility w/ luxurious accommodations in exchange for absolute rule; him and his advisors promulgated laws and controlled a large standing army that kept order throughout the land; promoted economic development by supporting the establishment of new industries; waged a series of wars to enlarge French boundaries and establish France as the preeminent power in Europe

Peter I

-Reigned 1682 - 1725 Most important of Romanov tsars; widely known as "Peter the Great"; had a burning desire to make Russia, a huge but not underpopulated land, into a great military power like those that had recently emerged in western Europe. He reformed the army by offering better pay and drafting peasants who served for life as professional soldiers; provided his forces w/ extensive training and equipped them with modern weapons. Ordered aristocrats to study mathematics and geometry so that they could calculate how to aim cannons accurately; began construction of a navy with an eye toward domination of the Baltic and other northern seas. Overhauled the gov't bureaucracy to facilitate tax collection and improve administrative efficiency. Commanded his aristocratic subjects to wear western European fashions and ordered men to shave their traditional beards - Unpopular and provoked spirited protest among those who resented the influence of western European ways. Opened St. Petersburg in 1703 - newly built seaport; served as magnificent capital city and haven for Russia's fledgling navy

Catherine II

-Reigned 1762-1796 Most able of Peter's successors; known as "Catherine the Great"; sought to make Russia a great power; worked to improve governmental efficiency by dividing her vast empire into fifty administrative provinces; promoted economic development in towns; sought to eliminate common penalties such as torture, beating, and the mutilation of individuals by cutting off their noses, ears, or tongues. First concern was the preservation of autocratic rule rather than the transformation of Russia according to western European models; absolutist policies resulted in tight centralization and considerable strengthening of the state

Kulak

-Relatively wealthy peasants who had risen to prosperity during the NEP but accounted for only 3 to 5 percent of the peasantry

Shaman

-Religious specialists who possessed supernatural powers, communicated with the gods and nature spirits, invoked divine aid on behalf of their communities, and informed their companions of their gods' will. Earliest religion of the Turkish people revolved around these

Deforestation

-Removal of trees to use the land for something non forest related (like a farm or a ranch)

Songhay Empire

-Replaced the Mali empire in the fifteenth century. Dominant power of the western grasslands; based in the trading city of Gao; rulers built a flourishing city - state perhaps as early as the eighth century; in the early fifteenth century, they rejected Mali authority and mounted raids deep into Mali territory. In 1464 the Songhay ruler Sunni Ali (1464-1493) embarked on a campaign to conquer his neighbors and consolidated the Songhay empire (1464-1591); he brought the important trading cities of Timbuktu and Jenne under his control and used their wealth to dominate the central Niger Valley; he built an elaborate administrative and military apparatus to oversee affairs in his realm; appointed governors to oversee provinces and instituted hierarchy of command that turned his army into an effective military force; created and imperial navy to patrol the Niger River which was an extremely important commercial highway in the empire; Songhay military enabled Ali to extend their authority north into the Sahara, east toward Lake Chad, and west toward the upper reaches of the Niger River. Songhay emperors presided over a prosperous land; all emperors were Muslim and supported mosques, built schools to teach the Quran, and maintained an Islamic university at Timbuktu, but did not abandon traditional religious practices. Fall of Songhay: in 1591 a musket-bearing Moroccan army trekked across the Sahara and opened fire on the previously invincible Songhay military machine; Songhay forces withered under the attack and subject peoples took the opportunity to revolt against Songhay domination

Five Year Plan(s)

-Replaced the NEP; an ambitious plan for rapid economic development. Goal was to transform the Soviet Union from a predominantly agricultural country to a leading industrial power; set targets for increased productivity in all spheres of the economy but emphasized heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods

The India Act

-Repression failed, so the British offered modified self-rule through the India Act. Unsuccessful because India's six hundred princes refused to support, muslims would not cooperate, wanted an independent state, Great Depression worsened conflict between Hindus and Muslims, muslims believed Hindus discriminated against them

Conservatism

-Resistance to change; believed in importance of tradition. Edmund Burke viewed society as an organism that changed slowly over time, the American Revolution was a natural and logical outcome of history, and the French Revolution was violent and irresponsible

Pope Gregory I (Gregory the Great)

-Responsible for the independence of Roman Church, he organized the defense of Rome against Lombard's menace. He reasserted papal primacy over other bishops, he also believed strongly in the sacrament of penance-- confession and atonement

Yellow River (Huang Ye)

-River flowing from west China into the Gulf of Bohai, 2,800 miles. Provided water for ancient societies in east Asia, loess soil provided rich soil that was soft and easy to work and explains the water's color, nicknamed "China's Sorrow" due to extensive flooding periodically

Tigris

-River that runs through southwest Asia, through Mesopotamia at the time, flowing southeast and joining with the Euphrates river to form the Shatt al Arab. Provided water for Mesopotamians, would periodically flood creating fertile farmland, made fertile crescent possible

New Deal

-Roosevelt took aggressive steps to reinflate the economy and ease the worst of the suffering caused by the depression. His proposals included legislation designed to prevent the collapse of the banking system, to provide jobs and farm subsidies to give workers the right to organize and bargain collectively, to guarantee minimum wages, and to provide social security in old age

Versailles

-Royal hunting lodge near Paris; site of Louis XIV's court and resistance; home to his palace - largest building in Europe w/ 230 acres of formal gardens and 1,400 fountains

Pyramid

-Royal tomb that was a symbol of the Pharaoh's authority. The pyramid of Khufu is the largest pyramid, made of 2.3 million limestone blocks.

Russo-Japanese War

-Russian designs on Korea and Manchuria clashed with similar Japanese intentions waiting to arrival rivalry that ended in War. Began with the Japanese surprise attack on the Russian naval squadron At port Arthur in February 1904 and ended in May 1905 with the destruction of the Russian navy

Saddam Hussein

-Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. Launched attack on Iran 1980, the Iran-Iraq War dragged on until 1988 then Iraqis invaded Kuwait 1990 inciting the Gulf War 1991. The leader of Iraq during the middle of the Cold War, although initially supported by the U.S. to fight Iran, his invasion of Kuwait made him a prime enemy of America

Anatolia

-Section of Byzantine empire. Agricultural heartland of empire

Self-Determination

-Self-determination for ethnic nationalities: urged by Wilson at Paris Conference. Basis for redrawing map of eastern European: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia; Difficult to draw lines: German minorities left in Poland and Czechoslovakia; Yugoslavia: southern Slaves, uneasy mix of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes

Tamerlane

-Self-made turkish conqueror named Timur moved on Persia, limp so referred to as "Timur the Lame" or "Tamerlane," built magnificent imperial capital in Samarkand, led armies on campaigns of conquest. Conqueror not governor

Sepoy Mutiny/Rebellion

-Sepoy mutiny, 1857: attacks on British civilians led to swift British reprisals. In response to the harsh treatment meted out by the British, several sepoy regiments joined what became a large-scale mutiny, rapidly igniting a general anti-British revolution in central and north India. Sepoys were now joined by Indian princes and their followers, whose territories had been annexed by the British, and people whose ways of life and sources of income had been disrupted by British trade, missionary activities, and misguided social reforms. What had begun as a rebellion by Indian troops in the employ of the English East India Company turned into a full-fledged war of independence against British rule.

Isfahan

-Shah Abbas made this city, the capital, into the queen of Persian cities and one of the most precious jewels of urban architectural development anywhere in the world: its inhabitants still boast that "Isfahan is half the world." Abbas concentrated markets, the palace, and the royal mosque around a vast polo field and public square. Broad, shaded avenues and magnificent bridges linked the central city to its suburbs. Safavid architects made use of monumental entryways, vast arcades, spacious courtyards, and intricate, colorful decoration. Unlike the sprawling Ottoman and Mughal palaces, the Safavid palaces in Isfahan were relatively small and emphasized natural settings with gardens and pools. They were also much more open than Topkapi, with its series of inner courts and gates. Ali Qapu, the palace on the square in Isfahan, had a striking balcony, and most of the palaces had large, open verandas. The point was not only to enable the shah to observe outside activities but also to emphasize his visibility and accessibility, qualities long esteemed in the Persian tradition of kingship.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

-Signed on February 2, 1848, ended the Mexican-American War in favor of the United States. The war had begun almost two years earlier, in May 1846, over a territorial dispute involving Texas. The treaty added an additional 525,000 square miles to United States territory, including the including the land that makes up all or parts of present-day Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming. Mexico also gave up all claims to Texas and recognized the Rio Grande as America's southern boundary.

Loess

-Silt sediment which is formed by wind blown dust (will accumulate). Great for growing crops

Simon Bolivar

-Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios Ponte y Blanco, commonly known as Simón Bolívar or Simon Bolivar, was a Venezuelan military and political leader. He led an independence movement in South America. He was inspired by George Washington and took arms against Spanish rule in 1811 but Creole forces overcame Spanish armies throughout South America in 1824. His effort of creating the Gran Colombia failed in 1830s.

Extermination Camp

-Six major camps designed and built for the sole purpose of killing Jews. -These were Auschwitz-Birkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Sobibor, and Treblinka.

Francisco Pizarro

-Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incas of Peru. Pizarro set out in 1530 with 180 soldiers, later joined by reinforcements to make a force of about 600. The conquistadores arrived in Peru just after a bitter dispute between Huascar (1503-1532) and Atahualpa (ca. 1502-1533), two brothers within the Inca ruling house, and Pizarro's forces exploited the differences between those factions. Already by 1533 they had taken the Inca capital at Cuzco. Under pretext of holding a conference, they called the Inca ruling elites together, seized them, and killed most of them. They spared the Inca ruler Atahualpa until he had delivered a large quantity of gold to Pizarro. Then they strangled him and decapitated his body. The search for treasure continued after the end of Inca rule. Pizarro and his conquistadores looted gold and silver plaques from Cuzco's temples and public buildings, melted down statuettes fashioned from precious metals, and even filched jewelry and ornaments from the embalmed bodies of deceased Inca rulers.

Franciscan

-St. Francis (1182-1226), founded orders of mendicants (beggars) known as Franciscan friars. Had no personal possessions, had to beg for food and other needs from audiences to whom they preached, active in towns and cities, addressed throngs of recently arrived migrants whose numbers were so large that urban churches and clergy couldn't serve them well, worked zealously to combat heterodox movements and to persuade heretics to return to the Roman Catholic Church, remembered for his love and creation. A friar, sister, or lay member of a Christian religious order founded in 1209 by St. Francis of Assisi, or of an order based on Franciscan rule, the Franciscan orders are noted for preachers and missionaries

Jesuit

-St. Ignatius Loyola founded this Society of Jesus in 1540. Members had to complete a rigorous and advanced education and received instruction not only in theology and philosophy but in classical languages, literature, history, and science as well. The members made extraordinarily effective missionaries. They were able to outargue most of their opponents and acquired a reputation for discipline and determination. They were the most prominent of the early Christian missionaries outside Europe-they attracted converts in India, China, Japan, the Philippines, and the Americas.

Bubonic Plague

-Started in China; devastating epidemic disease; spread from Yunnan region of southwestern China (where it probably had been endemic for centuries); infected rodents, fleas transmit the pathogen from one rodent to another... if rodent pop. declined, fleas sought other hosts. Mongol military campaigns helped spread plague from China; reportedly killed 90% of pop. in Hebei province in northwestern China (near modern Beijing); plague killed two-thirds of pop. in some areas. Spread through Mongols, merchants, other travelers; thrived in oases and trading cities of central Asia. Whenever it appeared, it struck with frightful effects... victims developed inflamed lymph nodes, particularly in the neck, armpit, and groin areas; most died within a few days after onset symptoms; had potential to ravage a society within a few months; in small villages, it wiped out entire populations .Caused severe labor shortages, caused social unrest; urban workers demanded higher wages and many left their homes, political authorities responded by freezing wages and forbidding workers to leave

Ziggurats

-Stepped pyramids housing temples and altars to principal local deity, not for public worship or ceremonies. Chogha Zanbil in western Iran, shrine at top allowed priests to cook sacrificial food, burn animals, and possibly provide an escape from occasional floods

Final Solution

-The Nazi term for the annihilation of the Jews in Europe

Nonalignment

-The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states which are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members and 17 observer countries. The independent countries that remained neutral in the Cold War competition between the United States and the Soviet Union

NATO

-The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949

Treaty of Tordesillas

-The Pope decreed that all lands discovered west of a meridian 100 leagues (one league is 3 miles or 4.8 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands should belong to Spain while new lands discovered east of that line would belong to Portugal. This papal bull also specified that all lands already under the control of a "Christian prince" would remain under that same control.

Tenochtitlan

-The capital of the Aztec empire: founded in 1325; destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521; now the site of Mexico City. FLOATING CITY ON A LAKE- ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS MADE FROM MUD ON TOP OF REED MATS, ANCHORED TO BED BY WILLOW TREES CREATED CANALS & STONE CAUSEWAYS TO GET TO MAINLAND; Temple of Tenochtitlan, devoted to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the rain god, was site of large-scale rituals involving human sacrifice

Home Front

-The civilian populace of the nation at war as an active support system of their military. Military forces depend on "home front" civilian support services such as factories that build materiel to support the military front. For example, women went to work and the government imposed wage and price controls

Vertical Organization

-The combination in one company of two or more stages of production normally operated by separate companies. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company

Indian National Congress

-The congress of India, mostly Hindus. Dedicated to achieving independence; inspired by Wilson's Fourteen Points and the Russian Revolution; frustrated by the Paris Peace; British responded to nationalist movement with repressive matters

Balkan

-The countries in the Balkan Peninsula: Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Macedonia, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, and the European part of Turkey

Iron Curtain

-The countries that were connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union. On either side of the Iron Curtain, states developed their own international economic and military alliances. Divided Europe

Marx

-The doctrines of Karl Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels was the notion of economic determinism- that political and social structures are determined by the economic conditions of people 1818-1883. He scorned utopian socialists as unrealistic and unproductive. He believed that unrestrained competition led to ruthless exploitation of working class and that states, courts, and police were all tools of the capitalist ruling class.

Imperialism

-The domination of industrialized countries over subject lands, domination achieved through trade, investment, and business activities. Motives: European merchants and entrepreneurs made personal fortunes, overseas expansion for raw materials: rubber, tin, copper, petroleum, colonies were potential markets for industrial products, strategic purpose: harbors and supply stations for industrial products, overseas expansion used to defuse internal products, Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia, "Civilizing mission" or "white man's burden" was a justification for expansion

Détente

-The easing of hostility or strained relations, especially between countries

National Assembly

-The elected legislature in France during the first part of the French Revolution, 1789-91 formed by the the representative of the Third Estate June 17, 1789. It demanded a written constitution and popular sovereignty.

Neocolonialism

-The era of the Great War and the Great Depression proved crucial to solidifying and exposing to view the neocolonial structures that guided affairs in Latin America. Generally seen as indirect and more subtle form of imperial control, neocolonialism usually took shape as foreign economic domination but did not exclude more typically imperial actions such as military intervention and political interference. Impinged on the independent political and economic development of Latin American states, but it did not prevent nationalist leaders from devising strategies to combat the newfound imperialism

COMECON

-The founding of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (also referred to as Comecon, CMEA, CEMA, or the Council) dates from a 1949 communiquÈ agreed upon by the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania.

Varna

-The four classes of Hinduism, Brahmins (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (Kings, governors, warriors, and soldiers), Vaishyas (cattle herders, agriculturists, businessmen), Shudras (laborers and service providers)

Declaration of Independence

-The fundamental document establishing the United States as a nation, adopted on July 4, 1776. The declaration was ordered and approved by the Continental Congress and written largely by Thomas Jefferson. This document signified the ties severed between the thirteen colonies and Britain. It was inspired by the Enlightenment and Locke's theory of government.

Prague Spring

-The government of Czechoslovakia led by Alexander Dubček seemingly wanted to democratize the nation and lessen the stranglehold Moscow had on the nation's affairs. The Prague Spring ended with a Soviet invasion, the removal of Alexander Dubček as party leader and an end to reform within Czechoslovakia.

Scholasticism

-The harmonizing of reason with Christianity, western Europeans rediscovered Aristotle. Believed Aristotle and Christianity complemented each other, they wanted to create the most persuasive system ever, only scholars cared about Aristotle, the commoners used religion was a set of values and beliefs

Diego Rivera

-The ideological transformations apparent in Latin America became stunningly and publicly visible in the murals painted by famed Mexican artist Diego Rivera (1886-1957). He experienced turmoil and shifting political sensibilities taking place during the Great War and its aftermath. He blended his artistic and political visions in murals.

Khufu (Cheops)

-The largest pyramid, made of 2.3 million limestone blocks. The average weight of one limestone block was 2.5 tons.

Nicholas II

-The last emperor of Russia February Revolution of 1917: uprisings against shortages, mounting deaths in the war; facing mutinies

Estates General

-The legislative body in France until 1789, representing the three estates of the realm. Louis XVI was forced to summon the Estates General to raise new taxes because half of the government revenue went to national debt.

Paris Peace Conference

-The meeting of the Allied victors, following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris during 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities. The settlement was dominated by heads of Britain, France, and United States.

Taj Mahal

-The most famous of the Mughal monuments—and one of the most prominent of all Islamic edifices—was the Taj Mahal. Shah Jahan had twenty thousand workers toil for eighteen years to erect the exquisite white marble mosque and tomb. He originally planned to build a similar mausoleum out of black marble for himself, but his son Aurangzeb deposed him before he could carry out the project. Shah Jahan spent his last years confined to a small cell with a tiny window, and only with the aid of a mirror was he able to catch the sight of his beloved wife's final resting place.

Glorious Revolution

-The overthrow of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland) by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). After the accession of James II in 1685, his overt Roman Catholicism alienated the majority of the population. In 1687 he issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the penal laws against dissenters and recusants, and in April 1688 ordered that a second Declaration of Indulgence be read from every pulpit on two successive Sundays. William Sancroft, the archbishop of Canterbury, and six other bishops petitioned him against this and were prosecuted for seditious libel. Their acquittal almost coincided with the birth of a son to James's Roman Catholic queen, Mary of Modena (June). This event promised an indefinite continuance of his policy and brought discontent to a head. Seven eminent Englishmen, including one bishop and six prominent politicians of both Whig and Tory persuasions, wrote inviting William of Orange to come over with an army to redress the nation's grievances.

Schism

-The patriarch and pope mutually excommunicated each other, each refusing to recognize the other's church as properly Christian. Despite efforts at reconciliation, this split between eastern and western churches persists to the present day.Historians refer to the eastern Christian church after 1054 as the Eastern Orthodox church and its western counterpart as the Roman Catholic church.

Popular Sovereignty

-The principle that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives (Rule by the People), who are the source of all political power. It was traditional for the monarchs to have a "divine right" to rule but the Enlightenment challenged this right and made the monarch responsible to the people. John Locke had the theory of contractual government stating authority comes from the consent of the governed.

Industrialization

-The process in which a society transforms itself from a primarily agricultural society into one based on the manufacturing of goods and services. Coal critical to the early industrialization of Britain. There was a shift from wood to coal in the eighteenth century; deforestation caused wood shortages. Factories gradually replaced the putting out system with harsh and strictly disciplined working conditions.

Einsatzgruppen

-The purpose of the Einsatzgruppen was to kill guerrilla fighters in the Soviet Union, but in practice their main function was to kill Soviet Jews, a specialized German force, they were mobile killing units (death squads) and went into action behind German lines on the Eastern Front, killing mainly Jews. There were four Einsatzgruppen: A, B, C and D. They were all posted in different areas behind the Eastern Front. Three of these four groups were commanded by men with doctorates. The commander of Group C, Otto Rasch, even had two doctorates and was referred to as Dr. Dr. Rasch. The Einsatzgruppen were SS paramilitary forces in WW2 that were primarily employed to eliminate Jews and Communist party officials. They were little more than death squads who killed without qualm or remorse. 'The Einsatzgruppen were the mobile Nazi killing squads trained by the SS. They were dispatched on special assignments for the primary purpose of murdering Jews. Their task to kill the Jews on the spot. Jews, but not only Jews; communists, Gypsies, political leaders, and the intelligentsia were also killed. Order police battalions, Waffen SS units, the Higher SS, and Police Leaders also carried out the mass executions. Einsatzgruppen units followed the German Army (Wehrmacht) into the Soviet Union following the June, 1941 invasion of Soviet Territory.

Harappan Society

-This developed in the valley of the Indus river whose waters were available for irrigation of crops. As agricultural yields increased, the population also grew rapidly, and by about 3,000 B.C.E., neolithic villages were evolving into thriving cities. It is impossible to follow the development of this society, because the earliest physical remains are inaccessible, and their system of writing is not deciphered. Named after Harappa, one of its two chief cities

Lateen Sail

-Triangular lateen sails, were very maneuverable and could catch winds from the side as well as from behind. With a combination of square and lateen sails, European ships were able to use whatever winds arose. Their ability to tack—to advance against the wind by sailing across it—was crucial for the exploration of regions with uncooperative winds.

Alexander II

-Tsar. Emancipation of serfs in 1861: serfdom supported landed nobility, an obstacle to economic development; sefs gained right to land, but no political rights; had to pay a redemption tax' emancipation did not increase agricultural production

Agricultural Revolution/Transition

-Twelve to six thousand years ago, included cultivating crops and domesticating animals for food sources, emerged independently throughout different parts of the world. Led to the rise of cities in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley

Safavid Empire

-Were Turkish conquerors of Persia and Mesopotamia and founded this empire. Founded by Shah Ismail who reigned 1501-1524, proclaimed Twelver Shiism the official religion and imposed it on the Sunni population, Battle of Chaldiran between Sunni Ottomans and Shiites, Shah Abbas the Great 1588-1629 revitalized the empire and modernized the military, centralized administration and made new capital at Isfahan

Ming Dynasty

-When the Yuan dynasty collapsed, the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) restored native rule to China. Hongwu (reigned 1368-1398), founder of the Ming ("brilliant") dynasty, drove the Mongols out of China and built a tightly centralized state. The vigor of early Ming rule did not survive beyond the mid-sixteenth century, when a series of problems weakened the dynasty. From the 1520s to the 1560s, pirates and smugglers operated almost at will along the east coast of China. (Although Ming officials referred to the pirates as Japanese, in fact most of them were Chinese.) Both the Ming navy and coastal defenses were ineffective, and conflicts with pirates often led to the disruption of coastal communities and sometimes even interior regions. When a series of famines struck China during the early seventeenth century, the government was unable to organize effective relief efforts. Peasants in famine-struck regions ate grass roots and tree bark. During the 1630s peasants organized revolts throughout China, and they gathered momentum as one city after another withdrew its loyalty from the Ming dynasty. To complicate matters further, Manchu forces invaded from the north in search of opportunities for expansion in China.

Capetians

-When the last of the Carolingians died, the lords of France elected a minor noble named Hugh Capet to serve as king. Capet held only a small territory around Paris, in no position to to challenge his retainers. His descendants gradually added to their resources and expanded their political influence and absorbed the territories of retainers. By the fourteenth century, capetian kings had gradually centralized power and authority in France.

Manor

-Where peasants worked for higher up classes and where they all lived

Mahmud of Ghazni

-While the Seljuks spearheaded Turkish migrations in Abbasid Persia and Byzantine Anatolia, Mahmud of Ghazni led the Turkish Ghaznavids of Afghanistan in raids on lucrative sites in Northern India. His principal goal was to plunder but gradually became more interested in permanent rule.

Chivalry

-Within ranks of nobles, it was a widely recognized code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles. Church officials directed chivalry toward Christian faith and piety.

Charismatic leadership

-Won recognition as nobles through this policy. Acquired prestige needed to organize clans and tribes into alliances

Nile

-World's longest river, starts in Lake Victoria and ends in the Mediterranean Sea. Occasional flooding made agriculture easy and possible for Egyptians/Nubians

Bauhaus

-an institution that brought together architects, designers, and painters from several countries. A community of innovators bent on creating a building style and interior designs that were uniquely suited to the urban and industrial landscape of the twentieth century

Boxer Rebellion

-antiforeigner uprising. A violent movement; called themselves "Boxers"; went on a rampage of northern China, killing foreigners and Chinese Christians as well as Chinese who had ties to foreigners. A force of British, French, Russian, U.S., German, and Japanese troops quickly crushed the Boxer Movement in bloody retaliation for the assault

Spheres of Influence

-by 1895 foreign powers had carved China into spheres of economic influence; powerless to resist foreign demands, the Qing gov't granted exclusive rights for railway and mineral development

Reich

-empire that would endure for a thousand years; promised by Hitler

Twelver Shiism

-held that there had been twelve infallible imams, or religious leaders, after Muhammad, beginning w/ the prophet's cousin and son-in-law Ali. The twelfth, "hidden," imam had gone into hiding around 874 to escape persecution, but the Twelver Shiites believed he was still alive and would one day return to take power and spread his true religion. Turkish followers were instructed to wear a distinctive red hat w/ twelve peats in memory of the twelve Shiite imams and by doing this they became known as the qizilbash ("red heads")

Cuzco

-served as the administrative, religious, and ceremonial center of the Inca empire; "the navel of the universe"; most prominent population of city = Inca rulers and high nobility, high priests of various religious cults, and hostages of conquered peoples. A city of southern Peru in the Andes east-southeast of Lima, founded according to legend by Manco Capac around the 12th century, it became the center of the vast Inca empire and was rebuilt by the Spanish after its plunder by Francisco Pizarro in 1533

Inca

-settled in the lake of Titicaca about mid-thirteenth century. first lived among the people in the region... by 1438, Inca ruler Pachacuti launched a series of military campaigns that vastly expanded Inca authority. The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cuzco in modern-day Peru. Ruled as a military and administrative elite; led armies composed of mostly conquered peoples; staffed the bureaucracy that managed the empire's political affairs. Not numerous enough to overwhelm subjects

Son of Heaven

-term for the emperor of China during the Ming (not quite a god, but more than mere mortal); human being designated by heavenly powers to maintain order on the earth; led a privileged life within the walls of the Forbidden City; everything this person did was conveyed by a sense of awesome authority; wore clothing forbidden to others. Those who met him and gave even the slightest of offense suffered severe punishment: bare buttocks flogged with bamboo canes - punishment which sometimes brought victims to the point of death

Charles Darwin

1809-1882. Discovered the theory of evolution; wrote the Origin of Species; people didn't like his beliefs at first. Social Darwinists "Survival of fittest" Used to justify European domination; people are naturally weak so they are naturally poor

Herbert Spencer

1820-1903. An English philosopher, biologist, anthropologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era. Developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies.

Monroe Doctrine

1823: proclamation by U.S. president James Monroe. Opposed European imperialism in the Americas; justified U.S. intervention; United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867; Hawaii became a protectorate in 1875, formally annexed in 1898

Berlin Conference

1884-1885 Regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies; Occupation, supported by European armies established colonial rule in Africa; by 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers

Spanish-American War

1898-1899. United States defeated Spain and took over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines; United States backed Filipino revolt against Spain, purchased and took over the colony; 1902-1904, bitter civil war killed two hundred thousand Filipinos, ended in U.S. victory

Sino-Japanese War

1904-1905. Rebellion in Korea: Chinese army sent to restore order, reassert authority; Meiji leaders declared war against China, demolished Chinese fleet; China forced to cede Korea, Taiwan, Pescadores Islands, Liaodong peninsula

Russo-Japanese War

1904-1905. Russia also had territorial ambitions in Liaodong peninsula, Korea, Manchuria; Japanese navy destroyed local Russian forces; Baltic fleet sent as reinforcements; Japan now a major imperial power

Achaemenid Empire

1st great Persian empire, began under Cyrus & Reached its peak under Darius; known for expansion

Cyrus the Great

1st ruler of Achaemenid empire,began persian imperialism; was a good warrior and a strong leader, Allowed jews back to Israel

Gupta Dynasty

320 CE- 540 CE. Golden age of India. Schooled on religion, philosophy, math, medicine, physics, language, and literature. Centralized but decentralized. Gave us many math skills we use today. Followed castes and the dharma.

Period of warring states

475-221 BC Zhou dynasty divided between 8 states.

Heian Japan

794,1185 C.E., moved capital to Heian, modern day Kyoto. Japanese emperors served as ceremonial figureheads and symbols of authority but did not rule which explains longevity of the imperial house, effective power in the hands of the Fujiwara family, Chinese learning dominated Japanese education and political thought. Decline due to failure of equal field system, aristocratic clans accumulating most land, Taira and Minamoto (two most powerful clans) engaged in war, clan leader of Minamoto claimed shogun and ruled in Kamakura

Boer

A Dutch colonist in South Africa, or one of their (white) descendants, especially a farmer; an Afrikaner.

Aristotle

A Greek philosopher known for his classification of things into a meaningful and systematic way

Stocis

A Hellenistic group of philosophers that taught individuals had the duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives. Believed that people could avoid anxieties caused by the pressures of the Hellenistic society by concentrating their attention strictly on the duties that reason and nature demanded of them.

Slash and Burn Cultivation

A community would slash the bark of trees and burn which ones were dead. Provided weed-free and extremely fertile ground that produced abundant harvests

Muslim

A follower of the religion of Islam

Senate

A group of citizens whose members were patricians with extensive political experience - Advised the counsel - often got into conflicts with common people known as Plebeians

Patrician

A group of elites who controlled who would go into government - lots of tensions with plebeians

Counsel

A group of people who ran the government - they were elected by an assembly which was controlled by the elite class and served 1 year terms

Paul of Tarsus

A jew from Anatolia who preached his faith - taught called for people to observe high moral standards and to place their faith ahead of personal and family interest

Jesus of Nazareth

A jewish teacher who grew in popularity in a time when Jews were being pushed down by Rome - Born 4 BCE and was crucified around 30 CE -

Emporia

A large retail store selling a wide variety of goods, Indian port cities. Because India stood in the middle of the Indian Ocean basin, it was a natural site for this and warehouses. Merchants coming from east Africa or Persia exchanged their cargoes at Cambay, Calicut, or Quilon for goods to take back west with the winter monsoon. China or southeast Asia called at Indian ports and traded their cargoes for goods to ship east with the summer monsoon. Merchants also built these outside India: the storytelling mariner Buzurg ibn Shahriyar came from the emporium of Siraf on the Persian Gulf, a port city surrounded by desert that nevertheless enjoyed fabulous wealth because of its trade with China, India, and east Africa.

Vassal

A more powerful state in the Chinese empire. In most respects, was an independent kingdom, e.g. Korea

Silk Road

A network of trades routes both on land and sea that connected most of Asia, Europe, and northeastern Africa. These trade routes brought different cultures and ideas into contact with one another. Many goods and people traveled these routes and they helped to stimulate the economy in many societies.

White Huns

A nomadic group in north Asia that constantly invaded china during the Han dynasty (big contributor to the fall of the Han).

Mandarin

A special class of powerful officials sent out as emissaries of the central government to ensure that local officials implemented imperial policy, represented central government to local authorities. The Ming Dynasty relied on them.

Colosseum

A stadium made of marble that held sports - opened in 80 CE and sat 50,000 People - had technologies to keep people safe from rain or flood

Punic Wars

A war fought between Rome and the City of Carthage ending in Rome Victorious - after they won the Romans forced people into siege, took the city and burned it to the ground

Afrikaners

Afrikaners are a Southern African ethnic group descended from predominantly Dutch settlers first arriving in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They have traditionally dominated South Africa's politics and agriculture

Delian League

After the Persian war the Greek poleis formed an alliance to discourage the Persians from attacked. Athens was the leader in military power and other poleis contributed financially

Scramble for Africa

Between 1875 and 1900, European powers seized almost the entire continent . Within a quarter century, European imperial powers partitioned and colonized almost the entire African continent. Prospects of exploiting African resources and nationalist rivalries between European powers help to explain this frenzied quest for empire, often referred to as the "scramble for Africa."

St. Augustine

Bishop of the African city of Hippo. Drew inspiration from Stoicism and Platonism but converted to Christianity in 387 C.E. Worked to reconcile Christianity and promote Greek philosophy.

Abu Bakr

Caliph After Muhammad's death, his advisors selected a genial man who was one of the prophet's closest friends and most devoted disciples to serve as caliph. He and later caliphs led the umma as lieutenants or substitutes for Muhammad. Under the his leadership, the umma went on the offensive against the towns and bedouin clans that had renounced Islam after Muhammad's death. Within a year, it had compelled them to recognize Islam and the rule of the caliph. He became the head of state for the Islamic community as well as chief judge, religious leader, and military commander.

Ali

Caliph, cousin/son in law of Muhammad Shia sect originated as a party supporting his appointment as caliph, served briefly 656,661 C.E., enemies assassinated him, killed many of his relatives and imposed their own candidate as caliph, Umayyad dynasty arose after his assassination

Great Trek

Chafing under British rule, Afrikaners started to leave their farms in Cape Colony and gradually migrated east in what they called the Great Trek. That colonial expansion sometimes led to violent conflict with indigenous peoples, but the superior firepower of Afrikaner voortrekkers (Afrikaans for "pioneers") overcame first Ndebele and then Zulu resistance. The colonizers interpreted their successful expansion as evidence that God approved of their dominance in south Africa. By the mid-nineteenth century, voortrekkers had created several independent republics: the Republic of Natal, annexed by the British in 1843; the Orange Free State in 1854; and the South African Republic (Transvaal territories) in 1860.

Axum

Christian kingdom in Ethiopia during fourth century C.E. As missionaries visited Ethiopia, the kings converted to Christianity possibly to improve relationships with their powerful neighbors to the north in Christian Egypt shortly after Constantine converted. Decline in late seventh century C.E., and during the next several centuries the expansion of Islam left an isolated island of Christianity in the Ethiopian highlands, but later a new dynasty enthusiastically promoted Christianity as a foundation of cultural unity for the land, fell out of favor in 1974

Meroë

City in south Egypt on the Nile river located between the sixth and fifth cataracts. One of the capitals of Kush, it enjoyed great prosperity because of its participation in Nile trade networks.

Sansenid

Claimed direct descent from Achaemenid emp(copy cats), Central imperial government , capital city was cresiphon

Shogun

Clan leader, a hereditary commander,in,chief in feudal Japan, because of the military power concentrated in his hands and the consequent weakness of the nominal head of state (the mikado or emperor), he was generally the real ruler of the country until feudalism was abolished in 1867

Umma

Cohesive community of Muslims in Medina, "Community of the Faithful" While Muhammad was in Medina, he found himself at the head of a small but growing society in exile that needed guidance in practical as well as spiritual affairs. He provided this group with comprehensive legal and social code. He led them in daily prayers to Allah and in battle with enemies at Medina, Mecca, and other places. Muhammad would sometimes organize commercial ventures and launch raids against caravans from Mecca; he provided relief for widows, orphans, and the poor. Almsgiving became a prime moral value.

Plebeian

Common people - threatened to leave Rome

Uighurs

Contributed to the fall of the Tang, became de facto rulers. Controlled much of Inner and Outer Mongolia, as well as what is now Xinjiang, when the Abbasid Arabs attacked Tang China at the Battle of Talas River in 751 A.D., Uighur troops joined the Arab army

Indirect Rule

Control over subjects through local institutions-- British model. Worked best in African societies that were highly organized; assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed

Siddhartha Gautama

Created Buddhism - Born to a wealthy family and spent life in palace until he left and saw the suffering in the world, he ran away and reached enlightenment under a tree

Buddhism

Created by Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) the religion teaches how to cure suffering in the world - escaping the cycle of reincarnation and reaching nirvana

Ka'aba

Cube-shaped building in Mecca, the most sacred Muslim pilgrims shrine, into which is built the black stone believed to have been given by Gabriel to Abraham, Muslims turn in its direction when praying

Hindu Kush Mountains

Darius crossed these to conquer parts of northwestern India

Legalism

Dependence on moral law. Born in the Han dynasty. Favored intellectuals and ideologies over religion.

Pathogen

Diseases travelled on trade routes and spread to different classical societies/ regions of the world. In some cases they cause epidemics that helped to bring an end to some societies.

Sui Dynasty

Dynasty 589,618 C.E. Reunification by Yang Jian, Construction of palaces and granaries, repair of Great Wall, military expeditions in central Asia and Korea, high taxes and compulsory labor services, Grand Canal integrated economies of north and south Decline due to high taxes and forced labor, military reverses in Korea, rebellions in north China 610 C.E., Sui Yangdi assassination in 618

Tang Dynasty

Dynasty 618,907 C.E. Tang Taizong (627,649 C.E.), a rebel leader seized Chang'an and proclaimed new dynasty to which Tang Taizong was the second emperor, was ruthless but extremely competent Era of unusual stability and prosperity, extensive networks, equal field system, Bureaucracy of merit through civil service exams, tributary system became diplomatic policy. Decline due to casual and careless leadership, rebellion of An Lushan 755 C.E., Uighurs became de facto rulers, equal field system deteriorated, large scale peasant rebellion led by Huang Chao, regional military commanders gained power beyond emperor, last emperor abdicated his throne 907 C.E.

Umayyad Dynasty

Dynasty 661,750 C.E. Solved problem of succession temporarily, capital at Damascus in Syria, ruled Dar Al,Islam for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy (wealth and positions of authority were reserved almost exclusively for militant aristocrats), Jizya for those who did not convert to Islam, still discrimination against non,Arab Muslims Decline due to discontent of conquered peoples and resistance of Shia

Abbasid Dynasty

Dynasty 750,1258 C.E. Abu al,Abbas (descendant of Muhammad's uncle) allied with Shias and non,Arab Muslims, won battle against Umayyad in 750 after annihilating the clan.Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy, no more conquering but empire still grew, statecraft relied on Persian technique, central authority ruled from Baghdad court, governors ruled provinces, Harun al,Rashid (786,809 C.E.) as high point. Decline due to struggle for succession between harun's sons which led to a civil war, governors built own power bases, uprisings and peasant rebellions, Persian noble seized control of Baghdad 945 C.E., Saljuq Turks controlled imperial family

Song Dynasty

Dynasty 960,1279 C.E. Song Taizu (reigned 960,976 C.E.) founded dynasty. Culture, most heavily urbanized society, Neo Confucianism (the revival of Confucianism, female subordination), landscape art emphasized harmony with nature (Daoism) was present in this dynasty as well as the Tang, post 1115 C.E. forced south of Yellow river and ruled in southern China until 1279. Decline due to enormous bureaucracy and high salary devoured surplus, civil bureaucrats in charge of military forces, external pressures including semi nomadic Khitan and nomadic Jurchen

Kinship

Extended families and clans as social and economic organizations. Communities claimed the rights to land, no private property, village council allocated land to clan members, male heads of the families distributed harvest equitably among all members of their groups

Funan

Funan dominated the lower parts of the Mekong River from the first to the sixth century C.E. Their capital was at the port of OC EO and they were the 1st state known to reflect Indian influence in fashion. Funan was divided into communities each with its' own ruler, that focused on the production of rice. They were a wealthy group of people because they dominated the Isthmus of Kra; which enabled them to dominate trade between China and India. With their money they made water storage and irrigation systems (which were important to agriculture). The ruling classes adopted Indian political, cultural, and religious traditions. They called themselves rajas (king) and claimed themselves divine rulers like the Hindu rulers in India. They had bureaucrats and worshipped Hindu deities. In 6 C.E. a power struggle weakened Funan internally and it was overwhelmed to people from the north. These two things led to the fall of Funan.

Kilwa

Good example of busy city,state on east coast of Africa, exported gold. Earliest Bantu inhabitants relied mostly on fishing and engaged in a limited amount of trade between about 800,1000 C.E. and during the next two centuries they imported pottery and stoneware from other regions in east Africa and began to rely more on agriculture to support the growing population, Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta visited this city in 1331 and reported that Muslim scholars from Arabia and Persia lived here and consulted regularly with the local ruler, many stone buildings and mosques

Equal-Field system

Governed allocation of agricultural land Provided foundation for stability and prosperity in the Chinese countryside, ensured equitable distribution of land, to avoid the concentration of landed property that had caused social problems during Han dynasty, by early eighth century, system showed signs of strain because of rapidly growing population, higher class families found ways of bending the rules to retain more land for themselves, distribution by land's fertility and recipient's needs, provided a foundation for stability and prosperity during the first half of the Tang dynasty in the Chinese countryside

Marco Polo

He is the best,known long,distance traveler of Mongol times.Marco's father, Niccolò, and uncle, Maffeo, were among the first European merchants to visit China. Between 1260 and 1269, they traveled and traded throughout Mongol lands, and they met Khubilai Khan as he was consolidating his hold on China. When they returned to China in 1271, seventeen,year,old Marco Polo accompanied them. The great khan took a special liking to Marco, who was a marvelous conversationalist and storyteller. Khubilai allowed Marco to pursue his mercantile interests in China and also sent him on numerous diplomatic missions, partly because Marco regaled him with stories about the distant parts of his realm. After seventeen years in China, the Polos decided to return to Venice, and Khubilai granted them permission to leave. They went back on the sea route by way of Sumatra, Ceylon, India, and Arabia, arriving in Venice in 1295. A historical accident has preserved the story of Marco Polo's travels. After his return from China, Marco was captured and made a prisoner of war during a conflict between his native Venice and its commercial rival, Genoa. While imprisoned, Marco related tales of his travels to his fellow prisoners. One of them was a writer of romances, and he compiled the stories into a large volume that circulated rapidly throughout Europe.

Pericles

He rose to power as an Athenian leader from 461 to 429 B.C.E. His tremendous influence over the hundreds of officeholders. And under his ruler Athens was at its peak and became the most sophisticated polis with philosophers, poets, architects, etc.

Madrassa

Institutions of higher education Supported by Muslim rulers

Celtics

Invaded rome on several occasions

Homer

Is believed to have composed the Iliad and the Odyssey and was a profoundly influential figure in the development of the Classical Greek society.

Quran

Islamic sacred book believed to be the word of God as dictated to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel and written down in Arabic, consists of 114 units of varying lengths, known as suras: the first sura is said as part of the ritual prayer, these touch upon all aspects of human existence, including matters of doctrine, social organization, and legislation

Sultanate of Delhi

Islamic state founded by Mahmud's successors, (1206,1526). Established capital at Delhi which could control access from the Punjab to the Ganges valley, during the fourteenth century it ranked among the most prominent in the Islamic world, were generous patrons of art and literature, authority of sultans did not extend much beyond Delhi, often conducted raids in the Deccan region of southern India but never overcame Hindu resistance, no permanent bureaucracy or administrative apparatus, depended on the goodwill of Hindu kings to carry out their policies and advance their interests in local regions, nineteen of the thirty five sultans were assassinated but played large role in the establishment of Islam in the Bengal region

Shinto

Japanese indigenous religion, a belief in sacred power (kami) in both animate and inanimate things, was the state religion of Japan until 1945. It revolved around the veneration of ancestors and a host of nature spirits and deities. Japanese society reflected the influence of Chinese traditions but still developed along its own lines.

Harsha

King that reigned 606,648 C.E. Temporarily restored unified rule in northern India, sought to revive imperial authority, came to throne at age sixteen, forces included twenty thousand cavalry, fifty thousand infantry, and five thousand war elephants, he subdued those who refused to recognize his authority, extended influence to several Himalayan states, exchanged a series of embassies with Emperor Tang Taizong, built hospitals and provided free medical care, liberally distributed wealth to his subjects, generously patronized scholars and wrote three plays himself

Axum

Kingdom of Christian empire centered in Ethiopia (founded in highlands of northern Ethiopia first century CE). Resisted pressures of Islam and stayed prosperous through trade (controlled Adulis, the most prominent port on the Red Sea), illustrated the potential of trade to support political as well as economic development, originally a small kingdom, displaced Kush as Egypt's principal link to southern lands, sent Nubian kingdom into economic and political decline about 360 C.E., military forces invaded Kush and destroyed capital city of Meroë, adopted Christianity during fourth and fifth centuries

Benin

Kingdom that arose in the forested regions of west Africa. Along with Ife, both realms were city,states in which the court and urban residents controlled the surrounding countryside through family relationships and political alliances. Both also produced magnificent sculptures that put human faces and figures to the early history of sub,saharan Africa. Local kingdoms also appeared in southern and central Africa.

Ghana

Kingdom, principle state of west Africa at the time of the Muslims' arrival (not related to modern day Ghana, situated between the Senegal and Niger rivers in a region straddling the border between the modern states of Mali and Mauritania), probably developed during fourth or fifth century C.E. Became the most important commercial site in west Africa, provided gold, ivory, slaves; exchanged for horses, cloth, manufactured goods, and salt, capital city of Koumbi,Saleh was a thriving commercial center, kings of this kingdom converted to Islam by the tenth century but did not force it on others, nomadic raids from the Sahara weakened the kingdom in the early thirteenth century

Muhammad

Last prophet Born to a family of merchants 570 C.E., married wealth widow, Khadija, at age forty, underwent spiritual experience that left him with the idea of only one true deity, Allah, experienced visions that he thought to be messages from Allah delivered by the archangel Gabriel, compiled these teachings into Quran, migration to Mecca set example to Muslims, his teachings offended other believers, under persecution his followers and him fled to Medina (Hijra), returned to Mecca and conquered it, destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques, taught five pillars

Peloponnesian Wars

Lasted from 431-404 B.C.E. The two main poleis of Sparta and Athens fought each other in debilitating battles that weakened the power of the Greeks. In the end thought Sparta and its allies did cause Athens to surrender.

Persian Wars

Lasted from 500-479 B.C.E. When Persia gained more control over Anatolia the Greek coastal cities rebelled and pushed out Persian influence until 493 B.C.E. when it was repressed. Then in 490 B.C.E. Persia attacked the Athens but failed to win the battles. After this Xerxes mounted an attack in 480 B.C.E. and was able conquer and burn Athens, yet they lost the naval battle. In the following years the two skirmished, but it didn't form into a full scale war.

Dhow

Lateen,rigged (triangular sail on a long yard at an angle of 45° to the mast) ship with one or two masts, used in the Indian Ocean. Large ship for trade, favored by Indian, Persian, and Arab sailors, some could carry a thousand tons

Tale of Genji

Literary work that best reflects Heian court, composed by Murasaki Shikibu (a lady,in,waiting at the Heian court who wrote in Japanese syllabic script rather than Chinese characters) Relates the experiences of a fictitious imperial prince named Genji, living amid gardens and palaces, Genji and his friends devoted themselves to the cultivation of an ultra refined lifestyle and became adept at mixing the subtle perfumes, writing in calligraphy and wooing sophisticated women

Kongo

Located near the Congo River (also known as the Zaire River), was a region where brisk economic development supported the emergence of large as well as small kingdoms, one of the more prosperous of the Congolese states. The central government of Kongo included the king and officials who oversaw military, judicial, and financial affairs. Beneath the central government were six provinces administered by governors, each of whom supervised several districts administered by subordinate officials. Within the districts, villages ruled by chiefs provided local government. Though not the only kingdom in sub,Saharan Africa, Kongo was perhaps the most tightly centralized of the early Bantu kingdoms.

Guild

Medieval association of craftsmen or merchants, often having considerable power. Merchant guild wielded political and economic influence since their members enjoyed access to considerable wealth and contributed in large measure to the economic health of their states, members forged group identities by working within the caste system, organized to represent merchant and manufacturer interests (merchants specializing in particular types of commerce like silk, cotton, or spice trade distinguished themselves as distinct subcastes as did artisans)

Bedouin

Nomadic people Organized in family and clan groups, important in long distance trade networks between China/India and Persia/Byzantium

Xiongnu

Nomadic people of central asia, attributed to the fall of the han dynasty

Dharma

Obedience to religious and moral laws

Tribune

Patrician gave Plebeians the right to elect tribunes, they represented their interest in government - at first they picked 2 but then it grew into 10 - had power to intervene in all political matters

Persian Royal Road

Paved with stone, was 1,600 miles, had multiple post offices along the entire road

Tribute

Payment from one kingdom or ruler to another. Periodical, A gift intended to show gratitude

Visigoths

People originally from Scandinavia and Russia, migrated to Germany. Adopted Roman society and Christianity, Romans didn't welcome the Visigoths.

Confucius/confucianism

Philosophical and ethical teachings founded by confucius 550- 479 bc

Swahili

"Coasters" Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala, spoke this Bantu language supplemented with some Arabic, trade with Muslim merchants became important by the tenth century, the city,state chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports, the ports developed into city,states governed by kings during the eleventh and twelfth centuries

Caliph

"Deputy" After Muhammad's death, his advisors selected Abu Bakr ( a genial man who was one of the prophet's closest friends and most devoted disciples) to serve. Abu Bakr and later caliphs led the umma as lieutenants or substitutes for Muhammad. Under the caliph's leadership, the umma went on the offensive against the towns and bedouin clans that had renounced Islam after Muhammad's death. Within a year, it had compelled them to recognize Islam and the rule of the caliph.

Neolithic

"New Stone Age" refers to refinement in tool-making techniques (polishing, etc.), early stages of agricultural society, twelve to six thousand years ago, marks the transition from hunter-gatherers to agricultural societies. Systematic cultivation of plants by women, and the domestication of animals by men

Jihad

"Struggle" Imposes spiritual and moral obligations on Muslims by requiring them to combat vice and evil, calls Muslims to struggle against ignorance and unbelief by spreading the word of Islam and seeking converts to the faith, in some cases also involves physical struggle, obliging Muslims to take up the sword and wage war against unbelievers who threaten Islam

Islam

"Submission" The religion of the Muslims, a monotheistic faith regarded as revealed through Muhammad as the Prophet of Allah

Medina

"The city of the prophet" Where Muhammad and his followers fled to from Mecca because of tensions about his beliefs, before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib but was personally renamed by Muhammad, the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, second holiest city in Islam after Mecca

Four Noble Truths

(1) Life has suffering (2) the desire is the cause of suffering (3) elimination of desire brings end to suffering (4) following the Eightfold path brings end of desire - Overall it states that there is suffering in life because of desire

Perestroika

(In the former Soviet Union) the policy or practice of restructuring or reforming the economic and political system. First proposed by Leonid Brezhnev in 1979 and actively promoted by Mikhail Gorbachev, perestroika originally referred to increased automation and labor efficiency, but came to entail greater awareness of economic markets and the ending of central planning

Metternich

- He took a prominent part in the Congress of Vienna and dominated European politics from 1814 to 1848. Acted as the restorer of the 'Old Regime' and the reconstruction of Europe after the Napoleonic wars. To safeguard the balance of power Metternich formed a 'Holy Alliance' between the monarchies of Austria, Russia, Prussia and France.

Iconoclasm

-"Breaking of Icons". Emperor Leo III became convinced that the veneration of images was sinful, tantamount to the worship of idols. In 726 C.E., he embarked on this policy, destroying religious images and prohibiting their use in churches. The policy immediately sparked protests and even riots throughout the empire, because icons were extremely popular among the laity.

Kamikaze

-"Diving winds." A member of a Japanese air attack corps in World War II assigned to make a suicidal crash on a target (as a ship) or an airplane containing explosives to be flown in a suicide crash on a target

Meiji Restoration

-"Enlightened Rule." Emperor Meiji ruled during a most eventful period in Japan's history. Returned authority to the Japanese emperor and brought an end to the series of military govts that had dominated Japan since 1811; marked the birth of a new Japan; westernization

Hieroglyphs

-"Holy inscriptions," pictographic form of writing, the symbols represented different sounds and ideas. Writing survives on pieces of papyrus, monuments, and buildings

Lex Talionis

-"Law of retaliation" Offenders would suffer punishments resembling their violations but this also took social status into consideration, i.e. an eye for an eye

Shogun

-"Military Governors," that ruled Japan through retainers who received political rights and large estates in exchange for military services from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. Theoretically, the shogun ruled as a temporary stand-in for the Japanese emperor.

Mestizo

-"Mixed" society. European migrants radically transformed the social order in the regions where they established imperial states or settler colonies. All European territories became multicultural societies where peoples of varied ancestry lived together under European or euro-American dominance. Migration led to mixing of cultures and societies

Tanzimat

-"Reorganization" era (1839-1876); ruling class sought sweeping restructuring to strengthen state; board legal reform, modeled after Napoleon's civic code; state reform of education (1846), free and compulsory primary education (1869); Undermined authority of the ulama, enhanced the state authority. Opposition: Religious conservatives critical of attack on Islamic law and tradition; legal equality for minorities resented by some; young Ottomans wanted more reform; high-level bureaucrats wanted more power, checks on the sultan's power

Khan

-"Ruler," what nomadic leaders organized vast confederations of peoples of all subjects, at least nomadically, into. Rarely ruled directly, rather through the leaders of allied tribes

Three Estates

-"Those Who Pray"-- clergy of Roman Catholic church as the spiritual estate, "Those who fight"-- feudal nobles as the military estate and "Those who work"-- mostly peasants and serfs who were the majority of population. Clearly reflected a society of political, social, and economic inequality.

Floating World

-"Ukiyo" were the centers of Tokugawa urban culture as entertainment, and pleasure quarters where teahouses, theaters, brothels, and public baths offered escape from social responsibilities and the rigid rules of conduct that governed public behavior in Tokugawa society.

Lost Generation

-"You are all a lost generation" - Gertrude Stein to her fellow American writer Ernest Hemingway. Characterized US and European thought after the Great War

Babur

-"the Tiger". Real name: Zahir al-Din; a Chaghatai Turk; claimed he was a descendant from both Genghis Khan and Tamerlane; suddenly appeared in northern India in 1523. made little pretense to be anything more than an adventurer and soldier of fortune in the manner of his illustrious ancestors; his father had been the prince of Farghana; Babur's great ambition was to transform his inheritance into a glorious central Asian empire, but envious relatives and Uzbek enemies frustrated his ambitions. never able to extend his authority much beyond Kabul and Qandahar and reduced at times to hardship and a handful of followers so he turned his attention to India; with the aid of gunpowder weapons, he mounted invasions in 1523 and 1525 and took Delhi in 1526 but he cared little for the land he had conquered; hoped to use the enormous wealth of India to build a vast central Asian empire like that of Tamerlane. died in 1530 but he had built a loosely knit empire that stretched from Kabul through the Punjab to the borders of Bengal; founded a dynasty called the Mughal (Persian term for "Mongol") which expanded to embrace almost all the Indian subcontinent

Mesopotamia

-"the land between the rivers," it refers specifically to the fertile valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the land receives little rain so irrigation was used to grow crops. Artificial irrigation led to increased food supplies, which in turn supported a rapidly increasing human population.

II Duce

-"the leader." Mussolini seized total power as a dictator

Kristallnacht

-"the night of broken glass." Night when Nazis arranged the destruction of thousands of Jewish stores, the burning of most synagogues, and the murder of more than one hundred Jews throughout Germany and Austria

Realpolitik

-"the politics of reality"

Pharaoh

-'The Egyptian king,' claimed to be gods living on the earth in human form, the owners and absolute rulers of all the land. The power of the pharaohs was greatest during the first millennium of Egyptian history.

Mita System

-'in search for silver, rapid growth created an explosive demand for labor. As in the Mexican mines, Spanish admins relied mostly on voluntary labor, but they also adapted the Inca practice of requisitioning draft labor, to recruit workers for particularly dangerous and difficult chores that free laborers would not accept.

Crimean War

-(1853-1856) Nineteenth-century Russia expanded from Manchuria, across Asia to Baltic Sea; sought access to Mediterranean Sea, moved on Balkans controlled by Ottomans; European coalition supported Ottomans against Russia in Crimea; crushing defeat forced tsars to take radical steps to modernize army, industry

Winston Churchill

-(1874-1965) served as the prime minister of Great Britain from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955, he led Britain's fight against Nazi Germany in World War II

Iwo Jima

-(19 February - 26 March 1945) a major battle in which the United States Armed Forces landed and eventually captured the island of Iwo Jima from the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II. A Island in the pacific that the Allies used for naval bases

Voltaire

-(A philosophe that published many writings that attacked any institution sponsoring intolerant or oppressive policies were against the Roman Catholic Church). Addressed issues of freedom and equality as well as sovereignty, resented the persecution of religious minorities and the censorship of royal officials who had the power to prevent printers from publishing works that did not meet the approval of political and religious authorities

Barbarossa

-(Frederick), "The Red Beard," a vigorous and gallant man, reigned from 1152 to 1190. Worked from ancestral lands in southern Germany, sought to absorb the wealthy and increasingly urban region of Lombardy in northern Italy

Epic of Gilgamesh

-(Gilgamesh) was the fifth king of Uruk ruling about 2750 B.C.E. for 126 years, also a mythological and folkloric figure whom the gods granted a perfect body with superhuman strength and courage, as well as wit, son of goddess and king- two thirds divine, one third human, legends say he constructed the massive city walls of Uruk and other magnificent temples to Mesopotamian deities, Enkidu and him killed an evil monster, etc. but Enkidu offended the gods and they killed him, Gilgamesh then wanted to seek immortality with a magical plant but then a serpent stole it from him, then Gilgamesh accepted his death. His adventures reflected the interests and concerns of the urban based society that recently emerged from Mesopotamia. Earliest known work of literary fiction/communication of abstract ideas, during Babylonian empire

Marshall Plan

-(Officially the European Recovery Program, ERP) was an American initiative to aid Europe, in which the United States gave $17 billion (approximately $120 billion in current dollar value) in economic support to help rebuild European economies after the end of World War II. Massive transfer of aid money to help rebuild postwar Western Europe, intended to bolster capitalist and democratic governments and prevent domestic communist groups from riding poverty and misery to power; was first announced by Secretary of State George Marshall in 1947

New Kingdom

-1,550-1,070 B.C.E. Pharaohs gained power and created large bureaucracy that divided responsibilities among offices. Tuthmosis III built empire including Palestine, Syria, and Nubia. After this period, Egypt fell into large period of decline.

Pachacuti

-1438-1471, "Earthshaker"; launched series of military campaigns that vastly expanded Incas' authority; fierce warrior; fought furiously; campaigns were long and brutal; first extended Inca rule over southern and northern highlands and then turned his forces on the coastal kingdom of Chimu. The ninth Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco which he transformed into the empire Tawantinsuyu or the Inca Empire

Martin Luther

-1483-1546, an obscure German monk that posed a challenge to the Roman Catholic Church. He attacked the sale of indulgences 1517 because they were signs of greed, hypocrisy, and moral rot-no human being had the power to absolve individuals of their sins and grant them admission to heaven, it was a power only god should have. He attacked corruption in the Roman Catholic Church and called for reform. He was excommunicated in 1520 by Pope Leo because his views were judged erroneous by church officials. In 1521, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (a devout Roman Catholic) summoned him to an assembly of imperial authorities and demanded that he recant his views but he refused. He held religious services for a community of devoted followers.

Hernan Cortes

-1519: Arrives in Mexico and encountered Aztecs (city-states such as Tenochtitlán, King Montezuma). Enslaved the Tlaxcala people (had previously been conquered by the Aztecs); they join Cortes in taking Tenochtitlán. 1521 conquest of Mexico and Aztecs = Indians fighting Indians = precedent. Relationship with La Malinche. SmallPox secures the Spanish victory --> encomienda system for Mexicans

Suleyman the Magnificent

-1520-1566, vigorously promoted Ottoman expansion both in SW Asia and Europe; conquered Baghdad in 1534 and added Tigris and Euphrates valleys to Ottoman domain; in Europe, he kept his rival Habsburg empire on the defensive throughout his reign. under his reign, the Ottomans became a major naval power; inherited the navy of the Mamluk rulers of Egypt; a Turkish corsair Khayr al-Din Barbarossa Pasha placed his pirate fleet under the Ottoman flag and became Suleyman's leading admiral; he was able to challenge Christian vessels throughout the Mediterranean as well as Portuguese fleets in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean

Council of Trent

-1545-1563, directed the reform of the Roman Catholic Church. This was an assembly of bishops, cardinals, and other high church officials who met intermittently to address matters of doctrine and reform. It drew heavily on the works of 13th century St. Thomas Aquinas.The council acknowledged that it abused and alienated many people from the Roman church and it took steps to reform. The council demanded that church authorities observe strict standards of morality, and it required them to establish schools and seminaries in their districts to prepare priests properly for their roles.

Akbar

-1556-1605; real architect of the Mughal empire; grandson of Babur; brilliant and charismatic ruler. gathered the reins of power in his own hand in 1561 following an argument w/ Adham Khan, a powerful figure at the imperial court and commander of the Mughal army, Akbar threw Adham Khan out a window, then dragged him back from the palace courtyard, and tossed him out again to make sure he was dead... therefore, Akbar took personal control of the Mughal government and didn't tolerate challenges to his rule. created a centralized administrative structure w/ ministries regulating the various provinces of the empire; his military campaigns consolidated Mughal power in Gujarat and Bengal; began to absorb the recently defeated Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, thus laying the foundation for later Mughal expansion in southern India. reflective man; deeply interested in religion and philosophy; pursued a policy of religious toleration that he hoped would reduce tensions b/w Hindu and Muslim communities in India; illiterate due to dyslexia but extremely intelligent and had books read to him daily

Shah Abbas

-1588-1629, fully revitalized Safavid empire; moved capital to more central location at Isfahan, encouraged trade w/ other lands, and reformed the administrative and military institutions of the empire; incorporated "slaves of the royal household" into the army, increased use of gunpowder weapons, sought European assistance against the Ottomans and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf. led Safavids to numerous victories; harassed the Ottomans mercilessly in a series of wars from 1603 to the end of his reign; his campaigns brought most of northwestern Iran, the Caucasus, and Mesopotamia under Safavid rule

Thirty Years' War

-1618-1648, the most destructive European war up to WWI. It began as a local conflict in Bohemia and eventually involved most of Europe. It devastated the Holy Roman Empire and caused them to lose one-third of their population. The war opened after the Holy Roman emperor attempted to force his Bohemian subjects to return to the Roman Catholic church, and the main battleground was the emperor's territory in Germany. Other parties soon entered the fray, and by the time the war ended, the Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Bohemian, and Russian were involved. Religious differences made the issues harder to resolve.

Queen Nzinga

-1623-1663, Led spirited resistance against Portuguese forces; came from a long line of warrior kings; dressed as a male warrior when leading troops in battle and insisted that her subjects refer to her as king not queen. Mobilized central African peoples against her Portuguese adversaries and allied with Dutch mariners who traded frequently on the African coast during the mid-seventeenth century; her aim was to drive the Portuguese from her land then expel the Dutch and finally create a vast central African empire embracing the entire lower Congo basin. Unable to oust Portuguese forces from Ndongo

Peace of Westphalia

-1648 Ended Thirty Years' War; laid the foundations for a system of independent competing states; almost all European states participated in drafting it. Entrusted political and diplomatic affairs to states acting in their own interests. Didn't completely end war... most notable among the wars was the Seven Years' War

Aurangzeb

-1659-1707; Mughal empire reached its greatest extent under his reign. waged a relentless campaign to push Mughal authority deep into southern India; by early eighteenth century, Mughals ruled the entire subcontinent except for a small region at the southern tip. Greatly expanded Mughal boundaries, but he presided over a troubled empire; faced rebellions throughout his reign and religious tensions generated conflicts b/w Hindus and Muslims. devout Muslim and didn't follow Akbar's toleration policy; demolished several famous Hindu temples and replaced them with mosques; imposed a tax on Hindus in an effort to encourage conversion to Islam; promotion of Islam appealed strongly to the Mughals themselves and other Indian Muslims, but provoked deep hostility among Hindus and enabled local leaders to organize movements to resist or even rebel against Mughal authority

James Cook

-1728-1779 One of the most important Pacific explorers. Led three expeditions to the Pacific; died in a scuffle with the indigenous people of Hawai'i. Charted eastern Australia and New Zealand; added New Caledonia, Vanuatu, and Hawai'i to European maps of the Pacific; probed the frigid waters of the Arctic Ocean and spent months at a time in the tropical islands of Tahiti, Tonga, and Hawai'i where he showed deep interest in the manners, custom, and languages of the Polynesian peoples. Because of him, geographers had compiled a reasonably accurate understanding of the world's ocean basins, their lands, and their peoples

Olaudah Equiano

-1745-1797, published an autobiography in 1789 detailing his experiences as a slave and a free man; he was captured at age ten in his native Benin (modern day Nigeria); worked as a slave in the West Indies, Virginia, and Pennsylvania; accompanied one of his masters on several campaigns of the Seven Years' War before purchasing his freedom in 1766. his book became a best-seller and he traveled throughout the British isles giving speeches and denouncing slavery as an evil institution; efforts strengthened the antislavery movement in England

Seven Years' War

-1756 to 1763 "great war for empire" Global conflict that took place in several distinct geographic theaters (Europe, India, the Caribbean, the North America) and involved Asian and indigenous American peoples as well as Europeans. Laid foundations for 150 years of British imperial hegemony in the world.

Seven Years' War

-1756-1763 France, Austria, and Russia against Britain and Prussia. Merged w/ conflicts between France and Britain in India and North America to become a global war for imperial supremacy

Giuseppe Garabaldi

-1807-1882. Great fortune; passionate nationalist; led a unification movement; w/ an army of about 1,000 men, he swept through Sicily and southern Italy; delivered southern Italy to Vittore Emmanuele's hands

Otto Von Bismarck

-1815-1898 Wealthy landowner, became prime minister; master at realpolitik; expressed his realistic approach in his first speech as prime minister: "The great questions of the day will not be settled by speeches or majority votes - that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 - but by blood and iron." Reformed and expanded the Prussian army; intentionally started three wars w/ Denmark, Austria, and France and completely demolished all three

Diaz

-1830-1915; full name: Porfirio Diaz; powerful dictator... Mexican revolution broke out b/c middle-class Mexicans and peasants worked to overthrow him

Trail of Tears

-1838-1839. 800 mile migration from the eastern woodlands to Oklahoma; suffered by Cherokees; thousands died from disease, starvation, and the difficulties of relocation

Taiping Rebellion

-1851-1866. Occurred in China; result of China's decline; Chinese peasants tried to overthrow Qing rule. Peasants wanted: an end to Manchu rule, collective land ownership (no private property), end to footbinding, free edu., simplified Chinese language. Failed b/c of too many divisions, regional armies fought against them, European weapons, devastation to people and land

Sigmund Freud

-1856-1939; medical doctor from Vienna. 1896: embarked on research that focused on psychological rather that physiological explanations of mental disorders. Identified a conflict b/w conscious and unconscious mental processes that lay at the root of neurotic behavior. Formulated psychoanalysis

Self-Strengthening Movement

-1860-1895. Empowered w/ imperial grants of authority that permitted them to raise troops, levy taxes, and run bureaucracies. Leaders of movement sought to blend Chinese cultural traditions w/ European industrial technology. Laid a foundation for industrialization but only brought superficial change to Chinese economy and society

Lenin

-1870-1924, A revolutionary Marxist, exiled in Switzerland; saw importance of a well-organized, disciplined party for revolution; German authorities delivered Lenin to Russia, Headed radical Bolshevik Party: demanded power to soviets, withdrawal from war

Villa

-1878-1923; full name: Francisco Villa; radical. A charismatic agrarian rebel who organized massive armies fighting for tierra y libertad (land and liberty). Son of a field worker; embodied the ideals and aspirations of the indigenous Mexican masses and enjoyed tremendous popular support; attacked and killed U.S. citizens in retaliation for U.S. support of Mexican gov't officials and succeeded in eluding capture by either U.S. or Mexican forces; assassinated in 1923 while driving in the town of Hidalgo de Parral- his car and body were riddled w/ bullets

Zapata

-1879-1919; full name: Emiliano Zapata; radical. A charismatic agrarian rebel who organized massive armies fighting for tierra y libertad (land and liberty). He was the son of a mestizo peasant; embodied the ideals and aspirations of the indigenous Mexican masses and enjoyed tremendous popular support; confiscated hacienda lands and began distributing the lands to peasants; killed in 1919

Stalin

-1879-1953, served in the unglamorous bureaucratic position of general secretary; promoted the idea of socialism in one country; indicated his unifie resolve to gain power in his adopted surname which meant "man of steel." Intellectual misfit among the Bolshevik elite but lied up to his name and completely triumphed over his rivals in the party, clearing the way for an unchallenged dictatorship of the Soviet Union. Replaced the NEP w/ Five Year Plan(s)

Albert Einstein

-1879-1955, Theory of special relativity: showed that there is no single spatial and chronological framework in the universe; no longer made sense to speak of space and time as absolutes b/c the measurements of them varied depending on the observer

Amritsar

-1919 British massacre at Amritsar killed 379 demonstrators, aroused public. Overnight millions were no longer loyal to British

Battle of Stalingrad

-1943 Russians defeated Germans, pushed them back. One of the bloodiest battles in history, ended with the surrender of an entire German army, considered a major turning point of the war in favor of the Allies.

Influenza Pandemic

-9 killed more people than the Great War, known today as World War I (WWI), at somewhere between 20 and 40 million people. It has been cited as the most devastating epidemic in recorded world history. More people died of influenza in a single year than in four-years of the Black Death Bubonic Plague from 1347 to 1351. Known as "Spanish Flu" or "La Grippe" the influenza of 1918-1919 was a global disaster.

Zimmerman Telegram

-A 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire offering a military alliance with Mexico, in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. It motivated the US to join the war

Jiang Jieshi

-A Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975. He is known as Chiang Chung-cheng or Chiang Chieh-shih in Standard Chinese. Leader of Chinese Nationalists, also known as Chiang kai-shek. He was defeated by Mao Zedong's communist revolutionaries in 1949 and was forced to flee to the island of Taiwan, where, with the support of the United States, he became president of the Republic of China

Napoleon Bonaparte

-A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution and its associated wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1814 and again in 1815. He was brilliant military leader and became a general in the royal army at age twenty four. He supported the revolution and defended the Directory. Napoleonic France brought stability after years of chaos; he extended freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews. His fall was caused by being forced by coalition of enemies to abdicate in 1814 and was exiled on Elba. He escaped, returned to France, raised an army but was defeated by the British in 1815.

Robespierre

-A French revolutionary and Jacobin leader who established the Reign of Terror as a member of the Committee of Public Safety (1793-94) and was executed as a result of conservative reaction against the excesses of the Convention in the coup d'état of Thermidor (July 1794)

Engels

-A German socialist in England who collaborated with Karl Marx in systematizing Marxism

Hideki

-A Japanese army officer who initiated the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and who assumed dictatorial control of Japan during World War II; he was subsequently tried and executed as a war criminal (1884-1948). When Japanese expansion continued into southeast Asia, the U.S. implemented an oil embargo and demanded their withdrawal from China and southeast Asia. With this, Hideki developed a plan of attack.

Lech Walesa

-A Polish politician, trade-union organizer, philanthropist and human-rights activist. Organized a national trade union known a solidarity, president of Poland in 1990

Serbs

-A South Slavic nation and ethnic group native to the Balkans. The majority of Serbs inhabit Serbia, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro, and form significant minorities in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia; remember Russia is Slavic too

Brezhnev Doctrine

-A Soviet Union foreign policy. "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries."

Forbidden City

-A cast imperial enclave (a portion of territory within or surrounded by a larger territory whose inhabitants are culturally or ethnically distinct) in Beijing. Received news about the outside world from eunuch servants and administrators, Ming emperors were able to live extravagantly and sometimes ignored government affairs for decades on end while satisfying their various appetites

Magna Carta

-A charter of liberties to which the English barons forced King John to give his assent in June 1215 at Runnymede, a document constituting a fundamental guarantee of rights and privileges

Soviets

-A city council of Petrograd (Saint Petersburg), the capital of the Russian Empire. They struggled for power against the provisional government

Troubadour

-A class of traveling poets, minstrels, and entertainers. Aristocratic women promoted chivalric values by patronizing them, they drew inspiration from the love poetry of Muslim Spain.

Corporation

-A company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Industrialization encouraged organization of large-scale corporations with hundreds of investors and new laws protected investors from liability.

Cuban Missile Crisis

-A confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962 over the presence of missile sites in Cuba; one of the "hottest" periods of the cold war

Investiture Contest

-A controversy over the appointment of church officials in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. From the earliest days of the Holy Roman Empire, imperial authorities had named important church officials to their positions, since the higher clergy provided political as well as religious services. In an effort to regain control of the clergy and ensure that church officials met appropriate spiritual criteria, Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085 C.E.) ordered an end to the practice of lay investiture—the selection and installation of church officials by lay rulers such as the emperors. When Emperor Henry IV (1056-1106 C.E.) challenged the pope's policy, Gregory excommunicated him and released his subjects from their duty to obey him.

Foot Binding

-A custom that probably originated in the Song dynasty, became exceptionally popular during the late Ming and Qing dynasties. Tightly constrained and even deformed by strips of linen, bound feet could not grow naturally and so would not support the weight of an adult woman. Bound feet were small and dainty, and they sometimes inspired erotic arousal among men.The practice of foot binding became most widespread among the wealthy classes, since it demonstrated an ability to support women who could not perform physical labor, but commoners sometimes bound the feet of especially pretty girls in hopes of arranging favorable marriages that would enhance the family's social standing.

Amon/Amon-Re

-A deity associated with the sun, creation, fertility, and reproductive forces, the other was a sun god worshiped at Heliopolis, Priests associated the two gods with each other and honored them in a combined cult. A massive temple complex supported the priest who tended to the cult and studied the heavens for astronomical purposes.

Bay of Pigs

-A failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. A counter-revolutionary military, trained and funded by the United States government's Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Brigade 2506 fronted the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) and intended to overthrow the Communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala, the invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban armed forces, under the direct command of the Prime Minister of Cuba, Fidel Castro.

Trench Warfare

-A form of land warfare using occupied fighting lines consisting largely of trenches, in which troops are significantly protected from the enemy's small arms fire and are substantially sheltered from artillery. The most prominent case of trench warfare is the Western Front in World War I. It was harsh and deadly, many diseases were spread

Mikhail Gorbachev

-A former Soviet statesman, was the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, having served as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 until 1991 when the party was dissolved. Leader of the Soviet Union in 1985, preached for radical reforms, wanted to start market economy, first and last president

Bastille

-A fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine that played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France. On the 14th of July, an angry mob seized the Bastille. This sparked insurrections in many cities.

Guild

-A group of merchants and artisans who all had the same profession. Regulated production and sale of goods, determined price, supply and demands, established standards of quality for manufactured goods, regulated entry of new workers, created friends, mutual support, and they built halls where they could socialize and have parties.

Central Powers

-A group of nations fighting against the Allied Powers during World War I; the members included Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and their territories.

Empire

-A group of states of city-states controlled under a single supreme authority. For example, Sargon controlled all of Mesopotamia and this was known as his **, his armies had ventured as far afield as the Mediterranean and the Black Sea

Revolution 1905

-A group of workers marched on the tsars winter Palace in St. Petersburg to petition nicolas for popularity elected assembly and other political concessions. Bloody Sunday massacre cause angry uproar throughout the empire. Between 1905 1907 disorder continued and violence flared especially in the baltic provinces: the Ukraine Georgia and Central Asia through bloody reprisals. The hour was late for the Romanov Dynasty

Hippodrome

-A large stadium that was adjacent to the imperial palace where subjects watched athletic matches, contests between wild animals, circuses, and the most popular, chariot races. It was important because it was used for mass entertainment.

Osman

-A leader who organized further campaigns of conquest after the Mongol conquest of Persia, part of nomadic turks who migrated from central Asia to the Ilkhanate and beyond. Carved a small state for himself and declared independence from the Seljuq sultan

Lawbook of Manu

-A legal and religious text. The do's and don'ts of Indian religion. Covers the roles of women in the caste system. Probably originated in 324-180 B.C.E. Indian mythology: Manu is the author of these laws. He is said to be the first man. (Manu means man or male)

Mexica

-A member of a people of central Mexico whose civilization was at its height at the time of the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century; the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs. Migrated to central Mexico mid 13th century, ruled from 14th-16th century, were known as warriors and raiders, practiced human sacrifice, bloodletting, and collected heavy tributes from conquered peoples, capital city of Tenochtitlan about 1345, developed productive chinampas as a style of agriculture, during the 15th century they launched military campaigns against their neighboring societies, conquered and colonized Oaxoco in southwestern Mexico, made alliances with Texcoco and Tlacopan, built an empire of twelve million people, no bureaucracy or elaborate administration, allies did not have standing army, most info comes from Spanish recordings after their conquest, rigid social hierarchy, warriors elite as well as priests and from aristocracy, women honored for life bearing and active in commerce and crafts

Manchu

-A member of a people originally living in Manchuria who formed the last imperial dynasty of China (1644-1912). They invaded from the north in search of opportunities for expansion while China was having a bad famine and the peasants were revolting. When the Ming dynasty fell, they poured into China from their homeland of Manchuria north of the Great Wall. They claimed a new dynasty, the Qing ("pure"). They were mostly pastoral nomads although many had turned to agriculture and settled in the rich farmlands of southern Manchuria. Nurhaci unified Manchu tribes into a centralized state, promulgated a code of laws, and organized a powerful military force.

Toltec

-A member of an American Indian people that flourished in Mexico before the Aztecs. Emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries after the collapse of Teotihuacan, capital of Tula was also a center of trade, maintained close relations with societies of the Gulf coast and the Maya, decline after 12th century, civil strife at Tula 1125, nomadic invaders after 1175, had own army and irrigation systems

Kikuyu

-A member of an indigenous people of Kenya having an agricultural economy and notable as being the originators of the Mau Mau, a Bantu people

Mandarin

-A member of any of the nine ranks of public imperial officials, each distinguished by a particular kind of button worn on their caps in the Chinese empires. Traveled throughout the land and oversaw implementation of government policies

Indentured Labor

-A migrant to British colonies in the Americas who paid for passage by agreeing to work for a set term ranging from four to seven years. After 1800, most laborers were Asian.

Triple Alliance

-A military alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It lasted from 20 May 1882 until World War I in 1914.

Warsaw Pact

-A military alliance of communist nations in eastern Europe. Organized in 1955 in answer to NATO, the Warsaw Pact included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union.

Caudillo

-A military or political leader in Spanish speaking regions. The newly independent Latin American states granted military authority to local charismatic strongmen allied with creole elites.

Long March

-A military retreat undertaken by the Red Army of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party) army. There was not one Long March, but a series of marches, as various Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west.

Sikh

-A monotheistic syncretic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. It was a new faith that combined the elements of Hinduism and Islam, tolerated by Akbar

Pan-Slavism

-A movement which crystallised in the mid-19th century, aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples. Its main impact occurred in the Balkans, where non-Slavic empires - the Byzantine Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Venice - had ruled the South Slavs for centuries.

Greek fire

-A nasty incendiary weapon compounded of sulphur, lime, and petroleum. Byzantine forces launched this at fleets and ground forces of invaders, it burned even when on floating on water and was extremely difficult to extinguish, with this weapon the Byzantine empire retained its hold on Anatolia, Greece and the Balkan region

PEMEX

-A national oil company set up in Mexico to run the oil industry. This is an example of Parastatals (State-owned, or at least state-controlled, corporations, creating to undertake a broad range of activities, from control and marketing of agricultural production to provision of banking services, operation of airlines, and other transportation facilities and public utilities (a good example in Mexico is PEMEX))

Feudalism

-A neat hierarchy of lords and vassals who collectively took charge of political and military affairs on the basis of personal relationships. Lords could provide grants of land to their retainers in exchange for loyalty and military service. Historians have largely abandoned the concept as a model that grossly oversimplifies a complex society. In the absence of an effective central authority, local notables or lords mobilized small private armies composed of armed retainers. Both lords and retainers were warriors with horses, weapons, and military expertise.

Captains of Industry

-A new aristocracy of wealth, a business leader whose means of amassing a personal fortune contributes positively to the country in some way, may have been through increased productivity, expansion of markets, providing more jobs, or acts of philanthropy

Velvet Revolution

-A nonviolent political revolution, especially the relatively smooth change from communism to a Western-style democracy in Czechoslovakia at the end of 1989

Communist Manifesto

-A pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, was the first statement of the principles of modern communism 1848. It claimed excesses of capitalism would lead communist revolution, "Dictatorship of the proletariat" would destroy capitalism, socialism would follow; a fair, just, egalitarian society, and that ideas dominated European and international socialism throughout the 19th century.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

-A peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918. Between the new Bolshevik government of Russia (the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey), that ended Russia's participation in World War I.

Penal Colony

-A penal institution where prisoners are exiled (often located on an island from which escape is difficult or impossible)

La Reforma

-A period halfway through the 19th century in the history of Mexico that was characterized by liberal reforms designed to modernize Mexico and make it into a nation state. The major goals in this movement were: Land reform—redistribution of land, separation of church and state, and increased educational opportunities for the poor, the majority of the country's population. The liberals' strategy was to sharply limit the traditional privileges land holdings of the Catholic Church and thereby revitalize the market in land. The Church fought back and the gains were limited. No class of small peasants identified with the Liberal program emerged, but many merchants acquired land (and tenant farmers). Many existing landowners expanded their holdings at peasant expense, and some upwardly mobile ranch owners, often mestizos, acquired land. Aimed to limit the power of the military and the Roman Catholic church in Mexican society

Pillar Saints

-A person in the early church who crucified the flesh by living on the summit of pillars in the open air, a stylite, a common sight throughout the Christian Levant. E.g. Saint Simeon Stylites

Entrepreneur

-A person who organizes and operates a business, taking on greater than normal financial risks in order to do so

Satyagraha

-A policy of passive political resistance, especially that advocated by Mahatma Gandhi against British rule in India. Non-violent resistance

Socialism

-A political and economic theory of social organization that advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole, including Charles Fourier and Robert Owen

Zionism

-A political movement that holds that the Jewish people constitute a nation and have the right to their own national homeland founded by Theodor Herzl. Herzl organized the first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland where the delegates formulated the basic platform of the movement declaring that "Zionism seeks to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine." Jewish migrants trickled into Palestine, and in 1948, they won recognition for the Jewish state of Israel. Although it arose in response to exclusive nationalism in Europe, Zionism in turn provoked a resentful nationalism among Palestinian Arabs displaced by Jewish settlers. Conflicts are still present today. A military court convicted Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer, of spying for Germany in 1894 although he was innocent. The verdict was reversed on appeal and Dreyfus became the focus of bitter debates about the trustworthiness of Jews in French society. The trial became a key event in the evolution of Zionism.

Gutenberg (Printing Press)

-A popular legend credited Martin Luther to have nailed his work to the church door here. Gutenberg invented the printing press in the 15th century. He also invented the idea of movable type.

Secularism

-A principle that involves two basic propositions. The first is the strict separation of the state from religious institutions. The second is that people of different religions and beliefs are equal before the law. Mustafa Kemal created secular rule replaced muslim authorities

Concentration Camp

-A prison camp run by Nazi Germany, where Jews and other "enemies" of Hitler were starved doing slave labor or murdered

Moses

-A prophet who embraced monotheism, taught there was only one god, known as Yahweh. Led the Israelites to Palestine, announced the Ten Commandments to the Israelites, attributed to the writing of the Torah

Hezbollah

-A radical Shiʿite Muslim organization in Lebanon, engaged in guerrilla warfare against Israel

Proliferation

-A rapid increase in something, in this case nuclear weapons so the Proliferation Treaty was created as an agreement made in 1968 to discourage the spread of nuclear weapons. It has been ratified by ninety-two countries, but not by all countries with the potential to develop nuclear weapons.

Nubia

-A region of the Nile river, not as large of a floodplain as Egypt, and was less prosperous, had a close relation with Egypt, built a patriarchal society. The most prominent cities were Kerma, Napata, and Meroe.

Monasticism

-A religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Grew out of the efforts of devout individuals to lead especially holy lives

Revisionist Powers

-A revisionist state is a term from Power Transition Theory within the wider field of international relations. It is used to describe states. A revisionist state is one whose foreign policy aims at acquiring more power than it actually has, through a reversal of existing power relations (i.e., seeks a favorable change in power status)

Yangzi River Valley (Yangtze)

-A river in east Asia flowing from the Tibetan plateau through central China to the East China Sea. Indigenous peoples assimilated into Chinese agricultural society, pushed into hills/mountains, and migrated to Thailand, Vietnam, and Taiwan where agriculture was less common, State of Chu challenged Zhou for supremacy and had close resembling cities of the Yellow river valley

French and Indian War

-A series of military engagements between Britain and France in North America between 1754 and 1763. The French and Indian War was the American phase of the Seven Years' War, which was then underway in Europe. Its legacy consisted of British debt and North American tax burden.

Balance of Power

-A situation in which nations of the world have roughly equal power

Rape of Nanjing

-A six-week period after Japan's capture of Nanjing, former capital of the Republic of China, in 1937, during which hundreds of thousands of civilians were murdered and 20,000-80,000 women were raped by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army, aerial bombing of Shanghai

Maroons

-A slave who ran away from his or her master and often a member of a community of runaway slaves in the West Indies and South America. (Suriname Maroons-formerly a Dutch plantation colony on the coast of South America; location of runaway slave kingdom in 18th century; able to retain independence despite attempts to cruch guerrilla resistance.)

Machismo

-A social ethic that honored male strength, courage, aggressiveness, assertiveness, and cunning

Mandarin

-A special class of powerful officials sent out as emissaries of the central government to ensure that local officials implemented imperial policy, represented central government to local authorities. The Ming Dynasty relied on them.

Cold War

-A state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Western Bloc(the United States, its NATO allies and others) and powers in the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its allies in the Warsaw Pact). Never resulted in any actual fighting

Temple of the Giant Jaguar

-A stepped pyramid in the Mayan political center of Tikal that stood with a height of 154 feet. This structure represented Tikal's control over surrounding region with population of 500,000.

Horizontal Organization

-A strategy where a company creates or acquires production units for outputs which are alike - either complementary or competitive like when a company acquires competitors in the same industry doing the same stage of production for the creation of a monopoly. IG Farben was world's largest chemical company.

Yahweh

-A supremely powerful deity that created the whole universe, all other various gods were imposters, preached by Moses, supporter of monotheism. Led Hebrews from captivity in Egypt to the promised land of Canaan (Phoenicia)

Ideology

-A system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. Consisted of Conservatism, and Liberalism

Provisional Government

-A temporary government. Struggle for power after the abdication of Nicholas II. The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule. Provisional governments are generally appointed and tend to arise in association with or in the aftermath of civil or foreign wars. In a time of crisis a collapsed government may reform with provisional status under a coalition.

Indulgence

-A type of pardon that excused individuals from doing penance for their sins and thus facilitated their entry into heaven, were available since the eleventh century but to raise the funds for the reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, church authorities began to market these aggressively in the early sixteenth century, from the Roman's point of view, they were splendid because they encouraged individuals to reflect piously on their behaviour while also bringing in large sums of money into the church's treasury

Seven Years War

-A war fought in the middle of the eighteenth century between the German kingdom of Prussia, supported by Britain, and an alliance that included Austria, France, and Russia. Prussia and Britain won, and their victory greatly increased their power.

Virgin of Guadalupe

-According to legend, Virgin of Guadalupe appeared before the devout peasant Juan Diego on a hill near Mexico City in 1531; the site of the apparition soon became a popular local shrine visited mostly by Spanish settlers. Virgin of Guadalupe gained a reputation for working miracles on behalf of individuals who visited her shrine; had a darker indigenous complexion which symbolized a distinctly Mexican faith and promise of salvation; became transformed as a result into a powerful symbol of Mexican nationalism. Her popularity helped to ensure not on that Roman Catholic Christianity would dominate cultural and religious matters in Mexico but also that Mexican religious faith would retain strong indigenous influences

Infrastructure

-Africa's economic integration required investments in infrastructure. New colonial economy first became visible in the form of port facilities, roads, railways, and telegraph wires. Facilitated conquest and rule and linked agricultural or mineral wealth of a colony to the outside world

Cash Crop

-African farmers had to become cash crop farmers or seek wage labor on plantations and in mines. Cash crop farming embraced the largest proportion of Africans

Berlin Wall

-After WW2, Berlin was split into sections, each controlled by one of the four Allied Powers: US, France, Britain, and USSR. Berlin is situated in what was then East Germany, which was controlled exclusively by the Soviet Union. There was no way to emigrate from the Communist East to the democratic West at the border of East Germany and West Germany due to large numbers of Russian troops. So many people would go to Berlin and sneak from the Russian sector into one of the free sectors and then seek ways out of East Germany from there. The Soviets were embarrassed by so many people "voting with their feet" by leaving the Worker's Paradise, so they erected a wall in the early 1960's to stop this practice. People occasionally tried to get over the wall for decades, but many were shot dead because you weren't allowed to approach the wall. It finally was torn down by an uprising of people in 1989, when it became clear that the Soviets didn't have enough clout anymore to keep the East German state propped up from outside.

Congress of Vienna

-After the fall of Napoleon, conservative political leaders feared that heightened national consciousness and ideas of popular sovereignty would encourage further experimentation with revolution and undermine European stability. Representatives of the "great powers" that defeated Napoleon (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia) attempted to restore prerevolutionary order. Metternich dominated the conference.

Muslim League

-All Muslims, not as powerful as the INC. Dedicated to achieving independence; inspired by Wilson's Fourteen Points and the Russian Revolution; frustrated by the Paris Peace; British responded to nationalist movement with repressive matters

Euphrates

-Along with the Tigris it is one of the most important rivers in ancient Mesopotamia, the river supports crops and civilization, flowing southeast and joining with the Tigris river to form the Shatt Al Arab. The valley between this river and the Tigris was the birthplace of the Sumer civilization.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

-Also known as Pierre Dominique, 1744-1803, was a Haitian revolutionary leader. He was made governor of the island by the French Revolutionary government (1794) and expelled the Spanish and British but when Napoleon I proclaimed the re-establishment of slavery he was arrested. He died in prison in France. He was a son of slaves, literate, a skilled organizer and built a strong and disciplined army. he controlled most of Saint Domingue by 1797 and created a constitution in 1801.

Women's March on Versailles

-Also known as The October March, The October Days, or simply The March on Versailles, was one of the earliest and most significant events of the French Revolution. An angry mob of nearly 7,000 working women armed with pitchforks, pikes and muskets marched in the rain from Paris to Versailles in what was to be a pivotal event in the intensifying French Revolution, the women chanted "Bread! Bread!" - for, despite the fertile French soil, the populace of Paris was starving while the remote Louis XVI and the much-hated Marie Antoinette continued to feast like proverbial kings and queens at their salubrious country gaffe

Great War

-Also known as WWI. War came to Europe during harvest time, and most ordinary people heard the news as they worked in the fields. They reacted not with enthusiasm but with shock and fear. Other people, especially intellectuals and young city dwellers, met the news with euphoria. Many of them had long expected war and saw it as a liberating release of pressure that would resolve the various political, social, and economic crises that had been building for years.

Saint-Domingue

-Also referred as French Santo Domingo, a French colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804, the French had established themselves on the western portion of the islands of Hispaniola and Tortuga by 1659. Ninety percent of the population were slaves working under brutal conditions. Some large communities formed of escaped slaves known as maroons. Widespread discontent was prominent because while white settlers sought self-governance, gens de couleur sought political rights, slaves wanted freedom.

Hacienda

-America was the estate, or hacienda, which produced foodstuffs for its own use as well as for sale to local markets in nearby mining districts, towns, and cities. Products were mostly of European origin: wheat, grapes, and meat from pigs and cattle.

Matthew Perry

-American commander; trained his guns on the bakufu capital and demanded that the shogun open Japan to diplomatic and commercial revelations and sign a treaty of friendship-- Open Door Policy

Young Turks

-An active body of opposition. Called for universal suffrage, equality, freedom, secularisation, women's rights; forced Abd-Hamid to restore constitution, dethroned him; Nationalistic; the empire survived only because of distrust among European powers

Sykes-Picot

-An agreement between the British and the French. France gets Syria and Lebanon, and Britain gets Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan

Serf

-An agricultural laborer bound under the feudal system to work on his lord's estate.This is how many peasants were able to survive, however they could not move because their lord owned the land they grew food on, and they were tied to their lord.

Tikal

-An ancient Mayan city occupied from 200 B.C.E. to 900 C.E., located in the jungles of northern Guatemala. Most important Mayan political center, height during 600-900 C.E., Temple of the Giant Jaguar represented its importance and control over surrounding region

Human Rights

-An ancient concept, gaining wider acceptance. Nuremberg Trials of Nazis est. concept of crimes against humanity, UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights forbids slavery, torture, and discrimination. NGOs such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch

Oceania

-An area of the South Pacific made up of four groups of islands: Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia, Melanesia

Organization for African Unity (OAU)

-An association of African states founded in 1963 for mutual cooperation and the elimination of colonialism in Africa

Hanseatic League

-An association of trading cities, it connected the northern seas and Hansa. It dominated trade of northern Europe.

SS

-An elite unit of the Nazi party that served as Hitler's personal guard and as a special security force in Germany and the occupied countries. They were the Nazis. Made up of NSDAP volunteers to provide security for Nazi Party meetings in Munich. It grew to one of the largest and most powerful organizations in the Third Reich. Built upon the Nazi ideology, the SS was responsible for many of the crimes against humanity during World War II (1939-45).

Elizabeth Stanton

-An especially prominent figure in the women's rights movements 1815-1902. She went to London to attend an antislavery conference but found that women were barred from participation so she returned to the United States and began to build a movement for women's rights. She organized a conference of feminists who met at Seneca Falls, New York in 1848 and passed twelve resolutions demanding that lawmakers grant women rights equivalent to men specifically suffrage, rights to attend public schools, to enter professional occupations and to participate in public affairs.

Astrolabe

-An instrument that helped sailors and desert travelers to find their way by the stars. Measures the height of the sun or a star above the horizon.

United Nations (UN) Superpower

-An intergovernmental organization established 24 October 1945 to promote international co-operation, a replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was created following the Second World War to prevent another such conflict, the nations that signed the joint declaration in Washington, D.C.,January 2, 1942, pledging to employ full resources against the Axis powers, not to make a separate peace. International body formed to bring nations into dialogue in hopes of preventing further world wars; much like the former League of Nations in ambition, it was more realistic in recognizing the authority of the Big Five Powers in keeping peace in the world, thus guaranteeing veto power to all permanent members of its Security Council (Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States)

African National Congress (ANC)

-An organization dedicated to obtaining equal voting and civil rights for black inhabitants of South Africa. Founded in 1912 as the South African Native National Congress, it changed its name in 1923. Eventually brought equality. Though banned and leaders jailed, helped bring majority rule to South Africa.

Great Leap Forward

-An unsuccessful attempt made under Mao Zedong in China 1958-60 to hasten the process of industrialization and improve agricultural production by reorganizing the population into large rural collectives and adopting labor-intensive industrial methods

Mandate of Heaven

-Ancient Chinese belief and philosophical idea that heaven granted emperors the right to rule based on their ability to govern well and fairly. Ruler could have lost the mandate of heaven if they didn't rule China in a virtuous way. i.e. the last ruler of the Shang dynasty lost his power to the new Zhou dynasty due to his incompetence

Armenian "Massacre"

-April 1915. The Ottoman government's systematic extermination of its minority Armenian subjects from their historic homeland within the territory constituting the present-day Republic of Turkey. The total number of people killed as a result has been estimated at between 1 and 1.5 million.

Abdel Nasser

-Arab leader, set out to modernize Egypt and end western domination, nationalized the Suez canal, led two wars against the Zionist state, remained a symbol of independence and pride, returned to socialism, nationalized banks and businesses, limited economic policies

Carolingians

-Aristocratic clan that dramatically extended Frankish power in the eighth century Dynasty received name from its founder Charles (Carolus in Latin) known as Charles Martel because of his military prowess, in 732 during the Battle of Tours he turned back a Muslim army that ventured north from recently conquered Spain, this victory helped persuade Muslim rulers of Spain that it was not worthwhile for them to seek further conquests in western Europe, internal disunity and external invasions led the empire to its end

Chinampa

-Artificial island built on a freshwater lake for agricultural purposes, was the ancient name for the southwestern region of the Valley of Mexico, the region of Xochimilco, and it was there that the technique was-and is still-most widely used, it consists in building up a number of narrow islands, each averaging some 6 to 10 metres (20 to 35 feet) wide and some 100 to 200 metres (325 to 650 feet) long, using layers of vegetation, dirt, and mud, the lake provides the chinampa with moisture laden with decomposing organic wastes that irrigate and fertilize the island's soil, supporting an intensive and highly productive form of cultivation

Gavrilo Princip

-Assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand; this was the catalyst for war. He was a Serbian nationalist who wanted Bosnia to be a part of Serbia, the assassination was backed by the Serbian government; Serbia is Slav and so is Russia

Vinland

-At the end of tenth century, a party led by Eric the Red discovered Greenland and established a small colony there; about 1000 C.E., his son Leif Ericsson led another exploratory party south and west of Greenland... eventually arrived in modern Newfoundland in Canada; found plenty of fish and timber; because of wild grapes growing in region Leif called it Vinland; years following Leif's voyage, Greenlanders made several efforts to establish permanent colonies in Vinland. People of Vinland ultimately left or died there

Pogrom

-Attacks against Jews; Pogrom? No, no pogrom

Semitic

-Attracted by the wealth of the Sumer, nomadic herders who went to Mesopotamia from the Arabian and Syrian deserts to the south and west. They often intermarried with the Sumerians, and they largely adapted to Sumerian ways. Their name came from the type of languages they spoke.

Mughal Empire

-Babur was the founder of the dynasty in India. Composed mostly of Hindus and Muslims, controlled almost all of India, religious tension between the Muslims and Hindus, Muslims were only ones allowed in administrative positions, tax places on anyone who wasn't Muslim, Abkar (reigned 1556-1605), created a centralized absolutist government, Aurangzeb (1659-1701) expanded the empire, and revoked policy of toleration

Gallipoli

-Battle of Gallipoli; 1915, in Ottoman Turkey. British decided to strike at the weakest Central Power, the Ottomans; Battle of Gallipoli a disaster, with 250,000 casualties on each side; Weakened ties of loyalty between Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Britain

Protestant Reformation

-Because of their protests against the established order, this branch of Christians were deemed Protestant. They organized movements in France, England, the Low Countries, Italy, and Spain. By the mid 15th century, Luther's act of individual rebellion had mushroomed into the Protestant Reformation, which shattered the religious unity of western Christendom. The Protestant Reformation dates back the to early 16th century but was only one of several powerful movements that transformed European society during the early modern era.

Reconquista

-Began in the 1060s; by 1085, Christian forces pushed as far south as Toledo; by 1150 they recaptured Lisbon and established their authority over half of the peninsula. Was the reconquest of Spain, took much longer than the recapture of Sicily, successes lured reinforcements from France and England; first half of the thirteenth century a new round of campaigns brought most of Iberian and Balearic Islands into Christian hands; only Muslim territory that remained was Granada

Kabuki

-Beginning in the early seventeenth century, two new forms of drama became popular in Japanese cities with one of them being kabuki theater. It usually featured several acts consisting of lively and sometimes bawdy skits where stylized acting combined with lyric singing, dancing, and spectacular staging. A crucial component of kabuki was the actor's ability of improvise and embellish their dialogue, for the text of plays served only as guides for the dramatic performance.

Ritual Bloodletting

-Believed that their gods had set the world in motion through acts of individual sacrifice and by letting their blood flow, the gods had given the earth the moisture it needed to bear maize and other crops. They thought the flow of blood was what kept the sun rising everyday. If they were in desperate need for people to do this bloodletting, they would use captives from previous conflicts

Bering Strait (Land Bridge)

-Body of water between the easternmost point of Russia and Cape Prince Alaska. Named after a Russian explorer called Vitus Bering. Thought that humans were able to migrate from Asia to North America

Book of History

-Book containing Zhou dynasty history. Taught the society to obey their overlords, part of Zhou literature

Olympe de Gouges

-Born Marie Gouze, was a French playwright and political activist whose feminist and abolitionist writings reached a large audience. Her declaration of full citizenship for women was considered too radical; women made no significant gains in other revolutions

Mulatto

-Born of Portuguese and African parents. With few European women available in Brazil, Portuguese men readily entered into relations both with indigenous women and with African slave women. Brazil soon had large populations not only of mestizos but also of mulattos. Prominent group in Brazilian society

Metallurgy

-Branch of science and technology concerned with the properties of metals and their production and purification. Copper was one of the first metals molded and formed to make jewelry, tools and weapons, bronze and iron used later on

RAF (Royal Air Force)

-Britain's air force, had radar and ultra to decode top secret German codes. Prevented defeat at Battle of Britain against Germany whom planned to win solely through air attacks

Aung San Suu Kyi

-Burma's pro-democracy leader, Nobel Peace award winner when under house arrest in Myanmar, Symbolizes the struggle of Burma's free people. While Aung San Suu Kyi was in Burma in 1988 mass demonstrations for democracy started on 8 August 1988.

Charles I (England)

-By 1641, him and parliament were unable to cooperated or even communicate effectively with each other. Both sides raised armies. Beheaded in 1649 by Oliver Cromwell after being captured and tried for tyranny

Justinian

-Byzantine emperor reign 527-565. Energetic worker known to his subjects as the sleepless emperor, ruled with aid of his wife Theodora, came from Macedonian peasant family, smart, strong willed and disciplined, built Hagia Sophia, Justinian's Code, rebuilt Constantinople, ventured to reconquer the western Roman empire from Germanic peoples and reestablish Roman authority, shortly after his death Byzantine forces abandoned Rome

Propaganda

-Campaigns to maintain national support for war. Included censorship and restrictions to the colonies, British and French forces recruited colonials into their army

Jerusalem

-Capital of the Israelites, It is considered holy to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Destroyed in 586 B.C.E. by the New Babylonian empire (Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.)

Sultan Mehmed

-Captured the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and changed it to the turkish city of Istanbul. Was able to build a vast empire around this

Khanate of Chaghatai

-Central Asian Khanate. Chaghatai was one of Chinggis Khan's sons and he ruled the Khanate of Chaghatai

Aztec

-Central Mexico 1325-1521 CE. The extinct language of the Aztecs, a Uto-Aztecan language from which modern Nahuatl is descended; Mexica. Conquests/alliances = pop. in millions; well planned cities, roads, temples, wide avenues; capital: Tenochtitlan; long-distance trade. Social classes: highest=priests/nobles, then warriors (80% of pop.), then merchants/farmers, then slaves. Clan-based society; women's role was to bear children; men got more power through military; tribute system. religious ceremonies = King's political success and authority; CONTINUITY: TOOK IDEAS FROM PEOPLE OF MESOAMERICA FROM PREVIOUS TIMES. Tenochtitlan captured by Cortex leading to collapse

Ayatollah Khomeini

-Charismatic leader who personified the union of political and religious interests from ancient days; "Leader of the Revolution, founder of the Islamic Republic, Guide of the Oppressed Masses, Commander of the Armed Forces, and Imam of the Muslim World"; led the Revolution of 1979 and defended Islamic fundamentalism; articulated resentments towards the elite and the United States

Deng Xiaoping

-Chinese communist statesman; vice-premier 1973-76 and 1977-80; vice-chairman of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party 1977-80

Okinawa

-Codenamed Operation Iceberg, was fought on the Ryukyu Islands of Okinawa and included the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific War during World War II, the 82-day-long battle lasted from early April until mid-June 1945

Justinian's Code

-Codification of Roman law created by Justinian, he ordered a systematic review of Roman law and issued the Corpus iuris civilis which immediately won recognition, was updated by later emperors, influenced civil law codes in most of Europe, Japan and Louisiana

Book of Songs

-Collection of verses on themes both light and serious, compiled and edited after 600 B.C.E., many of the 311 poems in the collection date from a much earlier period and reflect conditions of the early Zhou dynasty.

Maroon societies

-Communities of escaped slaves in Caribbean

BRICS

-Countries with strong economic development and other features may lead to superpower status including Brazil, Russia, India, China, and S. Africa. Factors contributing to their status include Natural resources, Wealth/Strong economy/TNCs, Technology, Military strength, Trade links/Blocks and connectivity, Culture. Brazil known for its farm exports and hi tech industry including aircrafts, Russia known for gas and oil, India for its hi tech industry and outsourcing, China for its manufacturing

Book of Etiquette

-Covered the virtues: Truthfulness, Kindness, and Self Control. Learned by listening to people. Avoid conflict. 551-479 B.C.E. About doing the right thing and doing it honestly

Trafficking

-Deal or trade in something illegal. Trafficking of persons across international boundaries widespread, victims mostly girls and women lured with promises of work, often in sex industry hugely profitable though criminal

Aten

-Deity associated with the Sun. Challenged cult of Amon-Re (monotheism), Pharaoh Amenhotep IV changed his name in honor of this deity

Magyars

-Descendants of nomadic peoples who settled in Hungary, were expert horsemen, raided settlements in Germany, Italy, and southern France, posed external pressure on Carolingian empire from the east

Jews

-Descended from southern Israelites who inhabited the kingdom of Judah. After the New Babylonians conquered the kingdom of Judah many were forced into exile, but kept their religious identity, and eventually returned to Judea

Witte System

-Developed by Sergei Witte, minister of finance, 1992-1903. Railway construction stimulated other industries; trans-Siberian railway; remodeled the state bank, protected infant industries, secured foreign loans; top-down industrialization effective ; steel, coal, and oil industries grew

Cross Staff

-Device that sailors used to determine latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or pole star above the horizon. Measured angle between the north star and horizon, laid out the vertical and horizontal boundaries of centura

Charles V

-During the early 16th century, it seemed that this emperor (1519-1556) might establish the Holy Roman Empire as the preeminent political authority in Europe, but by mid century it was clear that there would be no revival of empire. After 1438, the Habsburg family, with extensive dynastic holdings in Austria, dominated the Holy Roman Empire. Through marriage alliances with princely and royal families, the Hasburgs' accumulated rights and titles to lands throughout Europe and beyond. Charles V inherited their domains as well as the duchy of Burgundy including the wealthy provinces of the Low Countries and the kingdom of Spain including its possessions in Italy and the Americas. He was unable to establish a unified state from Vienna in Austria to Cuzco in Peru. Pressures from France and the Ottomans halted expansion of the empire. He had to devote much of his attention to the Lutheran movement and to imperial princes who took advantage of religious controversy to assert their independence. He did not build an administrative structure but ruled with its own laws and customs. He was able to draw on the financial resources of wealthy lands such as the Low Countries and SPain to maintain a powerful army and used it mostly to put down rebellions. He bestowed his holdings in Spain, Italy, the Low Countries, and the Americas on his son, King Philip II of Spain, while his brother Ferdinand inherited the Habsburg family lands in Austria and the imperial throne.

Zhou

-Dynasty established about 1,122 B.C.E. that lasted until 256 B.C.E. Known for their principle of the mandate of heaven

Xia

-Dynasty established about 2,200 B.C.E. that lay in roughly same region as the Yangshao society. Known for legendary founder of King Yu who was said to be a hero of flood control for the Yellow River, rulers controlled leaders of individual villages, probable capital of Erlitou

Lapita People

-Earliest Austronesian migrants to sail out into the Pacific Ocean and establish settlements in the Pacific Islands. Possibly the most advanced people of their day in seamanship and navigation, reaching out and finding islands separated from each other by hundreds of miles of empty ocean.

Byzantine

-Eastern half of Christendom as continuation of the Roman Empire. Centralization and imperialization leads people to compare it with the Abbasid, Tang and Song, controlled Constantinople, took its name from Byzantion, while emperor Justinian was focusing on the western Mediterranean the Sasanids threatened from the east and Slavic peoples approached from the north, expansion of Islam also posed a threat on the empire after the seventh century, eventually diminished by Muslim conquests though more manageable after 8th century, themes

European Union

-Economic union between countries in Europe for mutual gain. Originally formed in 1951 as the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), it later became the European Community in 1967, then the European Union in 1991

Ottoman Empire

-Empire that gained advantage over their Turkish rivals, expanded boundaries, was most powerful on Balkan peninsula and took over Byzantine empire

Yongle

-Encyclopedia, (Yongle was Hongwu's successor organized encyclopedia that compiled all significant works of Chinese history, philosophy, and literature). Signaled Ming rulers' interest in supporting native Chinese cultural traditions

Mary Wollstonecraft

-English female writer who believed that women possessed same natural rights as men. She published an influential essay entitled A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. She insisted on the right of women to education because it would make them better wives and mothers, she said, and would enable them to contribute to society by preparing them for professional occupations and participation in political life.

Otto I

-Established himself as king in northern Germany, by the mid-tenth century, Pope John XII proclaimed him emperor in 962. Birth of Holy Roman Empire

Truman Doctrine

-Established that the United States would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces.The Truman Doctrine effectively reoriented U.S. foreign policy, away from its usual stance of withdrawal from regional conflicts not directly involving the United States, to one of possible intervention in far away conflicts.

Yalta

-Establishing governments, US/GB-free elections/self determination USSR- pro-Soviet gov'ts. Germany must surrender unconditionally, division of Germany, German reparations set at $20B

Constitutional State

-European states developed along two lines. Rulers in England and the Netherlands shared authority with representative institutions and created constitutional states, whereas monarchs in France Spain Austria Prussia and Russia concentrated power in their own hands and created a form of state known as absolute monarchy. In England a constitutional monarchy emerged whereas the Netherlands produced a republic based on representative government

Extraterritoriality

-Europeans exempt for Ottoman law within the empire. The right to exercise jurisdiction over their own citizens according to their own laws

Khanate of Great Khan

-Extended Mongol rule to all of china. Relentlessly attacked the Song dynasty in southern China

Taliban

-Extremely conservative Muslims, protected Osama bin Laden by allowing him to hide in Afghanistan after he masterminded the September 11, 2001, attack on the United States, government of Afghanistan until 2001, harbored and encouraged Al-Qaeda

Blackshirts

-Fascist armed squads; against socialists

Soldaderas

-Female soldiers or supporters of soldiers. Demonstrated extreme forms of activism during Mexican revolution

Ferdinand Magellan

-Fernao de Magalhaes 1480-1521. Portuguese navigator who began the reconnaissance of the Pacific Ocean Basin. Served sailing for Portugal, visited islands in the Indian Ocean Basin, thought spice islands and Asian markets lay fairly close to the western coast of the Americas and tried to pursue Columbus's goal of establishing a western route to Asian waters.

Aryan

-Filtered into the Indian subcontinent and settled throughout the Indus valley and beyond, the migration took place over several centuries, they didn't conquer or destroy Harappan society. They did not have a state of common government but rather formed hundreds of chiefdoms organized around herding communities and agricultural villages.

Clovis

-First king of the Franks, united all of Frankish tribes under one ruler. First Catholic king to rule over Gaul

Yoga

-Form of intense and disciplined meditation. Practiced to concentrate on the nature of Brahman and its relationship to their souls. Practiced by the Upanishads

United Nations

-Founded 1945 to maintain international peace and security though not successful. Did not prevent Iran-Iraq war, cannot legislate, but has influence in international community, more successful in health and educational goals like the eradication of smallpox, the decrease in child mortality, and the increase in female literacy

Ottoman Empire

-Founded by Osman Bey in 1289 (1289-1923). Expanded into Byzantine, organized ghazi into formidable military machine, central role of janissaries, effective use of gunpowder in battles and sieges, Mehmed the Conqueror reigned 1451-1481, conquered Constantinople 1453 and renamed it Istanbul and made it the Ottoman capital, absolute monarchy and centralized state, expanded to Serbia, Greece, Albania and attacked Italy, Suleyman the Magnificent reigned 1520-1566, expanded into southwest Asia and central Europe and built powerful navy

Hamas

-Founded by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin in December 1987 and is an Islamic fundamentalist group fighting for the liberation of Palestine.

Theodor Herzl

-Founder of Zionism, was among the reporters at the Dreyfus trial, a Jewish journalist from Vienna 1860-1904. He witnessed mobs shouting "Death to the Jews" in the land of enlightenment and liberty, he concluded that anti-Semitism was a persistent feature of human society that assimilation could not solve. He believed the only defense against anti-Semitism lay in the mass migration of Jews from all over the world to a land that they could call their own.

Normans

-Founders of English monarchy that pursued own interest with little regard for their lords. Built a tight centralized state in which all authority stemmed from the dukes themselves, strictly limited the right of their retainers to grant land to others, by late tenth century Norman lords built a series of castles from which disciplined armies dominated their territories, in the eleventh century they emerged as prominent political and military leaders throughout Europe and beyond to much of the Mediterranean basin

Free Trade

-Free of state-imposed restrictions. Eliminated most trade barriers among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Global economy evident after collapse of communism, expanding trade, foreign investments, and privatization of industry

Emancipation Proclamation

-Freed the slaves in those states that had rebelled. Ironically, in the states that remained loyal to the Union, slavery was protected by the U.S. Constitution. A looming problem was that the slaves freed by emancipation would have risked re-enslavement after the war unless their liberty was quickly reaffirmed. Issued January 1, 1863,

Rosas

-Full name: Juan Manuel de Rosas; one of the most notable caudillos (regional military leaders). Ruled Argentina b/w 1829 and 1852 which was badly divided b'w the cattle-herding and gaucho society of the pampas and the urban elite of Buenos Aires. He emerged from cattle ranching; used his skills to subdue other caudillos and establish control in Buenos Aires; called for regional autonomy in an attempt to reconcile competing interests; worked to centralized the gov't he usurped; quelled rebellions in a bloody fashion; killed a total of 22,404 victims... died in armed clashes, poisoning, hanging, assassination; he restored order but made terror a tool of the gov't

Volk

-German "people"; had a powerful and expressive language. Emphasized historical scholarship which they believed would illuminate the distinctive characteristics of their societies; valued the study of literature which they considered the best guide to Volksgeist (popular soul or spirit or essence of their community)

Luftwaffe

-German air force

Western Front

-German invasion of France halted along the river Marne for three years, Trenches on the western front ran from the English Channel to Switzerland. Italy entered war with Allies, maintained defensive line against Austria-Hungary

Operation Barbarossa

-German surprise invasion of Soviet Union 1941. Wanted eastern land on which to resettle Germans, captured Russian heartland; Leningrad under siege with troops outside Moscow

Columbian Exchange

-Global diffusion of plants, animals, food crops, human populations, and disease pathogens that took place after voyages of exploration by Christopher Columbus and other European mariners. Consequences much more profound than did earlier rounds of biological exchange.

Tsar (Tzar, Czar)

-Grand Prince Ivan III (1462-1505) called himself this; Russian form of the term "Caesar" which Byzantine rulers had borrowed from the classical Roman empire to signify their imperial status

Charlemagne

-Grandson of Charles Martel that the Frankish realm reached its high point ("Charles the Great"). Reigned 768-814, temporarily reestablished centralized imperial rule in a society disrupted by invasion and contests for power between ambitious local rulers, possessed enormous energy and largely built Carolingian empire, intelligent though barely literate, maintained diplomatic relations with the Byzantine empire and the Abbasid caliphate, his inherited realm included most of modern France as well as the lands that now form Belgium, the Netherlands, and southwestern Germany, extended his authority to northeastern Spain, Bavaria and Italy as far south as Rome, campaigned 32 years to impose his rule on Saxons and to repress their rebellions, died 814, built capital at Aachen but spent most of his reign on horseback to maintain his authority, did not have financial resources to maintain elaborate bureaucracy or administrative apparatus so he relied on counts (aristocratic deputies), missi dominici ("Envoys of the Lord Ruler") to keep counts under control who traveled annually to all jurisdictions and reviewed local authorities

Israelites

-Group of Hebrews that migrated to Egypt and then to Palestine under the leadership of Moses, divided into loose federation of 12 tribes, but tribal structure was later abandoned for a Mesopotamian-style monarchy. Dominated territory between Syria and the Sinai peninsula during the reigns of King David and King Solomon, built elaborate and cosmopolitan capital city at Jerusalem

Sun Yatsen

-Guomindang leader Sun Yatsen favored democracy and nationalism. Civil war after death of Sun Yatsen, 1925, led by Jiang Jieshi, both parties launched Northern Expedition to reunify China, successful, Jiang then turned on his communist allies, 1934-1935, CCP retreated to Yan'an on the Long March, 6,215 miles

Marco Polo

-He is the best-known long-distance traveler of Mongol times. Marco's father, Niccolò, and uncle, Maffeo, were among the first European merchants to visit China. Between 1260 and 1269, they traveled and traded throughout Mongol lands, and they met Khubilai Khan as he was consolidating his hold on China. When they returned to China in 1271, seventeen-year-old Marco Polo accompanied them. The great khan took a special liking to Marco, who was a marvelous conversationalist and storyteller. Khubilai allowed Marco to pursue his mercantile interests in China and also sent him on numerous diplomatic missions, partly because Marco regaled him with stories about the distant parts of his realm. After seventeen years in China, the Polos decided to return to Venice, and Khubilai granted them permission to leave. They went back on the sea route by way of Sumatra, Ceylon, India, and Arabia, arriving in Venice in 1295. A historical accident has preserved the story of Marco Polo's travels. After his return from China, Marco was captured and made a prisoner of war during a conflict between his native Venice and its commercial rival, Genoa. While imprisoned, Marco related tales of his travels to his fellow prisoners. One of them was a writer of romances, and he compiled the stories into a large volume that circulated rapidly throughout Europe.

John Locke

-He was known as the "Father of Classical Liberalism" and believed in popular sovereignty. His theory of contractual government stated that authority comes from the consent of the governed.

Nelson Mandela

-He was put in jail for 26 years and then became the first black president of South Africa, ANC supporter, was sent to jail for having connections and being part of the ANC was released from jail when apartheid ended. After the treason trials he went "underground". Also president of the Youth League in 1950. He was the leader of South Africa in 1994, serving as the first black president after De Klerk and bringing about sweeping reforms throughout the country. He made sure to respect the rights of the whites as well in order to ensure a healthy reign.

Russification

-Heavy handed program. Repressed use of languages other than Russian and to restrict educational opportunities to those loyal to the tsarist state. Making other ethnic groups and peoples more "Russian-like"

Torah

-Hebrew for "doctrine" or "teaching," a set of holy scriptures the Israelites put together. Law of god as revealed to Moses

Maya

-Heirs of the Olmecs, created a society in the region now occupied by southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador, most prominent cities were Kaminaljuyú and Tikal. Created their own calendar and written language

Dynasty

-Hereditary states that extended their control over progressively larger regions. The Xia, the Shang, and the Zhou dynasties

Caste

-Hereditary, unchangeable social classes. Individuals usually lived in same social class their whole life. There was very little chance to improve their situation. The four main varnas included the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras with Untouchables added later.

Sacraments

-Holy rituals that bring spiritual blessings on the observants. The church recognized seven sacraments including baptism, matrimony, penance, and the Eucharist.

Ming

-Hongwu overthrew Mongol rule and established this dynasty in 1368. Centralization of government, revival of Chinese traditions, established Confucian educational and civil service systems, Emperor ruled China directly without aid of chief ministers

Templar

-Hybrid military-religious orders. Took religious vows and pledged to devote their lives and efforts to the struggle against Muslims and pagans

Teutonic Knight

-Hybrid military-religious orders. Took religious vows and pledged to devote their lives and efforts to the struggle against Muslims and pagans; most active in the Baltic region; waged military campaigns against the pagan Slavic peoples during twelfth and thirteenth centuries; aided by German missionaries, founded churches and monasteries in the territories they subdued

Manifest Destiny

-Idea that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific and beyond. This idea was often invoked to to justify U.S. annexations

Potsdam

-If Japan didn't surrender automatically they will face swift and utter destruction; decided how to divide Berlin. Berlin was divided into East and West

Theme

-Imperial province was placed under authority of general who assumed responsibility for its military defense and civil administration, the emperor closely monitored the generals to avoid decentralization, generals recruited armies from the ranks of free peasants who received allotments of land for their service, the armies enabled Byzantium to expand its influence between the ninth and twelfth centuries

Vasco da Gama

-In 1497, however, Vasco da Gama departed Lisbon with a fleet of four armed merchant ships bound for India. His experience was not altogether pleasant. His fleet went more than three months without seeing land, and his cargoes excited little interest in Indian markets. His return voyage was especially difficult, and less than half of his crew made it safely back to Portugal. Yet his cargo of pepper and cinnamon was hugely profitable, and Portuguese merchants began immediately to organize further expeditions. By 1500 they had built a trading post at Calicut, and Portuguese mariners soon called at ports throughout India and the Indian Ocean basin. By the late sixteenth century, English and Dutch mariners had followed the Portuguese into the Indian Ocean basin

Tokugawa

-In 1600 he was the last of chieftains that unified the several regions of Japan. Tokugawa Ieyasu established a military government known as the Tokugawa bakufu "tent government" since it theoretically was only a temporary replacement for the emperor's rule. The Tokugawa dynasty ended in 1867.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

-In 1928 the Japanese government signed this to renounce war as an instrument of national policy. This was one of the international agreements Japanese made after joining the League of Nations as one of the "big five" powers in order to improve relations among the countries in Asia and the Pacific.

Munich Conference

-In 1938, Germany "appeased" by taking Sudetenland, promised to stop there, Britain and France desperate to avoid war. 1939, violating Munich agreement, Hitler seized most of Czechoslovakia

95 Theses

-In October 1517, following academic custom of the day, martin Luther offered to debate publicly with anyone who wished to dispute his views, and he denounced the sale of indulgences in this document. The news of this document spread instantly and within a few weeks, printed copies were available throughout Europe.

Calpulli

-In pre-columbian Aztec society, (from Classical Nahuatl calpōlli, meaning "large house") was the designation of an organizational unit below the level of the Altepetl "city state"

Foot Binding

Strengthened patriarchal authority. Involved the tight wrapping of young girls' feet with strips of cloth that prevented natural growth of the bones and resulted in tiny, malformed, curved feet. Women with bound feet could not walk easily or naturally. Usually, they needed canes to walk by themselves, and sometimes they depended on servants to carry them around in litters. It never became universal in China, but many wealthy families and sometimes also peasant families bound the feet of their daughters to enhance their attractiveness and gain increased control over the girls' behavior.

Mansa Musa

Sundiata's grand,nephew that ruled Mali from 1312 to 1337 during the high point of the empire. He observed Islamic tradition by making his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325. His party formed a gargantuan caravan that included thousands of soldiers, attendants, subjects, and slaves as well as a hundred camels carrying satchels of gold. Upon returning, he built mosques and established Islamic schools. He sent students to study with distinguished Islamic scholars in northern Africa.

Five Pillars of Islam

The five bases of the Islamic faith: shahada (confession of faith), salat (prayer), zakat (almsgiving), sawm (fasting, especially during the month of Ramadan), and hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca)

Sundiata

The lion prince (reigned 1230-1255). He built the Mali empire during the first half of the thirteenth century after his return from exile. While away from home, he made astute alliances with local rulers, gained a reputation for courage in battle, and assembled a large army dominated by cavalry. By about 1235 he had consolidated his hold on the Mali empire, which expanded to include Ghana as well as other neighboring kingdoms in the regions surrounding the Senegal and Niger rivers. The empire included most of the modern state of Mali and extended also to lands now known as Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea,Bissau, Guinea, and Sierra Leone.

Bhakti Movement

The movement sought to erase distinction between Hinduism and Islam. Guru Kabir (1440,1518) was an important bhakti teacher that taught that Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were all one deity.

Christ

The nickname for Jesus after he died - meant The Anointed One

Feudal System (Medieval Japan)

The political, military, and social system in the Middle Ages, based on the holding of lands in fief or fee and on the resulting relations between lord and vassal. A middle era falling between the age of Chinese influence and court domination of political life in Japan, as represented by the Nara and Heian periods, and the modern age, inaugurated by the Tokugawa dynasty in the sixteenth century, when a centralized government unified and ruled all of Japan. During this middle era, Japanese society and culture took on increasingly distinctive characteristics.

Alexander of Macedon/The Great

The son of Philip of Macedon, He was a brilliant strategist and an inspired leader. He assembled an army to invade Persia and he began to conquer much of the Persian empire from Anatolia to Egypt and even as far as the Indus river valley. He was a great conquer, yet he didn't live long enough to form a state with his conquered land.

Polis

These were places of refuge for local communities during warring times. They helped to re-establish government and order on the Greek peninsula. Also they took on many different forms of government systems.

Jati

This assumed much of the responsibility for maintaining social order in India. Regularly organized courts, through which they disciplined guild members, resolved differences, and regulated community affairs. Individuals who did not abide by group rules were liable to expulsion from the community. These outcastes then had to make their way through life—often by working as butchers, leather tanners, or undertakers or in other occupations deemed low and unclean—without the networks of support provided by jati. Thus Indian guilds and jati performed services that central governments provided in other lands. The tendency for individuals and their families to associate closely with others of the same occupation remained a prominent feature of Indian society well into modern times.

Porcelain

This form of pottery was lighter, thinner, and adaptable to more uses than earlier pottery. When fired with glazes, it could also become an aesthetically appealing utensil and even a work of art. It gradually diffused to other societies, and Abbasid crafts workers in particular produced it in large quantities. Yet demand it remained strong, and the Chinese exported vast quantities of it during the Tang and Song dynasties.

Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira was the founder, born in 540 BC. Ahimsa was practiced (nonviolence). Believes that everything possesses a soul.

Obsidian

Volcanic glass that ancient people fashioned their knives from, item of trade along with salt. Trade networks with neighbors allowed Neandertals to trade volcanic glass over distances sometimes exceeding 185 miles.

Sparta

Was a state led by a council of elders. They had a large, strong military and the idea of military was apart of Spartan life style. With this heavy emphasis on the military young boys were taught discipline and austere. The Spartan state ruled over its neighbors and with a strong military it discourage any rebellions Was a patriarchal society.

Maurya Dynasty

Was an Achaemenid province, Persian techniques of administration is introduced then later a political vacuum appears when they withdraw their forces

Plato

Was the disciple of Socrates and also a Greek philosopher who was known for his ideas on politics, order, the Republic, Ideal community relied on social classes.

Eightfold Path

Way to end suffering - right belief, right resolve, right speech, right behavior, right occupation, right effort, right contemplation, and right meditation

Jati

Were developed later in the caste system. They were a system of sub castes within the 4 castes.

Western & Eastern Roman Empires

Western Rome dissolved due to many attacks by Visigoths, Vandals, Franks, and Anglo-Saxons. Eastern Rome lived on for another millennium.

Epidemic

Widespread disease in a society occurring at the same time. The Han dynasty as well as other societies had epidemics that contributed to their downfall in some way.

Timbuktu

-Important trading city, wealth used to dominate the central Nigerian Valley. The commercial and cultural center of the Mali and Songhai empires. Though long in decline, the city's mosques, mud-brick dwellings, and crowds of people bespeak a prosperous community.

Patronage

the power to control appointments to office or the right to privileges

Pax Romana

Describes the time of Roman Peace that happened around 100-300 BCE

Block Printing

Earliest printers, they carved a reverse image of an entire page into a wooden block, inked the block, and then pressed a sheet of paper on top. By the mid,eleventh century, printers had begun to experiment with reusable, movable type: instead of carving images into blocks, they fashioned dies in the shape of ideographs, arranged them in a frame, inked them, and pressed the frame over paper sheets. Because formal writing in the Chinese language involved as many as forty thousand characters, printers often found movable type to be unwieldy and inconvenient, so they continued to print from wooden blocks long after movable type became available.

Diocletian

Emperor of Rome from 284-305 C.E., split Rome into two districts (East and West). Good administrator, dealt with military and crumbling economy. Co Emperors ruled over East and West Rome.

Mali

Empire that benefited from trans,Saharan trade on even larger scale than Ghana. Controlled and taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa, enormous caravans linked here to north Africa, besides the capital Niani, many other prosperous cities on caravan routes, rulers honored Islam and provided protection, lodging, and comforts for Muslim merchants from the north, only encouraged Islam

Julius Caesar

Nephew of general Marius - favored liberal policies and social reform - escaped danger from Sulla because he was seen as too weak - Slowly grew in government until he took Gaul - Rook Rome and named himself dictator for life - stabbed to death in 44 BCE

Sati

a funeral ritual within some Asian communities in which a recently widowed woman commits suicide by fire, typically on the husband's funeral pyre. British outlawed it because they considered it offensive

M. Ali Jinnah

-Head of the Muslim League. Proposed two states, one of which would be Pakistan

Nikita Khrushchev

-Russian political who led the USSR during the Cold War. Gave missiles to Cuba, and led to the Cuban Missile Crisis

Middle Kingdom

-2,030-1,640 B.C.E. Egyptians experienced considerable and sometimes unsettling change. They encountered the Hyksos ('foreign rulers'), and the Hyksos captured Memphis and levied tribute throughout Egypt. (1,674 B.C.E.)

Old Kingdom

-2660-2160 B.C.E., Pharaohs obtained greatest power, great pyramids built and violence between Egypt and Nubia occurred during this time

Lusitania

-A British passenger liner, German sank it and killed 1,198 passengers. Submarine warfare helped sway American public opinion, German blockade sank merchant ships, intended to strangle Britain; US entered declared war on Germany, 6 April 1917

Tsar/Czar

-Russianized form of the term "caesar" which Russian rulers borrowed from Byzantine emperors who had borrowed it from the classical Roman empire to signify their imperial status

Sanskrit

-Sacred, formal language of early Aryans. Served to communicate values orally like the Vedas

Committee of Public Safety

-(French: Comité de salut public), created in March 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793, formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a stage of the French Revolution. Robespierre dominated this committee as the executive authority of the Republic.

Chavín (Cult)

-900-300 B.C.E., a civilization that developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru. The complexity of Andean society increases during this time. Cities began to appear shortly after. This civilization did not make use of writing.

Moksha

- Four aspects or goals of human life: MOKSHA (liberation or release), DHARMA (moral life), ARTHA (material prosperity or security), KAMA (emotional fulfillment or pleasure). Can be attained while living on earth

ASEAN

- (Association of Southeast Asia Nations) Political; 1967 in thailand, southeast countries, accelerate economic growth, social progress, & cultural development. Regional organization established in 1967 by Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines; the organization was designed to promote economic progress and political stability; it later became a free-trade zone

Northern Expedition

- Kuomintang (KMT) military campaign, led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, from 1926-28. Its main objective was to unify China under its own control by ending the rule of the Beiyang government as well as the local warlords.

Creole

- Slaves in a spoke a creole tongue that drew on several African and European languages. In the low country of South Carolina and Georgia, for example, slaves made up about three-quarters of the population in the eighteenth century and regularly communicated in the creole languages Gullah and Geechee, respectively.

State

-Formal government institutions wielding authority throughout their territories

Kingdom of Ndongo

-Located in central Africa; in the basin of the Congo River. grew from a small chiefdom to a powerful regional kingdom in the sixteenth century; attracted major wealth by trading directly with Portuguese merchants. The Portuguese campaigned in Ndongo in an effort to establish a colony that would support large-scale trading in slaves

Council of Clermont

-Located in central France. Place where Pope Urban II spoke and warned church leaders about Muslim Turks threatening the eastern border of Christendom

Indentured Laborers

-Many migrants arrived under contract or indentured laborers

March Revolution

-March 1917 saw major changes in Russia. By the start of 1917, the people of Russia were very angry. February Revolution of 1917: resulted in the abdict of Nicholas II and the end of the House of Romanov, many uprisings and revolts

Isabel & Fernando

-Married in 1469; united the two wealthiest and most important Iberian realms; powerful standing army under the two; Christian forces completed the reconquista by conquering the kingdom of Granada under the two; also sought to make a place for Spain in the markets of Asia by sponsoring Columbus' quest for a western route in China

Mary and William

-Mary was the daughter of King James II... after parliament deposed him, they invited her and her husband (William) to assume to throne; the resulting arrangement provided that kings would rule in cooperation w/ parliament- guaranteed nobles, merchants, and other constituencies would enjoy representation in gov't affairs

Little Tigers

-Massive postwar economic expansion, slowed in 1990s: Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan imitate Japanes strategies

Untouchables

-Member of the lowest caste Hindu group or a person outside the caste system. i.e. butchers, those handling dead bodies, contact with them was traditionally held to defile members of higher castes

Zheng He

-Ming emperor. Permitted foreigners to trade at Quanzhou and Guangzhou, refurbished the navy and sent seven large expeditions to the Indian Ocean basin to control foreign trade and impress foreign peoples, his ships were the largest marine crafts in the world and visited southeast Asia, india, Ceylon, Arabia, and east Africa, voyages enhanced Chinese reputation, end of voyages led to Confucian ministers mistrusting foreign alliances, resources redirected to agriculture and defense of northern borders, technology of building large ships forgotten, nautical charts destroyed

Globalization

-Minimized social, economic, and political isolation. The age of access, mass media became a vehicle of cultural imperialism, Internet is an information colony with English hegemony, China attempted a firewall to control Internet information

Himalayas

-Mountain range in South Asia separating India from Tibet (means abode of the snow). Home to the highest peak, Mount Everest

Hindu Kush

-Mountain range near Harappan society. Provided melting snow that carried silt with it as it ran downhill which supplied rich soil for agriculture

Island-Hopping

-Moving to islands close to Japan for air attacks. The American navy attacked islands held by the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean. The capture of each successive island from the Japanese brought the American navy closer to an invasion of Japan.

Ghazi

-Muslim religious warriors; Osman and his followers sought above all to become this. military leaders initially organized them into two forces; a light cavalry and a volunteer infantry

Good Neighbor Policy

-National guards tended to be less expensive than maintaining forced of the US marines, and the guards leaders usually worked to keep cordial relations with the US. This revamped US approach to relations with Latin America which became known as the "Good Neighbor Policy".

NGO

-Nongovernmental Organizations. Red Cross, an international humanitarian agency, founded 1964

Filial Piety

-Not only duties of children toward their fathers but also loyalty of subjects toward the emperor. Like the imperial government, the Chinese family was hierarchical, patriarchal, and authoritarian. The father was head of the household, and he passed leadership of the family to his eldest son. The veneration of ancestors, which the state promoted as a matter of Confucian proprietary, strengthened the authority of the patriarchs by honoring the male line of descent in formal family rituals. Filial piety was the cornerstone of family values. Children had the duty to look after their parents' happiness and well-being, and a crucial obligation was to support parents in their old age. Young children heard stories of sons who went so far as to cut off parts of their bodies to ensure that their parents had enough to eat! The social assumptions of the Chinese family extended into patrilineal descent groups such as the clan.

Holy Roman Empire

-Not really an empire, more of a regional state ruling Germany. "Neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire" but did not restore imperial unity to Western Europe

Kush

-Nubia later developed into this Kingdom during the first millenium of Egyptian history, (Archaic Period/Old Kingdom). It was a wealthy kingdom, that was occasionally threatened by southern Egypt. Napata became capital which was the most prosperous city after Nubian conquest of Egypt. Kerma dominated trade routes. Meroë was most influential city after Assyrian invasion due to location further south.

Black Thursday

-October 24, 1929, A wave of panic selling on the New York Stock Exchange caused stock prices to plummet. Thousands of people-poor, wealthy, etc.- lost their savings and by the end of the day eleven financiers had committed suicide

Khubilai Khan

-One of Chinggis Khan's grandsons who unleashed ruthless attacks against his enemies. Promoted Buddhism, Daoism, Muslims, Christians, extended modern rule to all of China, established Yuan Dynasty

Harappa

-One of Harappan society's chief cities, served as a center of political authority, influence touched all parts of Harappan society, had about 23,500 people at its peak. Had city walls, fortified citadel, and a large granary, featured marketplaces, temples, and public buildings

Shudras

-One of the four main varnas including landless peasants/serfs. Fourth in caste system, provided slave work

Nation

-One of the most influential concepts of modern political thought. Refers to a type of community that became especially prominent in the nineteenth century. During the nineteenth century, European peoples came to identify with communities they called nations. Members of a nation considered themselves a distinctive people born into a unique community that spoke a common language, observed common customs, inherited common cultural traditions, held common values, and shared common historical experiences

Treaty of Versailles

-One of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. French insisted on destroying German military, Central Powers forced to accept war guilt and pay reparations for cost of war, Austria and Hungary were separated and reduced; the new states were added to Eastern Europe; Overall, the peace settlement was a failure; left a bitter legacy

Nationalism

-One's love for their country. It grew as the war went on, Nationalism was a significant cause of World War I. In the years prior to war, many Europeans nurtured a firm belief in the cultural, economic and military supremacy of their nation.

OPEC

-Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries; international cartel that inflates price of oil by limiting supply; Venezuela, Saudi Arabia and UAE are prominent members

Constantinople

-Originally Byzantion (a strategic modest market town and fishing village until it was renamed by Constantine), made the site of the new imperial capital 330 C.E. with name meaning "City of Constantine". Location in eastern Mediterranean because of the wealth and production that also allowed Constantine to maintain close watch over the Sasanid empire in Persia and the Germanic peoples who lived along the lower stretches of the Danube river, rapidly reached metropolitan dimensions filled with libraries, museums, artistic treasures, marble palaces, churches, baths, and public buildings, fell to the Ottoman Turks 1453 who renamed it Istanbul

Holy Roman Emperor

-Otto I, rose in northern Germany by the mid-tenth century. Pope John XII proclaimed him emperor in 962, this was the birth of the Holy Roman Empire

Palestinian Liberation Movement (PLO)

-Palestine Liberation Organization; leader Yasser Arafat; Arab; in Oslo Peace Accords; before conducted ciolent campaign against Israel.

Serf/Serfdom

-Peasants gained more land and a higher quality of life through the money generated by the putting-out system. The institution of serfdom had emerged in the early middle ages as a labor system that required peasants to provide labor services for landowners and prevented them from marrying or moving away without their landlords' permission. After the fifteenth century, serfdom gradually came to an end in western Europe. In eastern Europe, however, landowners and rulers tightened restrictions on peasants during the sixteenth century, and in Russia the institution of serfdom survived until the nineteenth century.

Aryan

-People who spoke an Indo-European language, then moved from the Indo-European homeland to northern India. They built powerful states on the basis of their horse-based military technologies, and cultivated grains, and herded animals.

Oracle Bones

-Pieces of turtle shell or bone. Used for Pyromancy (a form of divination). Questions would be written upon them and intense heat would be applied. When it cracked the cracks would be interpreted to give the answer to the one that had been asked.

Pilgrimage

-Pilgrims trekked long distances to honor the saints the relics represented. Throughout the high middle ages, many pilgrims visited two European cities in particular: Rome and Spain, and some ventured even further to Jerusalem and the holy land of Christian origins. Rome was the spiritual center of western Christian society: apart from the popes and the central administration of the Roman Catholic church, the relics of St. Peter and St. Paul (two most prominent apostles of early Christianity) rested in the churches of Rome.

Cash Crop

-Plantations often maintained gardens that produced food for the local community, but their purpose was to profit from the production and export of commercial crops. In efforts to operate efficiently and profitably, plantations relied almost exclusively on slave labor. Plantation communities often included a hundred or more slaves, whose uncompensated labor services helped keep their agricultural products competitive. Plantations also featured a sharp, racial division of labor. Small numbers of European or Euro-American supervisors governed plantation affairs, and large numbers of African or African-American slaves performed most of the community's physical labor.

Appeasement

-Policy of compromising or giving in to demands of a hostile nation to maintain peace

Capitalism

-Population growth and rapid urbanization helped spur a round of remarkable economic development. This economic growth coincided with the emergence of capitalism—an economic system in which private parties make their goods and services available on a free market and seek to take advantage of market conditions to profit from their activities. Whether they are single individuals or large companies, private parties own the land, machinery, tools, equipment, buildings, workshops, and raw materials needed for production. Private parties pursuing their own economic interests hire workers and decide for themselves what to produce: economic decisions are the prerogative of capitalist businessmen, not governments or social superiors. The center of a capitalist system is the market in which businessmen compete with one another, and the forces of supply and demand determine the prices received for goods and services.

Anti-Semitism

-Prejudice against Jews. Discrimination against or prejudice or hostility toward Jews

Conquistador

-Spanish conquerors of foreign lands during the colonial era. During the early sixteenth century, Spanish conquistadores ("conquerors") pressed beyond the Caribbean islands, moving west into Mexico and south into Panama and Peru

Tiananmen Square

-Square in the center of Beijing adjacent to the Forbidden City, the largest public open space in the world. In spring 1989, government troops opened fire there on unarmed pro-democracy protesters, killing over 2,000

Dominican

-St. Dominic (1170-1221), founded orders of mendicants (beggars) known as Dominican friars. Had no personal possessions, had to beg for food and other needs from audiences to whom they preached, was active in towns and cities, addressed throngs of recently arrived migrants whose numbers were so large that urban churches and clergy couldn't serve them well, worked zealously to combat heterodox movements and to persuade heretics to return to the Roman Catholic Church. A member of the Roman Catholic order of preaching friars founded by St. Dominic, or of a religious order for women founded on similar principles

Germanic Kingdoms

-Successor states to the western Roman empire. Included Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Lombards, Franks, as well as others that occupied imperial provinces that displaced Roman authorities and institutions, many converted to Christianity and others adapted Roman law to the needs of their own societies

Cuneiform

-Sumerian form of writing, Latin for "wedge-shaped," baked clay would preserve permanent record of a scribe's message, used reed stylus that would leave an imprint. Babylonians, Assyrians and other peoples would later adapt this script to their languages, continued for more than 3,000 years

Patriarchal

-System of society or government controlled by men. Mesopotamian men controlled women as they would their slaves, women's parents would have their marriage arranged, in Sumer, adultery of women was punishable by death whereas adultery of men did not have consequences

Samarkand

-Tamerlane was born near here. Used this place as capital of imperial rule

Jizya

-Tax placed on non-muslims, Akbar abolished it under his rule, but it was reestablished by Aurangzeb. It was a way of promoting Islam

Berlin Airlift

-The Berlin Blockade (1 April 1948 - 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post-World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under allied control.

Concordat

-The Concordat of 1801 was an agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, signed on 15 July 1801. It solidified the Roman Catholic Church as the majority church of France and brought back most of its civil status.

Convention

-The Convention replaced the National Assembly under the new constitution in 1791 which abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic. Radical Jacobins dominated the Convention in 1793-94 in a "reign of terror." Revolutionary changes included change in religion, dress, their calendar, and women's rights.

Gaul

Roman city in modern day france that is known as the city Julius Caesar took that led to his conquest of rome - was a threat to Rome Before Caesar

Yitzhak Rabin

-The Israeli prime minister, signed the Oslo Peace agreement, won the Nobel Prize, and was assassinated in 1995 by a Jewish extremist

Louis XVI

-The King of France (1774-1792). In 1789 he summoned the Estates-General to undertake fiscal reforms which was an event that eventually led to the French Revolution. Louis was convicted of treason by the revolutionary government and executed in 1793.

Eunuch

-The Ming emperors turned to them for governmental services. Earlier Chinese emperors, as well as rulers of other lands, had long relied on them, since they could not generate families and build power bases that might challenge ruling houses.

Civil Code

-The Napoleonic Code is the French civil code established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs should go to the most qualified. It restricted individual freedom especially in speech and press.

Racial State

-The Nazi regime translated racist ideology, especially the notions of racial superiority and racial purity, into practice

Papal State(s)

-The areas comprising a large district in central Italy ruled as a temporal domain by the popes from 755 until the greater part of it was annexed in 1860, by Victor Emmanuel II: the remaining part, Rome and its environs, was absorbed into the kingdom of Italy in 1870

Schlieffen Plan

-The Schlieffen plan called for a swift knockout of France, followed by defensive action against Russia. German planners predicated their strategy on the knowledge that the Russians could not mobilize their soldiers and military supplies as quickly as the French, thus giving German forces a few precious weeks during which they could concentrate their full power on France. However brilliantly conceived, the Schlieffen plan raised serious logistical problems, not the least of which was moving 180,000 soldiers and their supplies into France and Belgium on five hundred trains, with fifty wagons each. More important, Germany's military strategy was a serious obstacle to those seeking to preserve the peace. In the event of Russian mobilization, Germany's leaders would feel compelled to stick to their war plans, thereby setting in motion a military conflict of major proportions.

SEATO

-The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines.

Collectivization

-The Soviet state expropriated privately owned land to create collective or cooperative farm units whose profits were shared by all farmers. Means of increasing the efficiency of agricultural production and ensuring that industrial workers would be fed

Neutrality

-The US was officially neutral. They didn't want to get involved in a European war, American companies gave Allies loans, they had to win to pay them back

Containment

-The action or policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or influence. Was a United States policy using numerous strategies to prevent the spread of communism abroad, a component of the Cold War, this policy was a response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge its communist sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and Vietnam

Armistice

-The agreement that ended the fighting in western Europe that comprised the First World War. It went into effect at 11 a.m. Paris time on November 11, 1918, and marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany, although not formally a surrender. The Germans were responding to the policies proposed by United States president Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918.

Anschluss

-The annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938, was also known as the Anschluss Österreichs, was prohibited in the Treaty of Versailles, (German-Austrian connection)

Balance of Power

-The balance of power can be simply defined in modern terms as: a doctrine and an arrangement whereby the power of one state (or group of states) is checked by the countervailing power of other states. The balance of power in the eighteenth century had been in existence since at least the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 with France as the most important actor locked in a cycle of wars with Britain and Austria. However after the seven years war the balance of power became more destructive to itself destroying actors it was supposed to protect and in the process destroying a vital part of the system. Schroeder's book The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 is to show the change from a destructive balance of power system that would eventually destroy itself to a constructive system of negotiation and peace rather than belligerence and war

Papal primacy

-The belief that the Roman bishop was the most important, better than any of the bishops in Byzantium. The bishop of Rome was the ultimate authority for all the Christian church

Sarajevo

-The capital of Bosnia. This is where Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian empire; it used to be a part of Serbia until Austria-Hungary took it over

Olmec

-The first major civilization in Mexico. Known for the colossal head artwork, 1500-400 B.C.E. Means: rubber line or lineage

Adam Smith

-The founder of Capitalism. Established liberal economics (WEALTH OF NATIONS 1776); argued that government should avoid regulation of economy in favor of the operation of market forces

Parliament

-The highest legislature, consisting of the sovereign, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons

Ancien Régime

-The monarchic, aristocratic, social and political system established in the Kingdom of France from approximately the 15th century until the later 18th century ("early modern France"), more generally, the term can also be used to refer to the feudal social and political order, which typified the French Ancien Régime, elsewhere Europe. Austrian and Prussian armies invaded France to restore ancien régime. The Convention replaced the National Assembly under the new constitution in 1791 which abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic.

Franks

-The most successful and influential of the Germanic peoples. By the early sixth century they had conquered most of Roman Gaul and emerged as the preeminent military and political power in western Europe, gained popular support when they abandoned polytheism and converted to Christianity

Istanbul

-The renamed Constantinople, capital of the Ottoman Empire. A bustling, prosperous city of more than a million people. At its heart was the great Topkapi palace, which housed government offices, such as the mint, and meeting places for imperial councils. At its core was the sultan's residence with its harem, gardens, pleasure pavilions, and a repository for the most sacred possessions of the empire, including the mantle of the prophet Muhammad. Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent was fortunate to be able to draw on the talents of the architectural genius Sinan Pasha (1489-1588) to create the most celebrated of all the monuments of Istanbul. Sinan built a vast religious complex called the Süleymaniye, which blended Islamic and Byzantine architectural elements. It combined tall, slender minarets with large domed buildings supported by half domes in the style of the Byzantine church Hagia Sofia (which the Ottomans converted into the mosque of Aya Sofya

Romanovs

-The ruling imperial dynasty in Russia. February Revolution of 1917: resulted in the abdict of Nicholas II and the end of the House of Romanov

Daimyo

-The shoguns needed to control the "great names" (powerful territorial lords who ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary landholdings. Many of the daimyo established relationships with European mariners, from whom they learned how to manufacture and use gunpowder weapons.

Working Class

-The social group at the bottom of the classes that consisted of unskilled, poorly paid and vulnerable workers and their families

Middle Class

-The social group between the upper and working classes, including professional and business workers and their families including managers, and accountants

Domino Theory

-The theory that a political event in one country will cause similar events in neighboring countries, like a falling domino causing an entire row of upended dominoes to fall

Ayllu

-The traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras, an indigenous local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia and Peru

Capulitations

Agreements between Ottoman sultans and European rulers that allowed Europeans to practically do what they want in the Ottoman empire. The Europeans followed their own laws, created economic opportunities for themselves, and it severely weakened the power and strength of the Empire as they lost their grip on their own land as Europeans pushed on.

Reza Pahlavi

-The unpopular ruler of Iran, who was put into power by the Soviets, Great Britain, and the U.S. during World War II to get rid of the pro-Germany shah of Iran at the time. His unpopularity causes unrest in Iran. Because of the unrest, Pahlavi stocks up on weapons, Iran becomes very militarily powerful. Jan. 1979, Pahlavi is forced to flee by continuous riots and is replaced by Ayatollah R. Khomeini

Terrorism

-The weapon of those out of power, of anticolonial and revolutionary movements, difficult to define. Deliberate violence against civilians to advance political or ideological cause, rarely successful; often discredits potentially worthy causes. 9/11 focused international attention on terrorism, coordinated attack on World Trade Center and Pentagon, source of bin Laden and Al-Qaeda, angered by U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia, proclaimed by jihad, holy war

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

-Theocratic and democratic values played itself out during his presidency (2005-present); conservative who has antagonized western countries, although he has not isolated himself from them; asserted theocratic values and has appealed to Iranian nationalism to solidify his white coup of the reformists; government has closed down newspapers, banned and censored books and websites, and no longer tolerates peaceful demonstrations and protests of the Khatami era; populist views, wants prosperity to be shared among all classes, not just the elite

Eastern Front

-These battle lines were more fluid than on the Western front. Austrian-German forces overran Serbia, Albania, and Romania, Russia invaded Prussia 1915, but was soon driven out; Russians' counterattacks in 1916-1917 collapsed in a sea of casualties

City-State

-These controlled public life within the city walls and neighboring territories. Also, they oversaw affairs in surrounding agricultural regions. By about 4,000 B.C.E., Sumerians organized themselves into several that were spread throughout the southern part of the region, i.e. Kish located just east of Babylon

Hammurabi's Code

-This code of law established high standards of behavior and stern punishments for violators. It also established a set of standards that lent some degree of cultural unity to the far-flung Babylonian empire. Prescribed death penalties for murder, theft, fraud, false accusations, sheltering of runaway slaves, failure to obey royal orders, adultery and incest

Popol Vuh

-This creation myth taught the Mayan society that the gods created humans from maize and water. One of a small number of early Mesoamerican mythological texts, shows the importance of agriculture for the Maya

Karma

-This referred to the specific incarnations that a soul experienced. This taught that one of pure deeds was pure, and one of bad deeds was bad. This reinforced the castes and social hierarchy.

Upanishads

-This was a body of works which began to appear late in the Vedic age, about 800 to 400 B.C.E. The word literally means 'a sitting in front of.' It taught that individual souls are not separate, but that each person participates in a larger cosmic order and forms a small part of a universal soul, known as Brahman.

Fourteen Points

-Woodrow Wilson's proposal for a just and lasting peace. Included free trade, arms treaties, rights for colonials, and association of nations (League of Nations); Most of the program rejected by Allies; Central Powers felt betrayed

Creole

-Those born in the Americas of Iberian parents. Right under peninsulares in social standings

Asceticism

-To focus all attention on religion. Some lived alone as hermits. Others formed communes where they devoted themselves to the pursuit of holiness rather than worldly success. Many dedicated themselves to celibacy, fasting, and prayer.

Sweetheart Treaties

-To help ideas that the US military forces used such as relying more on dollar diplomacy, policymakers instituted certain innovations that nonetheless called into question any true change of heart among US neocolonialists and approved the sweetheart treaties that guaranteed US financial control in the Caribbean economies of Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Triangular Trade

-Trade routes between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable commerce known as the triangular trade since European ships often undertook voyages of three legs; first leg: carried horses and European manufactured goods that they exchanged in sub-Saharan Africa for slaves; second leg: took enslaved Africans to the Caribbean and American destinations, upon arrival merchants sold their human cargoes to plantation owners for two to three times what they cost on the African coast... sometimes exchanged slaves for cash. Every stage of the process was brutal and inhumane to slaves; demand for slaves in Europe grew so some African chieftains organized raiding parties to seize individuals from neighboring societies

Middle Passage

-Trans-Atlantic journey aboard filthy and crowded slave ships; enslaved passengers traveled below decks in hideously cramped quarters; most ships provided slaves with enough room to sit upright but not to stand; some forced them to lie on their backs and on shelves with only 20 inches of space in between them. Conditions were so bad that many slaves attempted to starve themselves to death or mounted revolts; ship crews attempted to preserve the lives of slaves b/c they intended to sell them for a profit at the end of the voyage but often treated unwilling passengers with cruelty and contempt. Crew members used tools to pry open the mouths of those who were choosing not to eat; they threw sick individuals into the ocean rather than have them infect the other passengers or crew members. This journey took four to six weeks during which heat, cold, and disease levied a heavy toll on the human cargo. During the early days of the slave trade the mortality rate sometimes extended beyond 50 percent; over time mortality rates declined to 5 percent due to bigger ships that carried more water; over the course of the Atlantic slave trade, about 25 percent of enslaved individuals did not survive the middle passage

Treaty of Non-Aggression

-Treaty between Russia and Germany in 1939, shocked the world. To prevent a 2 front war for Germany, Germany and USSR agree to divide Poland, Germany invades Poland in September 1939 with a blitzkrieg, France and Britain declare war on Germany

Chinggis Khan

-Unifier of the Mongols. Extended Mongol rule to northern China

Mandate System

-United States opposed direct colonization; Allies proposed system of trusteeships. Colonies of Central Powers divided into three classes of mandates; Allies divided up Germany's African colonies, Ottoman territories in southwest Asia; Arabs outraged at betrayal by their British allies

Brahman (Brahmin)

-Universal soul from Upanishads. Aryans'/Dravidians' highest goal was to escape reincarnation and join with the universal soul. "Individuals are all part of larger soul." One of the four main varnas including priests. Highest social caste, primary source of knowledge was the Vedas

Cataract

-Unnavigable stretch of rapids and waterfalls. Ancient regions were measured by which of these they started and ended near on the Nile river, people were unable to travel by river for long distances

Soviet

-Urban workers during the revolution of 1905 create a new cancels notice Soviets to organize strikes and negotiate with employers and government authorities. Elected delegates from factories and workshop served as members of these Soviets

Ghetto

-Usually established in the poor sections of a city. Where most of the Jews from the city and surrounding areas were subsequently forced to reside after being forced from their homes

Inti

-Venerated Incan sun god. Priests served the gods

VOC

-Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie; established in 1602; name for the United East India Company. Contributed to the early formation of a global network of trade

Vichy

-Vichy France, officially the French State (État français), was the government headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain from 1940 to 1944 during World War II.

Total War

-War affected everywhere, not just the battlefield. On the home front: the economy mobilized the war effort, women served in the war by entering the workforce, propaganda was used to support the war and promote nationalism it was censored

May 4th Movement

-Was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student demonstrations in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially allowing Japan to receive territories in Shandong which had been surrendered by Germany after the Siege of Tsingtao. These demonstrations sparked national protests and marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism, a shift towards political mobilization and away from cultural activities, and a move towards a populist base rather than intellectual elites. Many political and social leaders of the next decades emerged at this time.

Triple Entente

-Was the alliance linking the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the signing of the Anglo-Russian

Liberalism

-Welcomed change as an agent of progress; championed freedom, equality, democracy, and written constitutions. John Stuart Mill championed individual freedom and minority rights

Qing Dynasty

-When the Ming dynasty fell, Manchus poured into China from their homeland of Manchuria north of the Great Wall. The victors proclaimed a new dynasty, the Qing ("pure"), which ruled China until the early twentieth century (1644-1911). The Manchus mostly were pastoral nomads, although many had turned to agriculture and settled in the rich farmlands of southern Manchuria. Their remote ancestors had traded with China since the Qin dynasty, and they had frequently clashed with their neighbors over land and resources in northern China and southern Manchuria. Until the nineteenth century, strong imperial leadership muted tensions between Manchu rulers and Chinese subjects. The long reigns of two particularly effective emperors, Kangxi (1661-1722) and Qianlong (1736-1795), helped the Manchus consolidate their hold on China. Kangxi was a Confucian scholar as well as an enlightened ruler. Qianlong's reign marked the height of the Qing dynasty. Like Kangxi, Qianlong was a sophisticated and learned man.

Proletariat

-Working-class people, regarded collectively (often used with reference to Marxism)

Mein Kampf

-Written by Hitler. Autobiographical, setting forth Hitler's ideology of Aryan supremacy and anti-Semitism

Scholar-Bureaucrats

-focussed on day to day governance of the empire; came from a class of well-educated and highly literate men known as the scholar-gentry; these men had earned academic degrees by passing rigorous civil service examinations; dominated China's political and social life. Preparations for the examinations began at an early age, they sometimes took place in local schools which were only open to males (similar to the civil service examinations); by the time they were eleven or twelve, they had memorized several thousand characters that were necessary to deal with the Confucian curriculum

Unequal Treaties

-in the wake of the confrontations of the opium war came a series treaties that were one sided for the European powers and took away from China as well as other East Asian countries

Diet

-one house elected, one house appointed by emperor; little power (Japan)

Opium War

-outraged by the Chinese action against opium British commercial agents press the government into a military retaliation designed to reopen the opium trade(1839-1842) Made playing the military power differential between Europe and China. Chinese sued for peace

Nicholas II

-reigned 1894-1917. Well-intentioned but weak, championed oppression and police control. To deflect attention from domestic issues I neutralize revolutionary movements the tsars government embarked on it expansionist ventures in East Asia

Treaty of Nanjing

-result of the Opium wars b/w China and GB, granted GB control over Hong Kong, China forced to pay $$ to GB, and first of many unequal treaties b/w Asia and the West

Great Depression

-the US enjoyed an economic boom after the Great War but it would soon go in the opposite direction. In the middle of the 1920s there seemed to be some hope of economic normality/prosperity but it was fragile or even false. Economic issues: war debts among the Allies, flow of US funds to Europe, reparations paid by Germany and Austria (remember: all the countries of the world rely on each other... when one country is suffering economically, it starts a chain reaction of economic despair). In the summer of 1928, the US leaders and investors started to withdraw capital from Europe, placing a strain on the financial system. Demands for raw materials caused an increase in supplies and a drop in prices. Depressed state of agriculture (result of overproduction and falling prices)

Psychoanalysis

-theory and clinical practice to explore the mind and, by extension, its creations, such as literature, religion, art, and history. Challenged established concepts of morality and values. provided keys to understanding all human behavior

Qin Dynasty

246-206 BC first centralized gov't. Built most of the great wall.

Martial emperor

7th emperor of the han dynasty ruled 54 years. Created the strong centralized state of china. Re-organized. Promoted Confucian scholars into governmental positions

Indentured Laborers.

A labor system whereby young people paid for their passage to the New World by working for an employer for a certain number of years. It was widely employed in the 18th century in the British colonies in North America and elsewhere. It was especially used as a way for poor youth in Britain and the German states to get passage to the American colonies. They would work for a fixed number of years, then be free to work on their own.

Dictator

A leader appointed by the senate who had all the power of the state for 6 months

Griot

A member of a class of traveling poets, musicians, and storytellers who maintain a tradition of oral history in parts of West Africa

Chan Buddhism

A school of Buddhism. It placed little emphasis on written texts but held intuition and sudden flashes of insight in high regard.

Grand Canal

A series of waterways in eastern China that extend south from Beijing to Hangzhou. Built in stages between 486 B.C.E. and 1327 C.E., original purpose was to transport rice from the river valleys to the cities

Bread and Circuses

A way to keep people happy by giving them Bread and entertainment

Indochina

Created in 1859-1893. Consisted of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos-- former tribute states of Qing dynasty, French encouraged conversion to Christianity, established western-style school

Great wall

Built to protect china from invaders. Such as the mongols and huns. Built by many dynasties.

Hellenism

After the death of Alexander the Great his conquested regions broke into three emperors. The Antigonid, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid. They were all influenced by the cultural traditions of Greece. Also ideas spread further and people from different regions interacted with each other.

Athens

Also a state on the Greek peninsula it was the center of democracy. It had both direct and limited forms of democracy. A civil dispute between the classes almost caused a civil war. Yet the aristocrat Solon was able to create a compromise. Were a strong naval power and it was a patriarchal society.

Roosevelt Corollary

An addition to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union address in 1904 after the Venezuela Crisis of 1902-03. Roosevelt stated that in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine, the United States was justified in exercising "international police power" to put an end to chronic unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere.

Junk

Ancient Chinese sailing ship design (still in use today). Large ship for trade, usually conducted trips in stages due to monsoon winds

Scientific Racism

Became popular in nineteenth century. Race became the measure of human potential; Europeans considered superior; Gobineau divided humanity into four main racial groups, each with peculiar traits

Eunuch

Castrated men.

Octavian Augustus

First emperor of Rome - nephew and protege of Julius Caesar

Shihuangdi

First emperor of the Qin dynasty 247- 220 BC great expansion of chinese territory under his rule.

Chandragupta Maurya

First state to have centralized/unified gov in India. Started by conquering small regions then worked their way up to big regions. Bureaucratic administrative system.

Indian National Congress

Founded in 1885. Educated Indians met, with British approval, to discuss public affairs; Congress aired grievances about colonial rule, sought Indian self-rule; 1906, All-India Muslim League formed to advance interests of Indian Muslims

Satraps

Governed Administrative/taxation districts,Had contingent of military officers/ tax collectors

Hajj

Holy pilgrimage to Mecca The prophet Muhammad visited his native city of Mecca from his home in exile at medina and in doing so set an example that devout Muslims have sought to emulate ever since

Paper Money

In return for cash deposits from their clients, they issued printed notes that the clients could redeem for merchandise. In a society short of cash, these notes greatly facilitated commercial transactions.

Palestine

In this context it was where the Essenes were known to be

Cleopatra

Last of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt

Pater Familias

Means Father of the Family - had power to arrange marriages for kids, determine the work of kids and had the right to sell them into slavery and even execute them - Eldest male

Diviners

Mediated between humanity and supernatural beings, interpreted the cause of people's misfortune. Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems, not theological but practical

Arab

Member of a Semitic people, originally from the Arabian peninsula and neighboring territories, inhabiting much of the Middle East and North Africa

Omar Khayyam

One of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period, was a sufi mystic

Ahimsa

Part of Jainism - people underwent purification by observing Ahimsa - Non violence to other living souls

Samurai

Professional warriors of provincial lords, specialists in the use of force and arts of fighting. Lords supported these warriors from the agricultural surplus and labor services of peasants working under their jurisdiction, warriors valued military talent, loyalty, and discipline, observed bushido, engaged in ritual suicide to preserve their honor known as seppuku

Great Game

Refers to competition between Britain and Russia in central Asia. By 1860s Russian expansion reached northern frontiers of British India, Russian and British explores mapped, scouted, but never colonized Afghanistan, Russia dominance of central Asia lasted until 1991

Sharia

Proper behavior in almost every aspect of life, Islamic holy law Islamic law based on the teachings of the Koran and the traditions of the Prophet (Hadith and Sunna), prescribing both religious and secular duties and sometimes retributive penalties for lawbreaking, has generally been supplemented by legislation adapted to the conditions of the day, though the manner in which it should be applied in modern states is a subject of dispute between Islamic fundamentalists and modernists

Punjab

Region where this dynasty is located

Tributary

Relationship in which one state does something for another state in return for other things that would benefit their society. Facilitated the spread of Chinese political and cultural influences in Korea, embassies included Korean royal officials and scholars, also relationship between China and Vietnam

Direct Rule

Replacing local rulers with European-- French model. Justified by "civilizing mission;" hard to find enough European personnel

Kowtow

Ritual prostration in which subordinates knelt before emperor and touched their foreheads to the ground. Tributary states received confirmation of authority and lavish gifts in return.

Marc Anthony

Rival of Augustus - Augustus defeated Antony who joined forces with Cleopatra (ruler of Egypt at the time)

Ganges River

River In India that stretched from the Himalayas to the Bay of Bengal, was sacred to Hindus

Indus River

River in INdia flowing from west tibet to the Arabian Sea

Zanj Revolt

Slave revolt in Mesopotamia in the tenth century, Zanj referred to black slaves from Swahili coast. Organized by Al bin Muhammad, fifteen thousand slaves were able to capture Basra (the most important city of southern Mesopotamia) and established a rebel state in the region, Abbasid rulers turned their full attention to the rebellion only in 879 (a decade after it began) and eventually crushed the revolt

Terracotta army

Sculptures of the armies of Shi Huangdi (first chinese emperor). Funerary art buried with the emperor.

Monsoon

Seasonal winds that blow in different weather Summer= heavy rains, Fall= hot dry air

Han Dynasty

Second imperial dynasty of china. Founded in 206 BC (Lasted FOUR CENTURIES), Golden age of china

Shia/Shiite

Sect of Islam Originally supported Ali and descendants as caliph, ongoing conflict with the Sunnis

Qanat

Sloping underground chanel,carried water from aquifer to a hill-village

Caste System

Social classification system, consisted of Brahmin or priests, Kshatriyas or warriors, Vaishya or merchants and artisans, and Shudra or laborers and slaves.

New Testament

Stood as a guide for christians after Jesus died and overtime became the recognized book of christianity - compiled a body of writings, accounts of Jesus' Life, reports of his followers and letters outlining christian teachings

Yellow turbans

Started a 21 year rebellion in china. Peasants rebelled over problems with land distribution.

Flying Cash

Term for paper money. This is what the people called paper money, because of how efficient and light it was.

WTO

The World Trade Organization - an international body that enforces agreements that reduce barriers to international trade; successor to the GATT

Alexandria

The capital city of the Ptolemaic empire. It was founded by Alexander and became a center for trade and commerce. It soon became the most important port in the mediterranean. People from all over came to the city and made it culturally diverse. Also many scholars came here and following that the Alexandrian library was built.

Sinicization

The influence of Han culture, state, and society to other societies. The nomadic peoples fell under the influence of Han culture and adapted many ideas/ traditions.

Oral tradition

Transmission of cultural material through vocal utterance, was long held to be a key descriptor of folklore

Persian Wars

Trouble with greeks. Ionian greeks fell to Persia and rebelled their governors. Homeland greece sent aid to help rebellion Persia won but led to more battles

Mahmud of Ghazni

Turk leader in Afghanistan. Made expeditions to northern India, patron of the arts who built Ghazni into a refined capital where he supported historians, mathematicians, and literary figures at his court, a determined and ruthless warrior who spent much of his time in the field with his armies, between 1001 and 1027 he mounted several raiding expeditions into India, annexed several states in northwestern India and the Punjab, less interest in conquering than in plundering the wealth stored in its many well,endowed temples, demolished hundreds of sites associated with Hindu or Buddhist faiths which hastened the decline of the religions, frequently established mosques or Islamic shrines on the sites of Hindu and Buddhist structures that they destroyed, however all of the destruction did not encourage Indians to turn to Islam

Iliad & Odyssey

Two great epic poems of ancient Greece. The Iliad tells the story of Greek soldiers in the battle of Troy. And the Odyssey is a story of the journey home after the Trojan war and the hardships faced along the way.

Mare Nostrum

What the Romans called the Mediterranean Sea - Meaning Our Sea

Old Testament

Written on by the Jews and came before the New Testament

Hegemony

leadership/dynasties/dominance over a country by another country/social group. Like the British or Alexander in persia